ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

GEC 210
Module 4: Sequences and Series

Lecture 6: Sequences and Series

Sequences and Series Contents
By the end of the Lecture on Sequences
and Series you would have known:
 Sequences of real numbers
 Convergence, Divergence and Limits of
Sequences
 Infinite Series: with Geometric and
Arithmetic series for series illustrations
 Convergence Tests for series: The nth
term, D’Alembert (Ratio), Integral and
root tests for series convergence
 Power series and Radius of convergence
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6.1 Definition: Sequence
A Sequence of real numbers e.g.
u1,u2,u3,…,un,… is a function that assigns to
each positive integer n a number un.
The numbers un is called the nth term or the
general term of the sequence. For example:
1,5 ,9 ,13,...,1  ( n  1)4 ,...
is an arithmetic sequence u1  a = 1; d=4
and 9 ,3 ,1, 1
3
,1
,...,9
9
  1 n1 ,...
3
is a geometric sequence u1  a = 9; r = 3 1
Notation can often be used to denote a sequence;
e.g. a sequence of general term un  12 is
denoted for n=1,2,3,…by: n

 

 1 
 un n1   2  or by; 1 , 12 , 12 ,..., 12 ,... .


 n  n1 1 2 3 n
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 6.2 Monotone, Convergence and
Divergence, Limits of Sequences
A Sequence is monotonic if its successive term is
either increasing or decreasing (continuously).
e.g : 12 , 1 , 1 ,..., 1 ,... is a monotonic sequence.
23 25 2 n 2
A Sequence is convergent if as n gets larger the
nth term un approaches a number L i.e.
lim un  L
n
The number L is known as the limit of the sequence.
A sequence that has a limit is said to converge or
is convergent.
A sequence that has no limit is said to diverge or
is divergent;
i.e. lim u   divergent sequence
n
n 
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 6.3 Examples: Sequences
1. Ascertain convergence or divergence for the
following sequences: 
 

  
  n 3 
 2
i . un n1   n  3n  ii . u n n1  n1 
2   n1
 5n  4  n1 
 1  
n
iii . un n1    


Solution:   3   n1
   
i . un n1   2  n 2  3n 
 5n 4  n1 n2 3 n
2  1 3
n  3n
lim un  lim n2 n2
Now, 2  lim  lim n
n  n  5 n 4 2
n  5 n  4 n  5  4
2 2 n2
 lim un  1 0 
1 n n

n 5  0 5 the limit exists.

This sequence has a limit hence it converges.

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6.3 Examples: Sequences
Solution:
ii . 


un n1   
n 3 
n1 n1
n3
3
So, lim un  n
lim n1  lim n3  lim 1
n 2  3
n  1 1 1
n n n 
n3 n3 n n
 lim un  1
0 0
 1
0
  i.e does not exist
n
The limit for this sequence does not exist hence
the sequence is divergent.

Note: If a sequence is not convergent then the

sequence is divergent.
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6.3 Examples: Sequences
Solution:  
 1  n
 1 
iii .      

un n1  n
 3   n1  3  n 1
So, lim un  lim n  n   ; 3   
1 n 1 0
n n 3 3n

 lim un  0 the limit exists.

n
The limit for this sequence exists hence the
sequence is convergent.
Note: This is an example of a geometric sequence
this sequence n 
 
r n1 ; is always convergent
for the (open) interval where;  1  r  1 ; else it
is divergent for values of r outside this interval.
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6.4 Class Work 24: Sequences
1. Ascertain convergence or divergence of the
following sequences:


1 
i . un n1  
n


 2  n1

ii . un n1 

  
3
4
n 
n 1

iii .  
un n1  2  3n
3  n n1


  
iv .  
un n1
5
n2
n1

 n  2n 
   2
v. un n 1  2 
 n  1  n 1
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 6.5 Definition: Infinite Series
An infinite series or simply series is a special
type of sequence; it is the sequence of sums;
S1 , S 2 , S 3 ,..., S n ,...
obtained from the sequence u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., un ,...
where; S1  u1 ; S2  u1  u2 ; S 3  u1  u2  u3 ;
n
and S n  u1  u2  u3  ...  un   ui .
i 1
The notations for this sequence of sums S n  are:

 un ; and u1  u2  u3  ...  un  ...  infinte series.
n1
The term Sn is called the nth partial sum. If as n
Sn converges to a limit L then the series is
convergent and L is called the sum of the series.
If Sn diverges as n then the series is divergent.
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 6.6 Illustration I: Geometric Series
For two real numbers a and r, the series
n1
 ...   ar n1
2 3
a  ar  ar  ar  ...  ar
n 1
is a geometric series with 1st
term a and ratio r.
n 1
also, the nth term: un  ar
a (1  r n )
The nth partial sum: S n 
1 r
n
Now r in the (open) interval:  1  r  1  lim r 0
n 
a (1  0)  lim S  a
 lim S n  n i.e. it converges
n  1  r n   1  r
n1
Example Consider the series: 9  3  1  ...  9 1   ...
9 1 3 1 n
 
 lim S n 
9 1  1
3
  91  0  3
9  13.5
Sn  1  13
1  13 n 1 1
3
1  13
i.e. n the series converges to (the limit L=) 13.5
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 6.7 Illustration II: Arithmetic Series
Consider the series: 
a  a  d   a  2d   ...  a  n  1 d   ...   a  n  1 d
n1
an arithmetic series; 1st
term a and difference d.
The nth term: un  a  n  1 d
S  n 2a  n  1 d 
The nth partial sum: n 2
No matter the value of d; lim S n   2a    1 d  
n 2
i.e. the sum of the series has no limit  it diverges.
Example The series: 3  3.25  3.5  ...  3  n  1 0.25  ...
S n  n 2  3  n  1 0.25  lim S n   6    1 0.25  
2 n 2
The series (as n) has no limit  it diverges.
Remember! Geometric series: convergent iff –1< r <1;
All Arithmetic series are divergent.
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 6.8 Class Work 25: Series 1
1. Try to obtain Sn and, hence, ascertain
convergence or divergence for the series:
i . 1  2  3  ...  n  ...
ii . 13  16  12
1  1  ...  1  1
24 3 2
  n1
 ...

iii .  4  1 n
5
n 1
iv . 1  1.06  1.12  ...  1  n  1 0.6  ...

v.  2 n

n 1

vi .  3  n  12
n 1
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6.9 Tests for Convergence
Before we can use an infinite series for
computation or other purposes we must know
whether it converges or diverges.
Usually, we ascertain the convergence or
divergence of a series by applying one of the
various convergence test.
Two concepts are very useful when considering
convergence of series, especially, alternating
series (series with alternate positive and
negative terms): the concepts of Absolute
convergence and Conditional convergent.
A series is absolute convergent if its absolute
terms are convergent. It is conditionally
convergent if its absolute terms are divergent
but its alternating terms are convergent.
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6.9.1 Theorem 1: nth term Test
The nth term test theorem for divergence states:
If lim un  0
n
Then the series u1  u2  u3  ...  un  ... surely
diverges.
However, if lim un  0 then the test is inconclusive
n
This mean that you cannot use the test when the
limit equal zero to ascertain whether the series
converges or diverges; you will need to apply
further test(s) to investigate convergence.
Example: Test for convergence the series
 
i .  2  5n ; ii .  1
n1 n n 1 n

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 6.9.1 Theorem 1: nth term Test…

Solution: i .  2  5n
n 1 n
the nth term for the series; un 
2 5 n
n

2  5n n1   2  5
Now, lim un  lim 2  5n  lim
n  n  n n 
n 1
n
 lim n
n 1
 0  5  5  0  divergent series
1
The series is divergent because as n limit an  0

Solution: ii .  1 ; for this the nth term; a n  1
n
n 1 n

So that, lim un  lim 1  1  0  test is inconclusive

n n n 
The test is inconclusive we need further test to
ascertain if the series converges or diverges.
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 6.9.2 Theorem 2: Comparison Tests
The comparison test for convergence states that:
If a series u1  u2  u3  ...  un  ... is given
and we can find the convergent series given by
c1  c2  c3  ...  cn  ...such that un  cn for
n  1 ,2 ,...then the given series is convergent.

1
Example: Test the series 
n! for convergence:
n 1
Solution:un  n1!  un  n1!
 
Consider the series  cn   4 1n ; this is a
n1 n 1
 
2
convergent (geometric) series since r  1  r  1
2 1
we note by comparison that: u1  1!  1  c1  4 21  2 ;
1

u2  21!  0.5  c2  4 12  1 ; u3  31!  0.1667  c3  4 13  0.5 e.t.c.

2 2
 un  c n ; n  1 ,2...  the series is convergent.
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 6.9.2 Theorem 2: Comparison Tests
The comparison test for divergence states that:
If a series u1  u2  u3  ...  un  ... is given
and we can find the divergent series given by
d1  d 2  d 3  ...  d n  ...such that un  d n for
n  1 ,2 ,... then the given series is divergent.

2n
Example: Investigate convergence for  n
n 1
n
 2 n
n  un  n
u
Solution: n 2
 
Consider the series  d n   n2 ; this is a divergent
n1 n1
(arithmetic) series with which difference d  12
we note by comparison that: 1  
1
u  2  2 d 1 2
1 ;
1
2 3
u2  22  2  d 2  1 ; u3  23  2.6667  d 3  23  1.5 e.t.c.
Thus un  d n ; n  1 ,2... the series is divergent.
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6.9.3 Theorem 3: D’Alembert Test
The D’Alembert Test also called Ratio test states:
Given a series u1  u2  u3  ...  un  ... with
un  0 for n  1 ,2 ,... then if
un1
i. lim u  1 the series is convergent
n  n

un1
ii. lim u  1 the series is divergent
n n
un1
iii. lim u  1 the test is inconclusive
n  n
Remember that if the test is inconclusive then we
apply other test(s) to investigate convergence.
Example: Verify that for any real number k; i.e.
n
 k   ; the series  k converges.
n1 n!
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6.9.3 Theorem 3: D’Alembert Test
Solution: We use D’Alembert or Ratio Test to

kn
verify that  converges  k   .
n1 n! n 1
and un1 
kn k
For the series, un 
n! n  1 !
k n 1
n1
lim n n1 !
un1
Thus, lim u   lim k  n!
n1 !
n n n  k n  k n
n!
n 1 n
 lim k  n!  lim nk1  
k
0
n1 
n! n  1  n

kn
Since 0  1 then   k  .
is convergent
n1 n!
Example: Verify that for any real number |k|>1;

 k     1,1;the series 
n
k diverges.
n1 n
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6.9.3 Theorem 3: D’Alembert Test
Solution: We use D’Alembert or Ratio Test to

 k     1,1 .
n
verify that  k diverges
n1 n n1
For the series, un  k n
and un1  k
n n1
k n 1 n1
un1
Thus, lim u  lim nn1  lim k  n
n1
n n n  k n k n
n


n 1 n n 
1
lim k 1   lim k 1 
   n 1 n
n k
n  1 n1  k 1
n 1 1

 n
i.e. if k  1 ; then the Ratio test > 1  k diverges.
n1 n
Note: If k  1; the Ratio test = 1  inconclusive,

we still need further test(s) for this series; 1 .
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6.9.4 Theorem 4: The Integral Test
Also called Cauchy’s Integral test, it states that:

Let  un be a monotonically decreasing series of
n 1
positive terms for n  1 ,2 ,... and let f ( n)  un ,
then if
 
i. 1
f ( x ) dx exists   un converges
n 1
 
ii . 1 f ( x ) dx does notexists n1undiverges
1
Example: Test the series  for convergence.
n1 n
This is the Harmonic series; decreasing positive
terms  use Integral test: let f ( n)  n1  f ( x )  1x
 
  x dx  ln x 1  ln   ln1    divergent
1
1 
1
Therefore, the Harmonic series  is divergent
n1 n
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6.9.4 Integral Test & the p-series

Example: Test the p-series  1p for convergence
for values of p>1. n1 n
Solution: For p>1 the terms are decreasing; we
use Integral test: let f ( n)  1p  f ( x )  1p  x  p
n  x
   p 1 (  p 1 ) (  p 1 )
 f ( x )dx 1 x p 
dx   p1   p1   p1
x 1
1
1
p>1  -p+1< 0, thus;  0   p11   p11 i.e. exists

1
Hence the series  p converges for p>1
n 1 n
For p<1 the series diverges; for the definite
integral would be infinite for then p<1  -p+1> 0.
1
For p=1 (the Harmonic series  ) the definite
n1 n
integral is infinite  the series is divergent.
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6.9.4 Integral Test & the p-series

Example: Test series  12 for convergence
 n 1 n
Solution:  12 is the p-series with p=2, hence it
n 1 n
is convergent. Using Integral test to confirm:
let f ( n)  12  f ( x )  12  x 2
xn  
    
  2 1

1
 f ( x )dx  x dx   21  1  x
2 x x 1
1 1 1
1 1
 1  11  1 i.e. exists  series is convergent.


1
Hence the series  2 is convergent.
n 1 n

These results leads us to the next theorem of

convergence test known as the p-series test.
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6.9.5 Theorem 5: The p-series Test

The p-series states that: the p-series  1p
n1 n
converges if p>1 and diverges if p1.

The proof and the examples for this theorem has

been covered in the preceding frames.
There is a unique p-series for every positive
values of p.
Note that a negative exponent p would not give a
series of interest; e.g. taking p = -1 we have:
 
 1
1
 n
n 1 n n 1

which is a divergent series since lim n  0.

n 
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6.9.6 Theorem 6: The Root Test
The Root test states that: Given a series

 un ; Then if,
n 1
i . lim n un  1 ; the series converges absolutely
n
ii . lim n un  1 or ( L  ) ; the series diverges
n
iii . lim n un  1 ; there is no conclusion.
n
 

3 n11 n
Example: Test for convergence  7 n 5 .
n1
 
 n
3 n 11 we consider lim n un
Solution: Given  7 n 5
;
n
n 1

 lim
n 
n  7 n5

3 n11 n  lim 3n11
n 7 n5
 3
7  1 convergent

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6.9.7 Class Work 26: Convergence
Ascertain the convergence of the following series
by as many tests as you can apply in each case.

i .   3n4  5n3 2  ; ii .
2 2   
1 n



 5 iii . 1
;
n1  5 n  3 n  n  n 1
n5
n 1 n!
  
  7 4  ;
5n
3 n

iv . sin ; 5
n 3 v. vi . n
n 1 n 1 n 1
  
vii .  5n
n! ; viii.  7 n 2  3 n 1
2 n2  5 n 3
; ix .  9n 1
n1 !
n1 n 1 n 1
 n 
 5n  2n  n  ; xi .
7 3 2 
 
n
x.   7n7  3n4  2n   nn
n! ; xii .  
4 1
n

n1
 
n1 n1
3 1
n 

3 n  !
xiii. n 3
n
; xiv .  n 3 ; xv .  n 4
.
n 1 n1 n 1
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6.10 Alternating Series Test
Alternating series are series with both negative
and positive terms; +,-,+,-...; or (-1)n or (-1)n+1 .
Test for Alternating series: An alternating series
converges if these two conditions hold:
un1
i . lim  1 ; ii . lim u  0 .
n un n n
Note: The two tests must be done! 
1 n1
Example: Test for convergence  n ;
n 1
Solution: This is the alternating Harmonic series;
n 2
u
Test 1: lim n1   1 
 lim n  1
n un  lim n 1n1 n  n 1
n    1 
Test 2: lim 1  0;Tests1 and 2 convergent series.
n
n  n
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6.11 Definition: Power Series
We have been discussing series whose terms are
constant. Even more important and useful are
series whose terms are functions of x
Definition: Power series are series in which the nth
term is the product of un (a constant) and xn.
By this definition a Power series is of the form:

 un x  u0  u1 x  u2 x  ...  un x  ...
n 1 2 n

n0
Power series is the useful form by which many
transcendental functions are expressible as
nearest fitting polynomial functions of x.
They make the computations of such functions
possible; and they are what our Calculators and
Computers use! Examples include: e x, sin x e.t.c
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 6.11.1 Instances of Power Series
Verify by computing the followings for values of x;
e x
1 x  x 2  x 3  x 4 ...  x n  ...
2! 3! 4! n!
sin x  x  x3  x5  x7  x9  x11  ...
3! 5! 7! 9! 11!

cos x 1  x 2  x4  x6  x8  x10  ...

2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
form : f ( x )  a0  a1 x  a2 x  ...  an x  ...
2 n

To write for any function use this (Taylor series):

f ( x )  f ( 0)  f (1)
( 0) 1x!  f
( 2)
( 0) x 2  ...  f
( n)
( 0) xn  ...
2! n!
This implies the coefficients can be obtained from:
a0  f (0) ; a1  f (1) ( 0 )
1! ; a2  f ( 2) ( 0)
a3  f ( 3) (0)
2! ; 3! e.t.c
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6.11.2 Radius of Convergence
Whether a Power series converges or diverges
depend on the value(s) of x in consideration.
If the series converges on an interval |x|>c then c
is known as the radius of convergence of the
series. However, we need to check for the
behaviour of x=c at both ends x =c and x = -c.
To test for the convergence of a Power series we
un 1
usually use The Ratio test: lim un
n 
Recall: Ratio test  1 convergent series;
Ratio test  1 divergent series;
Ratio test  1  inconclusive.

Example: At what x-values does  nx n
5( n 1 )
converges: n0
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6.11.2 Radius of Convergence

Solution: Given;  nx n un 1
; we use lim
5( n  1 )
un
n 
n0
nx n ( n1) x n1
un   un1 
5( n 1 ) 5( n  2 )
( n 1 ) x n 1
5( n  2 )
 lim
un1
un
 lim nx n
 lim n1 x
n 5  x
5 1
n n  n
5( n  1 )
i.e. must be  1 for convergence  5  x  5
checking the behaviour at x =5 and x = -5;
  
x =5 we have:    ( n 1 )   n
nx n n 5n
5 5( n 1 )5
n0 n 0 n0
Applying nth term test: lim n    0divergent
 n 5
x =-5    n which is also a divergent series.
n 0
5
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6.11.3 Class Work 27: Series 2
1. Determine the convergence of these series:
n1 n n 1
1
n
  
  1    1  n3
   1 

i.   
n!
3
; ii .   
3 n  ! ; iii .  
7n

n 1 n 1 n1
2. Determine the convergence or divergence of
these Power series, hence or otherwise obtain
the radius of convergence.
  
i.  n 5n ;xn
ii .  5n x n
n! ; iii .  xn
n
n1 n 1 n 1
3. Test for convergence:
 n
i .
 
 13n3 15 

1
n
; ii . 17n
n! ; iii. n! ; iv .   
n1  2n  3n 
n1 n 1 n 1
2 3

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