The Building Envelope

Written by Bill Younger

The building envelope is made up of the windows, doors, walls, foundation, floor, ceiling
and roof and is the barrier between the conditioned indoor environment and the outdoors.
Under most circumstances, you will use less energy in your HVAC system to control
heating, cooling, outside air, and humidity levels in your building if the envelope works
well as a barrier.

Even with a very good envelope, your building will lose heat in cold weather and gain it
when it's hot outside. Your basic objective is to minimize unwanted heat gain in the
summer and heat loss during the winter.

Envelope Heat Loss

The heat required to maintain a desired indoor temperature at a specified

mechanisms by which heat flows into and out of a building also called
conduction or radiation.

Conduction
Conduction is the term applied to heat flow within a solid from a high-
temperature lower-temperature region through the molecules in the
material. Conduction requires that surfaces touch in heat to transfer.
Because the different materials in an insulated assembly touch each other,
conduction heat loss through solid components of the building envelope.
For example, heat flows by conduction from areas to the cooler areas of
concrete slabs, window glass, walls, ceilings, and other solid materials.

The unit used for thermal transmittance (heat transfer) or conductance of a

single building material or building often called the U-value. U-values are
expressed in Btus per hour per square foot of area per degree temperature
difference. Windows are commonly described by their U-values.
Descriptions of building walls, floors, or ceilings, often use R-values
instead of U-values. The U-value or conductance flows through a material
and the R-value measures the resistance, or how slowly heat flows. The
two terms are reciprocal.
(R=1/U, U=1/R)

Convection
Convection is the process of transferring heat from one place to another by
molecular movement through fluids such as water or air. Heat loss by
convection commonly results from exfiltration or air leakage. Connective
heat loss occurs when warm air is forced out, usually from the building
(exfiltration), by cold incoming air, usually in the lower part (infiltration).
The rate of transfer is increased when the wind blows against the building
 or when the temperature difference between the inside and outside
increases.

Radiation
Radiation is the heat transfer by electromagnetic waves from a warmer to
a cooler surface. The transfer of the sun's heat to the earth or the warmth
of a campfire are examples of radiant heat transfer.

Heating and Cooling Loads

To determine the degree in which the thermal quality of the building

envelope affects the energy consumption, it is important to evaluate the
driving forces behind the heating and cooling loads in the building.

Thermally Light Buildings

A building whose heating and cooling requirements are proportional to the
weather is considered a thermally light building. That is, when the outdoor
temperature drops below the desired room temperature, heating is required
and when the outdoor temperature goes above the desired room
temperature, cooling is needed. In a thermally light building, the thermal
performance of the envelope becomes a dominate factor in energy use and
can usually be seen as seasonal fluctuations in utility consumption.

Thermally Heavy Buildings

When factors other than weather determine the heating and cooling
requirements, the building can be considered thermally heavy. The
difference between thermally light and thermally heavy buildings is the
amount of heat generated by people, lighting, and equipment within the
building. Thermally heavy buildings typically have high internal heat
gains and, to a certain extent, are considered to be self heating and more
cooling dominated. This need to reject heat makes them less dependent on
the thermal performance of the building envelope.

Thermal Weight
A simple "rule of thumb" for determining the thermal weight of a building
is to look at heating and cooling needs at an outdoor temperature of 60
degrees Fahrenheit. If the building requires heat at this temperature, it can,
too, considered thermally light, if cooling is needed, it is thermally heavy.

Some buildings or areas within a building can be both thermally light and
thermally heavy depending on their use. A meeting room, for example,
can have significant heat gains from people, equipment, and lights when
the room is occupied and not require any heating from the HVAC system
on a cold day. The same meeting room, however, may require heat at the
same outdoor temperature when the room is vacant.
 Thermal Mass
Thermal mass saves energy by storing and releasing heat. For a building to
take advantage of thermal mass, there must be a source of free or less
expensive energy to charge the mass. The existence of thermal mass, such
as concrete walls and floors, can have a substantial impact on the
operation of HVAC system's and can be difficult to analyze. It can affect
the HVAC systems ability to quickly respond to rapid changes in load
caused by increased occupancy, equipment, or solar gains through
windows.

The effect of thermal mass on the building systems will vary by climate
and type of building as well as the location of the mass within the
structure. Thermal mass in exterior walls, for example, will slow down
heat flow through the wall allowing a reduction in insulation requirements
while maintaining performance levels similar to standard frame
construction. High levels of mass located within the building tend to
reduce the effectiveness of mass in the outside walls.

Buildings that most benefit from thermal mass are typically those with
substantial cooling loads. In this case, the thermal mass can be precooled
at night using outside air for free cooling or less expensive offpeak
electricity for mechanical cooling. This allows the mass to absorb heat the
following day, reducing the need for operation of cooling systems during
peak utility demand hours.

Generally, thermal mass is part of the integral construction of the building

and is not added for conservation reasons. Unfortunately, there are no easy
rules to determine how thermal mass will affect different buildings. It is
important to note its existence because it may help you understand
behavior of the mechanical systems or reasons for some comfort
complaints.

Evaluating the Building Envelope

When evaluating the building envelope, it is important to keep in mind the

thermal weight of the building as well as the various types of heat loss and
gain to determine the impact of the existing envelope on energy
consumption. For example, If you have determined that the building has
high internal heat gains and must reject heat a majority of the time, then
perhaps the level of effort spent on envelope evaluation should be limited.
Time spent measuring glazing areas and determining detailed wall R
values may not be justified because of the limited potential for reducing
energy consumption by making changes to these components. A small
office building with minimal internal heat gains and substantial amounts
of west facing glass on the other hand may greatly benefit from a more
 detailed analysis of the envelope and effects of solar heat gains on the
summer cooling load.

It is up to the individual energy auditor to determine the level of effort

given to evaluation of envelope components and potential improvements.

Windows

Heat Loss Through Windows

Windows can be one of the single largest sources of unwanted heat gain
and loss in the thermal envelope. It is not unusual to find a glass area that
comprises only 15 to 25 percent of the surface area of a building while
contributing up to 75 percent of the heat loss. Windows typically lose heat
through conduction and air movement around the frames, and gain heat
through solar radiation.

Window U values
Window U-values are determined by testing the frame and glass as a
whole unit. New developments in glass and frame technologies have
substantially improved the thermal performance of window units.
Technologies such as "low E" glazing, thermally broken frames, and gas
fillers between panes are becoming common in commercial building
construction.

Solar Heat Gain

Windows are subject to solar heat gains which can have significant
impacts on HVAC operation and occupant comfort. The amount of heat
gain is dependent on orientation, season, time of day, glazing type, and
shading by window coverings, overhangs, other buildings and vegetation.
Solar gains through south facing glass will add heat to the building in the
winter. East and west surfaces will gain the greatest amount of heat in the
early morning and late afternoon hours during summer months. Winter
heat gains may be desirable in thermally light buildings while any solar
heat gains in a thermally heavy building will only contribute to the cooling
load. East and west facing glass are primarily a problem during the
summer. Low sun angles in the morning and late afternoon can result in
substantial solar heat gains as well as unwanted glare. The problem of
excess solar heat gains during the summer can be compounded by the
build up of internal heat most buildings experience late in the day. The
combination of solar and internal heat gains can greatly increase the
energy required for cooling.

Window Evaluation Checklist

When evaluating windows in an existing structure, make note of:

• Single/Double glazing
 • Frametype
• Operable windows
• Estimated % of gross wall area
• Daylighting
• Glazing orientation and cooling zones
• Glazing coatings
• Cracked or broken panes
• Alignment of operable windows
• Weatherstripping condition
• Skylights

Skylights
Skylights will have an effect on the energy balance of the building in
several ways. Illumination from skylights can reduce the need for
additional illumination from the lighting systems. Heating loads may be
decreased in winter due to solar heat gains while the summer cooling load
will be increased. The amount of solar heat gain through skylights is
largely dependent on the angle of the glazing. A typical skylight set at a
low angle will have minimal heat gains in the winter but will have
significant gains in the summer due to the high angle of the summer sun.

Windows can serve a variety of purposes including light, view, heat, and
ventilation. If glazing modifications are considered, intended use and
interactions with other systems should be assessed. Because window
replacements and retrofits are typically expensive on a cost per square foot
basis, they are often difficult to justify on the basis of energy savings
alone.

Doors

Heat Loss Through Doors

Exterior doors generally comprise a small area of the building envelope.
Even though most door types may not be very well insulated, they usually
do not contribute substantially to the overall heat transfer of the envelope.
The primary source of heat loss related to doors is through air leakage due
to poor fitting doors and weatherstripping, and through the door being
physically opened for building access.

Vestibules
A vestibule is an intermediate space between the inside and outside
environment. During the winter, this helps prevent the dumping of cold,
unconditioned air directly into the building every time someone enters or
exits the building.

If an exterior door is used very intensely for several short periods of the
day, then installation of a vestibule door may not offer much savings. In
 areas of high use, revolving doors are typically more effective in
controlling infiltration.

Vestibules can be expensive to install depending on the situation. If you

have to construct exterior sidewalls and a roof, the cost can be fairly
expensive as opposed to simply installing a set of doors and surrounding
wall in the end of a corridor.

The energy auditor should identify doors most frequently used and
evaluate potential for installation and effectiveness of various entry
systems. Vestibules, usually unconditioned, help reduce both air leakage
and conductive heat losses.

Overhead Doors
Overhead doors used for loading and unloading material or vehicle access
are often left open for convenience. If used frequently, overhead doors can
cause excessive air leakage and result in substantial heat loss or gain. This
can lead to unnecessary cycling of heating and cooling systems as well as
reduce comfort in surrounding areas.

Evaluate loading schedules for frequency of overhead door use and

identify problem areas and retrofit potential. Loading dock curtains made
of plastic strips can be installed to reduce mixing of outside and
conditioned air while permitting access to the loading dock. Other
alternatives include reducing the door size or installing air curtains, radiant
heating systems, conveyor belts, and controls to lock out HVAC
equipment when the doors are open. Overhead doors in conditioned areas
should also be insulated and weatherstripped to prevent heat loss when
closed.

Insulation

Conductive heat losses can be reduced by adding insulation to exterior

walls, floors, ceilings, and roof areas. It is important to identify existing
insulation types and levels in each component to evaluate the envelope's
impact on energy consumption and building comfort. These levels must
also be known to determine the cost effectiveness of adding insulation to
the existing envelope.

Roofs and Ceilings

Because warm air collects at the ceiling and increases the temperature
difference between the inside and outside surfaces, the rate of conduction
also increases. This higher rate of conduction makes ceiling and roof
insulation a high priority in controlling heat loss. Keep in mind that hours
of operation and night set-back of the heating system as well as costs for
heating fuel and climate zone can influence the pay-back of adding
insulation. The color of the roof can also have a substantial impact on the
operation of heating and cooling systems. When accounting for conductive
and radiant contributions, dark colored roofs reduce heat loss in the
winter, however this may be outweighed by unwanted heat gain in the
summer. The color of the roof is typically dictated by the cooling load of
the building. If a building has greater heating needs the majority of the
year, a dark colored roof may be desirable. A well ventilated attic space, if
one exists, will minimize the impact of roof color.

Walls
Heat loss in walls is primarily by conduction of energy through the wall
components. Adding insulation will greatly reduce conductive losses,
however, careful consideration must be given to ease of installation to
ensure cost effectiveness. Installing blown insulation to wall cavities can
be relatively economical if there are large wall surfaces with a minimal
amount of surface detail or windows. Applying insulation to interior or
exterior wall surfaces can be costly due to finish materials required over
the insulation. Wall insulation measures tend to be more cost effective in
colder climates.

Foundations and Floors

Foundations and floors can be sources of heat loss that are often
overlooked. In addition to saving energy, installing insulation in floors
over crawl spaces can make floors more comfortable to building
occupants.

Installing perimeter slab insulation in an existing building may not be cost

effective due to the relatively low heat loss and high cost of the insulation.
There may be situations, however, where there is high heat loss due to
heating system piping located on or near the foundation for example that
would make this measure more attractive. Ease of installation is also an
important factor in determining cost effectiveness of foundation
insulation.

Insulation
A variety of materials can be used for roof, wall, foundation and floor
insulation. Common insulating products include:

• Blown-in fiberglass
• Blown-in cellulose
• Fiberglass batts
• Rigid board insulation.

The choice of insulation depends on the type of construction and required

R-value. Use the chart below to approximate existing R-values in building
components.
 Roof and Ceiling Evaluation Checklist
When evaluating roofs and ceilings for adequate insulation, make note of;

• Type, thickness, and location of the existing insulation

• Age and condition of roof
• Damaged or wet insulation
• Insulation voids
• Proper attic ventilation
• Space available for additional insulation
• Color of roof membrane

Infiltration and Exfiltration

Infiltration and exfiltration are uncontrolled leakage of outside air into and
out of the building through any openings in the building shell. Air leaks
are caused by pressure effects of wind and differences in indoor and
outdoor air temperature and density. Typical sources of air leakage include
cracks around windows and doors, utility penetrations, poorly sealed air
dampers, and any locations where different types of construction meet.
The problem of infiltration and exfiltration is worse in tall buildings due to
the stack effect and can be compounded by vertical shafts such as open
stairwells and elevator shafts.

Infiltration of air into the building is similar to the effect of additional

ventilation, however, unlike ventilation, it cannot be filtered, conditioned,
controlled, or turned off at night.

In addition to infiltration from doors and windows, cracks in building

materials, and around utility penetrations are other common sources of
infiltration that should not be overlooked.

Building Pressure

HVAC system balance can also influence the amount of air leakage.
Buildings can be slightly pressurized by bringing in more intake air than is
exhausted to reduce infiltration. An easy method of determining if a
building is under positive or negative pressure is to hold an exterior door
open about 1 inch on a calm cool day and observe which way the air is
flowing. If air is flowing into the building, that part of the building is
under negative pressure and may have problems with infiltration.

Summary

Major modifications to the building envelope can be prohibitive when

considered solely in terms of return on investment. Other factors may
influence a decision to implement changes to the envelope. Sizing and
performance of new HVAC equipment, for example, can be dependent on
the integrity and overall condition of the building envelope.

Keep conservation in mind when remodeling or making changes to the

building structure. A good example is the addition of rigid insulation to
the roof deck when replacing the roofing material. While it may not be
cost effective to tear off an existing roof membrane just to add insulation,
installing insulation when worn out roofing material is being replaced
makes sense.

Modifications to the building envelope are typically the most visible of all
energy conservation measures and should be treated with special
significance. They not only affect the appearance of the facility but also
have an impact on public and employee attitudes toward energy
conservation.