Basic Electrical Technology (ESC 101-A)

Module 1: DC Circuits
(meet.google.com/efh-kwdj-onf)

Superposition Theorem
Superposition is a general principle that allows us to determine the effect of several
energy sources (voltage and current sources) acting simultaneously in a circuit by
considering the effect of each source acting alone, and then combining (superposing)
these effects. This theorem as applied to d.c. circuits may be stated as under:
In a linear, bilateral d.c. network containing more than one energy source, the resultant
potential difference across or current through any element is equal to the algebraic sum of
potential differences or currents for that element produced by each source acting alone
with all other independent ideal voltage sources replaced by short circuits and all other
independent ideal current sources replaced by open circuits (non-ideal sources are
replaced by their internal resistances).

Procedure. The procedure for using this theorem to solve d.c. networks is as under :
i) Select one source in the circuit and replace all other ideal voltage sources by short
circuits and ideal current sources by open circuits.
ii) Determine the voltage across or current through the desired element/branch due to
single source selected in step (i).
iii) Repeat the above two steps for each of the remaining sources.
iv) Algebraically add all the voltages across or currents through the element/branch
under consideration. The sum is the actual voltage across or current through that
element/branch when all the sources are acting simultaneously.

Example 4.1. In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.1 (i), the internal resistances of the batteries
are 0·12 Ω and 0·08 Ω. Calculate (i) current in load (ii) current supplied by each battery.

Fig- 4.1 (i)

Solution. In Fig. 4.1 (ii), the right-hand 12 V source is replaced by its internal resistance
so that left-hand battery of 12 V is acting alone. The various branch currents due to left-
hand battery of 12 V alone [See Fig. 4.1 (ii)] are:

Fig-4.1 (ii)

In Fig. 4.1(iii), left-hand 12 V source is replaced by its internal resistance so that now
right hand 12 V source is acting alone.

Fig-4.1(iii)
The actual current values of I1 (current in first battery), I2 (current in second battery)
and I3 (load current) can be found by algebraically adding the component values.

I1 = I1 ′ − I1′′ = 63·5 − 54·6 = 8·9 A

I2 = I2′′ − I2′ = 67·8 − 54·74 = 13·06 A

I3 = I3′ + I3′′ = 8·76 + 13·12 = 21·88 A

Thevenin’s Theorem
Fig. 4.2 (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with two terminals A and B brought out.
The network in the box may consist of any number of resistors and e.m.f. sources
connected in any manner. But according to Thevenin, the entire circuit behind terminals
A and B can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VTh (called Thevenin voltage) in
series with a single resistance RTh (called Thevenin resistance) as shown in Fig. 4.2 (ii).
The values of VTh and RTh are determined as mentioned in Thevenin’s theorem. Once
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is obtained [See Fig. 4.2 (ii)], then current I through any
load resistance RL connected across AB is given by ;

𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼=
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿

Fig-4.2(i) Fig-4.2 (ii)

Thevenin’s theorem as applied to d.c. circuits is stated below:

Any linear, bilateral network having terminals A and B can be replaced by a single source
of e.m.f. VTh in series with a single resistance RTh.
(i) The e.m.f. VTh is the voltage obtained across terminals A and B with load, if any removed
i.e. it is open-circuited voltage between terminals A and B.
(ii) The resistance RTh is the resistance of the network measured between terminals A and
B with load removed and sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal resistances. Ideal
voltage sources are replaced with short circuits and ideal current sources are replaced
with open circuits.
No matter how complex the circuit and no matter how many voltage and/or current
sources it contains, it is equivalent to a single voltage source in series with a single
resistance (i.e. equivalent to a single real voltage source). Although Thevenin
equivalent circuit is not the same as its original circuit, it acts the same in terms of output
voltage and current.

Explanation: Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.3 (i). As far as the circuit behind
terminals AB is concerned, it can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VTh in series
with a single resistance RTh as shown in Fig. 4.4 (ii).

Fig-4.3

(i) Finding VTh. The e.m.f. VTh is the voltage across terminals AB with load (i.e. RL)
removed as shown in Fig. 4.3 (ii). With RL disconnected, there is no current in R2 and VTh
is the voltage appearing across R3.
𝑉
𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅3 = X 𝑅3
𝑅1 + 𝑅3

Fig-4.4

ii) Finding RTh. To find RTh, remove the load RL and replace the battery by a short-
circuit because its internal resistance is assumed zero. Then resistance between
terminals A and B is equal to RTh as shown in Fig. 4.4 (i). Obviously, at the terminals AB
in Fig. 4.4 (i), R1 and R3 are in parallel and this parallel combination is in series with R2.

𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅2 +
𝑅1 + 𝑅3

When load RL is connected between terminals A and B [See Fig. 4.4 (ii)], then current in
RL is given by ;
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼=
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
Procedure for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

(i) Open the two terminals (i.e., remove any load) between which you want to find
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
(ii) Find the open-circuit voltage between the two open terminals. It is called Thevenin
voltage VTh.
(iii) Determine the resistance between the two open terminals with all ideal voltage
sources shorted and all ideal current sources opened (a non-ideal source is
replaced by its internal resistance). It is called Thevenin resistance RTh.
(iv) Connect VTh and RTh in series to produce Thevenin equivalent circuit between the
two terminals under consideration.
(v) Place the load resistor removed in step (i) across the terminals of the Thevenin
equivalent circuit. The load current can now be calculated using only Ohm’s law
and it has the same value as the load current in the original circuit.

Example 4.2. Using Thevenin’s theorem, find p.d. across terminals AB in Fig. 4.5 (i).

Fig-4.5 (i)

Solution. We shall find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit at terminals AB.

Fig-4.5 (ii)

VTh = Voltage across terminals AB with load removed as shown in Fig. 4.5 (ii).
= Voltage across terminals CD
= 9 – drop in 5  resistor
= 9* – 5 × (9V-6V)/(5+6)= 7·65 V
= 9* – 5 × 0·27 = 7·65 V
RTh = Resistance at terminals AB with load (i.e. 10 Ω resistor) removed and batteries
replaced by a short as shown in Fig. 4.6 (i).

5x6
= 4+ = 6.72
5+6
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the left of terminals AB is VTh (= 7·65 V) in series with
RTh (= 6·72 Ω). When load (i.e. 10  resistor) is connected between terminals A and B,
the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 4.6 (ii).

Fig-4.6

𝑉𝑇ℎ 7.65
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 10 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.457𝐴
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 10 6.72 + 10

𝑃. 𝐷. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 10 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0.457 x 10 = 4.57 V

Norton’s Theorem
Fig. 4.7 (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with two terminals A and B brought out.
The network in the box may contain any number of resistors and e.m.f. sources
connected in any manner. But according to Norton, the entire circuit behind AB can be
replaced by a current source IN in parallel with a resistance RN as shown in Fig. 4.7 (ii).
The resistance RN is the same as Thevenin resistance RTh. The value of IN is determined
as mentioned in Norton’s theorem. Once Norton’s equivalent circuit is determined [See
Fig. 4.7 (ii)], then current in any load RL connected across AB can be easily obtained.

Fig-4.7

Hence Norton’s theorem as applied to d.c. circuits may be stated as under:

Any linear, bilateral network having two terminals A and B can be replaced by a current
source of current output IN in parallel with a resistance RN.

(i) The output IN of the current source is equal to the current that would flow through AB
when A and B are short-circuited.

(ii) The resistance RN is the resistance of the network measured between A and B with load
removed and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal resistances. Ideal voltage
sources are replaced with short circuits and ideal current sources are replaced with open
circuits.

Norton’s Theorem is converse of Thevenin’s theorem in that Norton equivalent circuit

uses a current generator instead of voltage generator and the resistance RN (which is
the same as RTh) in parallel with the generator instead of being in series with it. Thus the
use of either of these theorems enables us to replace the entire circuit seen at a pair of
terminals by an equivalent circuit made up of a single source and a single resistor.

Explanation: Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.8 (i). As far as the circuit behind
terminals AB is concerned [See Fig. 4.8 (i)], it can be replaced by a current source IN
parallel with a resistance RN as shown in Fig. 4.8 (iv). The current IN is equal to the
current that would flow through AB when terminals A and B are short-circuited as
shown in Fig. 4.8 (ii). The load on the source when terminals AB are short-circuited is
given by ;

Fig-4.8
To find RN, remove the load RL and replace battery by a short because its internal
resistance is assumed zero [See Fig. 4.8 (iii)].

RN = Resistance at terminals AB in Fig. 4.8 (iii)

𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅2 +
𝑅1 + 𝑅3

Thus the values of IN and RN are known. The Norton equivalent circuit will be as shown
in Fig. 4.8 (iv).

Procedure for Finding Norton Equivalent Circuit

(i) Open the two terminals (i.e. remove any load) between which we want to find
Norton equivalent circuit.
(ii) Put a short-circuit across the terminals under consideration. Find the short-circuit
current flowing in the short circuit. It is called Norton current IN.
(iii) Determine the resistance between the two open terminals with all ideal voltage
sources shorted and all ideal current sources opened (a non-ideal source is replaced by
its internal resistance). It is called Norton’s resistance RN. It is easy to see that RN = RTh.
(iv) Connect IN and RN in parallel to produce Norton equivalent circuit between the two
terminals under consideration.
(v) Place the load resistor removed in step (i) across the terminals of the Norton
equivalent circuit. The load current can now be calculated by using current-divider rule.
This load current will be the same as the load current in the original circuit.
Example 4.3. Find Norton equivalent circuit for Fig. 4.9 (i). Also solve for load current and
load voltage.
Solution. Short the branch that contains RL (=10 Ω) in Fig. 4.9 (i). The circuit then
becomes as shown in Fig. 4.9 (ii). The resistor that is in parallel with the battery has no
effect on the Norton current (IN). The resistor in parallel with the short also has no effect.
Therefore, these resistors may be considered as removed from the circuit shown in Fig. 4.9
(ii). The circuit then contains two 10  resistors in series.
 Fig- 4.9

Fig-4.10
In order to find Norton resistance RN (= RTh), open circuit the branch containing RL and
replace the voltage source by a short (internal resistance of the voltage source is
assumed zero) in Fig. 4.10 (i). The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 4.10 (i).
Norton resistance, RN = Resistance at terminals AB in Fig. 4.10 (i)

Therefore, Norton equivalent circuit consists of a current source of 0·6 A (= IN) in

parallel with a resistance of 6·67  (=RN). When the branch containing RL (= 10 ) is
connected across the output terminals of Norton equivalent circuit, the circuit becomes
as shown in Fig. 4.10 (ii).
By current-divider rule, the current I in RL is

Voltage across RL = I RL = 0·24 × 10 = 2·4 V

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

This theorem deals with transfer of maximum power from a source to load and may be
stated as under :
In d.c. circuits, maximum power is transferred from a source to load when the load
resistance is made equal to the internal resistance of the source as viewed from the load
terminals with load removed and all e.m.f. sources replaced by their internal resistances.
 Fig-4.11
Fig. 4.11 (i) shows a circuit supplying power to a load RL. The circuit enclosed in the box
can be replaced by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consisting of Thevenin voltage V = VTh
in series with Thevenin resistance Ri(=RTh) as shown in Fig. 4.11 (ii). Clearly, resistance
Ri is the resistance measured between terminals AB with RL removed and e.m.f. sources
replaced by their internal resistances. According to maximum power transfer theorem,
maximum power will be transferred from the circuit to the load when RL is made equal
to Ri, the Thevenin resistance at terminals AB.
Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Consider a voltage source V of internal resistance Ri delivering power to a load RL. We
shall prove that when RL = Ri, the power delivered to RL is maximum. Referring to Fig.
4.12 (i), we have,

Fig-4.12

For a given source, generated voltage V and internal resistance Ri are constant.
Therefore, power delivered to the load depends upon RL. In order to find the value of RL
for which the value of P is maximum, differentiate eq. (i) w.r.t. RL and set the result equal
to zero.
Thus, for maximum power transfer, load resistance RL must be equal to the internal
resistance Ri of the source. Fig. 4.12 (ii) shows the graph between power delivered (P)
and RL.
Applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
This theorem is very useful in situations where transfer of maximum power is desirable.
Two important applications are listed below :
(i) In communication circuits, maximum power transfer is usually desirable. For
instance, in a public address system, the circuit is adjusted for maximum power transfer
by making load (i.e. speaker) resistance equal to source (i.e. amplifier) resistance. When
source and load have the same resistance, they are said to be matched.
(ii) Another example of maximum power transfer is found in starting of a car engine.
The power delivered to the starter motor of the car will depend upon the effective
resistance of the motor and internal resistance of the battery. If the two resistances are
equal (as is the case when battery is fully charged), maximum power will be transferred
to the motor to turn on the engine.
Example 4.4. Calculate the value of R which will absorb maximum power from the circuit
of Fig. 4.13 (i). Also find the value of maximum power.

Fig-4.13 (i)
Solution. To find the desired answers, we should find VTh and RTh at the load (i.e. R)
terminals. For this purpose, first convert 2A current source in parallel with 15Ω
resistance into equivalent voltage source of 2A × 15Ω = 30 V in series with 15Ω
resistance. The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 4.13 (ii).

Fig-4.13 (ii)

Fig-4.13 (iii) and (iv)

To find VTh, remove R (i.e. load) from the circuit in Fig. 4.13 (ii) and the circuit becomes
as shown in Fig. 4.13 (iii). Then voltage across the open-circuited terminals AB is VTh.
Referring to Fig. 4.13 (iii),

In Fig. 4.13 (iii), as we go from point A to point B via 3Ω resistor, we have,

VA – I × 3 – 8 = VB
or VA – VB = I × 3 + 8 = 1 × 3 + 8 = 11V
VTh = VAB = VA – VB = 11V
In order to find RTh, remove R and replace the voltage sources by short in Fig. 4.13 (ii).
Then circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 4.13 (iv). Then resistance at open-circuited
terminals AB is RTh.
For maximum power transfer, the condition is