SOLID STATE LIGHTING

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

 Abstract

 History
 Introduction
 Definition:

 LED Mechanism
 Types of LEDs
 Available colors in LEDs
 Manufacturing the White LEDs

 LED Fabrication process

 Lowering the operating temperature
 Reduction of heat emission
 Advantages
 Limiting Factors
 Applications
 Conclusion
 Bibliography
Abstract:

Just as transistors replaced vacuum tubes 50 years ago, and just as flat panel
displays are now replacing CRT monitors and televisions, solid state lighting will likely
take the place of incandescent and fluorescent lamps used for applications in general
illumination.
High power Light emitting diodes (LEDs) have begun to differentiate themselves
from their more common cousins the indicator LED. Today these LEDs are designed to
generate 10-100 lm per LED with efficiencies that surpass incandescent and halogen
bulbs. The term "solid state" refers commonly to light emitted by solid-state
electroluminescence, as opposed to incandescent bulbs (which use thermal radiation) or
fluorescent tubes. Compared to incandescent lighting, SSL creates visible light with
reduced heat generation or parasitic energy dissipation. Most common "white" LEDs
convert blue light from a solid-state device to an (approximate) white light spectrum
using photoluminescence, the same principle used in conventional fluorescent tubes.
Lighting uses 19 % of worldwide electrical energy; this could be reduced by 75 % if all
existing lighting were replaced by solid state lighting. SSL has been identified not only to
fill the efficiency gap but also to replace environmentally unfriendly compact
fluorescence lamps and the associated problem of Mercury disposal. The LED is a
basically a small area source, often with extra optics added to the chip that shapes its
radiation pattern. The specific wavelength or color emitted by the LED depends on the
materials used to make the diode. It depends on the composition and condition of the
semi conducting of material used, and can be infrared, visible or near ultraviolet. We
demonstrate record performance and reliability for high power colored LEDs and show
results from the worlds first 100-plus lumen white LED lamp, the solid state equivalent
of Thomas Edison’s 20-W incandescent light bulb approximately one century later.
Solid-state lighting (SSL) refers to a type of lighting that uses semiconductor light-
emitting diodes (LEDs), organic light-emitting diodes (OLED), or polymer light-emitting

2
SSL
diodes (PLED) as sources of illumination rather than electrical filaments, plasma (used in
arc lamps such as fluorescent lamps), or gas.

History:

Oil lamp Incandescent bulbs Fluorescence &HighIntensity

discharge

The first known report of a light-emitting solid-state diode was made in 1907 by
the British experimenter H. J. Round. However, no practical use was made of the
discovery for several decades. Independently, Oleg Vladimirovich Losev published
"Luminous carborundum [silicon carbide] detector and detection with crystals" in the
Russian journal Telegrafiya Telefoniya bez Provodov (Wireless Telegraphy and
Telephony). Losev's work languished for decades.

The first practical LED was invented by Nick Holonyak, Jr., in 1962 while he was
at General Electric Company. The first LEDs became commercially available in late
1960s, and were red. They were commonly used as replacements for incandescent
indicators, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as
laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios,
telephones, calculators, and even watches. These red LEDs were bright enough only for
use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Later, other
colors became widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As the
LED materials technology became more advanced, the light output was increased, and
LEDs became bright enough to be used for illumination.

3
SSL
 Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1-3/4 and 3 mm T1 packages,
but with higher power, it has become increasingly necessary to get rid of the heat, so the
packages have become more complex and adapted for heat dissipation. Packages for
state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs (see, for example,
Philips Lumileds).

Introduction:
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs) have gained broad recognition as the
ubiquitous little lights that tell us our monitors are on, the phone is off the hook or the
oven is hot. Recent advances in AlInGaP (Aluminium, Indium, Gallium, Phosphate) Red
and AlInGaN (Aluminium, Indium, Gallium, Nitride) Blue and Green semiconductor
growth technology have enabled applications wherein several single to several millions
of these indicator style LEDs can be packaged together to be used in full color signs,
automotive interior and exterior signaling applications including traffic signals.

Definition:
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is essentially a PN junction semiconductor diode that
emits a monochromatic (single color) light when operated in a forward biased direction.
The basic structure of an LED consists of the die or light emitting semiconductor
material, a lead frame where the die is actually placed, and the encapsulation epoxy
which surrounds and protects the die

4
SSL
LED Mechanism:

• n-type & p-type semiconductors are combined in one device.

• With the application of a voltage between the p-side and the n-side, free electrons
from the n-type side go to the p-type side through the junction.
• When an electron meets a hole, it recombines and thus releases its energy by
emitting a photon.

5
SSL
Types of LEDs:

Organic LED & Polymer LED

These are LEDs whose emissive electroluminescent layer is composed of an

organic compound or polymer that will luminescence blue, green and red, and are
covered with a translucent material.

Available colors in LEDs:

1. Infrared
2. Red
3. Orange
4. Yellow
5. Green
6. Blue
7. Violet
8. Purple
9. Ultraviolet

6
SSL
 10. White

Manufacturing the White LEDs:

• 1st technique: Found in 1993, when the first blue LED was produced.
• By juxtaposing at a certain distance blue, red, and green LEDs, white light was
obtained.
• 2nd technique: found in 1996 by Nichia Corp. and Fraunhofer Institute
• Start with LED with an active layer made of InGaN
• Cover this structure is covered with a yellow phosphor crystal coating
(Ce3+:YAG).

The LED chip emits blue light, which is converted to yellow light by the phosphor

Other techniques of creating white LEDs:

• Coat near ultra-violet (NUV) with europium-based red and blue emitting
phosphors
• Transfer NUV radiation to visible light via the photoluminescence process in
phosphor materials
• Method less efficient then with the blue LED because of photodegradation of the
epoxy resin used in LED packaging.
• Coat blue LEDs with quantum dots, which absorb the blue light and emit a warm
white light.

7
SSL
LED Fabrication process:

• Electrical contacts to the p- and n-layers are both on the top surface of the
device because of the insulating sapphire substrate.
• The area of the contact to the p-layer has to be maximized to promote current
spreading
• Maximizes light emission and minimizes turn-on voltage and series resistance
• Because most of the light generated at the junction escapes the device through
the top surface
• The large-area p-contact has to be made as transparent as possible outside the
area where electrical bond wires are attached.

8
SSL
Lowering the operating temperature:

Normal LED:

• Big thermal resistance in thermal conduction path

• Large amount of heat transferred from active layer through front face of LED and
the encapsulating material and then dissipated into the air

Flip Chip LED:

9
SSL
 Designed with a thermal conductive sub mount and metal interconnections to conduct
most of the heat through sub mount.

Reduction of heat emission:

• Some LED lamps are designed with series resistors to limit the operating
current, resulting in no cold filament current variation.
• Room temperature stays cooler, so we don’t need further air conditioning

10
SSL
Advantages:

1. Lifetime: AS a solid state light source LEDs have a long life time and are
generally very robust due to no mechanical or moving parts. LEDs can last
up to 50,000 hours – more than 5 years of continuous use.
2. Low maintenance: The long life time of LEDs reduces the need to replace
failed lamps and this can lead to significant financial and environmental
savings, particularly in maintenance, labor and recycling.
3. Low power consumption: The low power consumption of LEDs leads to
large energy savings.
4. Efficiency: As a semiconductor device, LEDs are highly efficient. The
directional nature of light produced by LEDs allow the design of luminaries
with higher over all efficiency.
5. Brightness: Light outputs of LEDs are constantly being increased and there
are several products that have higher lumen output than traditional lighting
6. Heat: Almost 80% of the energy consumed by LEDs is converted in to light
and only some of it is dissipated as heat
7. Instantaneous switch on: LEDs switch on rapidly, even when cold and this
is particular advantage for certain applications such as Vehicle brake lights.
These light up very quickly and achieve full brightness within a few
microseconds.
8. Color: LEDs are available in a broad range of brilliant, saturated colors.
White devices are also available.
9. Small form factor: LEDs are very small. Typically, high brightness LEDs
chips measure 0.3x0.3 mm2, whole high power devices can be 1x1 mm2 or
larger.
10. Environment friendly:
- Less CO2 emission

11
SSL
 - Less light pollution
- Positive impact on Global warming.

Limiting Factors:

Cost Competitiveness
• Now, LED prices are 10 times higher than of incandescent light bulbs

Narrow angle of emission

• To use LEDs in ambient lighting, multiple LEDs are asembled in a single fixture.
This leads to sharp shadows.

High quality variation

• Inexpensive LEDs have inconsistent color temperature and light output

Poor Quantum efficiency

• LEDs are currently limited by poor internal quantum and light-extraction
efficiency, but photonic crystals offer a potential solution to both problems.

12
SSL
Applications:

1. Traffic Signals: Railroad crossing signals

2. Buildings: LEDs can be used as decorative lights on buildings
3. Digital clock: LEDs are used to indicate the alphanumeric displays in digital clock
4. Residential: For home lighting
5. Information Boards: LEDs are used to indicate the information by alphanumeric
displays
6. Runway in Airports: Lighting on the runway by LEDs
7. Brake lights: Because of their long life and fast switching times, LEDs have been used
for automotive high-mounted brake lights and truck and bus brake lights
8. Battery level Indicator: Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric
displays in environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits,
submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field, e.g. night time
animal watching and military field use.
9. Street Lights: Instead of toxic mercury’s as street light, LEDs are ultimate form of
light from all point of view.
10. Backlighting for LCD televisions and displays: The availability of LEDs in specific
colors (RGB) enables a full-spectrum light source which expands the color gamut by
as much as 45%..

13
SSL
Conclusion:
We conclude that LED is an ultimate form of lamp, in principle and practice and
its development are realized indeed can & will continue until all powers & colors are
realized. White LEDs for home lighting offer great benefits for the far flung tribal
villages of India.
Whether it be a climate change caused by global warming or huge electricity bills
of your house, LED lights are the answer to all the worries. Already being used, we
assure these are definitely going to replace the lamps that we use today in future.

14
SSL
Bibliography
Websites :
 http://lighting.sandia.gov
 http://www.loe.org
 http://www.enn.com
 http://www.netl.doe.gov
 http://www.nichia.com
 http://cree.com
 www.lumileds.com

Books:
 Introduction to Solid state lighting by A. Zukauskas, M.S.Shur,R.Gaska
 LEDs progress in Solid state lighting by A. Zukauskas, M.S.Shur,R.Gaska

15
SSL
16
SSL