1/1/2021

Computer Communication
&
Networking

Sudipta Mahapatra
E & ECE Department
IIT Kharagpur
sudipta@ece.iitkgp.ac.in
smahapatraclass@gmail.com

Prerequisites:

• Background in elementary probability

• Knowledge of basic computer organization

• C/C++ Programming knowledge

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Computer Network

A Simple Switched Network

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Communication Model

Communication Model (Contd.)

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Protocol
• For successful data transmission,
entities must speak the same language
– Syntax
• Data formats
• Signal levels
– Semantics
• Control information
• Error handling
– Timing
• Speed matching
• Sequencing
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Communication tasks
• Transmission System Utilization
• Interfacing
• Signal Generation, Synchronization
• Exchange Management
• Error detection and correction

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Communication tasks (Contd.)

• Addressing and routing

• Message formatting
• Ensuring Reliability
• Security
• Network Management

A Simplified Communication
Architecture and Protocol

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Few Basic Definitions

• Signals: Sine waves
– Peak Amplitude (A)
Maximum strength of signal
– Frequency (f)
• Rate of change of signal
• Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
• Period = time for one repetition (T); T = 1/f
– Phase ()
Relative position in time
– Wavelength ()
Width of one cycle 11

Definitions (Contd.)
• A signal is composed of multiple frequencies -
Can be shown using Fourier analysis.
• Spectrum
–Range of frequencies contained in signal
• Absolute bandwidth
– Width of spectrum

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Nyquists and Shanon’s Relations

• Any transmission system can support a
limited band of frequencies
• This limits the data rate as per the
Nyquist’s and Shannon’s relations.
C=2Blog2 V, V: number of signal levels
C=Blog2 (1+S/N), S: Signal power,
N: noise power (thermal noise)

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Addition of frequency components

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Terminologies
• bandwidth - In transmission, bandwidth is the
range of frequencies that the system may
transmit without excessive attenuation
(measured in hertz for analog carrier)
• throughput - the amount of data transmitted
between two points in a given amount of time
(e.g. 10 Mbps).
• speed - expressed in bits per second (bps), the
rate at which data can reliably be transmitted
over a line.
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Terminologies (Contd.)
• Baud - unit of signal frequency in signals per second.
Baud rate = bps only when the signal is represented by
a single bit.
• Propagation delay - is a measure of time between the
departure of the first bit from the source on a network
and its arrival at the receiver.
• Latency - Delay between the time when a device
receives a data frame and the time that the frame is
forwarded out to the destination port.
• Jitter - Variation of the network delay over time.

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Transmission modes
• Simplex – One-way transmission.
• Half-duplex - two-way transmission, one way at a time
• Full-duplex - independent, simultaneous two-way
transmission in both directions
• Synchronous
- both the sender and receiver are synchronized with a
clock so receiver knows exactly where new characters
begin
• Asynchronous
- data is transmitted one character at a time, with
intervals of varying lengths between transmittals. Start
and stop bits at the beginning and end of each character
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Network Topology

• Network Topology refers to

– physical topology: how nodes are connected
– logical topology: methods of accessing and
moving data
• Physical Topology:
– bus, ring, star, tree, mesh.
• Logical Topology:
– bus (every station receives the message),
– ring (message travels from station to station)
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Physical topology
• Ring - network nodes are connected to access
points which are in a closed loop; data is
transmitted from node to node around the loop,
always in the same direction
• Bus - network nodes are connected to the same
cable; all nodes are considered equal and
receive all transmissions on the medium
• Star - network nodes attach to hubs and signals
are broadcast to all stations or pass from station
to station

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Physical topology (Contd.)

Bus Ring

Tree 20
Star

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Network Technologies
• Bridging - techniques for interconnecting two LAN
segments that utilize the same LLC (Logical Link
Control) procedures but may use the same or different
MAC (Media Access Control) procedures
• Forwarding - the process of sending a frame toward its
ultimate destination by an internetworking device
• Routing - the process of finding a path to the destination
host.
• Switching - switching and routing are complementary
technologies. Switching is known for simplicity and
performance; Routing is known for manageability and
control

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Network Types
• LAN - Local Area Network. A network that
interconnects PCs, terminals, workstations,
servers, printers, and other peripherals at high
speed over short distances (Ethernet, token ring,
FDDI, ATM)
• WAN - Wide Area Network. A network that
covers larger geographical areas and usually
utilizes public phone networks (T1/T3, ISDN,
xDSL, Frame Relay, ATM)
• MAN - Metropolitan Area Network. Generally
MAN spans larger geographical area then LAN
and smaller than WAN
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Communication Techniques
• Multiplexing - a process in which multiple data
channels are combined into a single data or
physical channel at the source
• De-multiplexing - process of separating
multiplexed data channels at the destination
• Methods
– TDM - (Synchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
– ATDM - Asynchronous TDM or Statistical
Multiplexing: (bandwidth is dynamically allocated to
stations that have information to transmit)
– FDM - Frequency Division Multiplexing
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TDM

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Statistical Multiplexing
• Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM) or
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(ATDM);
– Dynamically assigns the available time slots only to
users who need data transmission
– Exploits bursty nature of many sources (VBR) of
traffic multiplexed together
– Increases utilization of links by allowing some loss
– Better than FDM or TDM

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Multiplexing Vs. Concentration

• Multiplexing is a static channel allocation
scheme in which individual frequency band or
time slots are assigned in a predetermined
basis.
- The instantaneous total input and output
channel capacities are the same.
• On the other hand, concentration involves the
dynamic sharing of a smaller number of output
channels by a certain number of input channels
as per requirement. Involves queuing.
ATDM actually is a hybrid of both multiplexing
and concentration.
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Statistical Multiplexing
• Queue is modelled as a Markov model (M/M/1 or
M/M/m)
– nature of arrival process (Poisson distribution)
– probability distribution of the service times
– number of servers
• Using the queuing model, different performance
parameters such as the average delay can be
computed.

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The OSI Model

• The ISO has developed the
OSI standard in order to
provide some level of
uniformity among network
vendors.
• OSI reference model consists
of 7 layers. Each layer uses the
service of its lower layer to provide
a service to the layer immediately
above it.

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Physical layer
Passes raw bit stream between computer and
network. It defines
– physical topology.
– voltage used.
– timing information.
– handshaking requirements.
– mechanical and electrical specifications for cable, wire,
repeaters.
Examples: EIA-RS232, RS449, Ethernet, token ring, FDDI

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Data Link layer

Provides reliable data transfer between
computer and network.
• Packages data into data frames
• Implements error control and flow control
between intermediate nodes.
• Sub-layers: MAC (Media Access Control)
and LLC
Examples: SDSL, ATM, FR.
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Network Layer
• Transparency of connection management
to upper layers.
• Sets up and maintains connections
between two computers using VCs or
datagrams.
• Responsible for addressing and routing.
Examples: IP, X.25, IPX, RIP, OSPF
IPX: Internetwork packet exchange, RIP: Routing information protocol, OSPF: Open shortest path first

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Transport Layer
• Reliable and transparent information
transfer.
• End-to-end error recovery and flow
control.
Examples: TCP, UDP, SPX, NetBEUI

SPX: Sequenced packet exchange; NetBEUI: Transport protocol used to implement Microsoft networking

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Session Layer
• Coordinates between processes;
Provides control structures for network
management such as Logon/Logoff
procedures, checkpointing during file
transfer, etc.
Examples: SNMP, FTP, SMTP, Telnet

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Presentation and Application

Layer
• Presentation layer provides data formatting
and code conversion.
Manages Network security and file transfers.
Examples: MPEG, JPEG
• Application layer is where the user
applications reside; provides user interface to
lower layers.
Examples: Email, Rlogin.
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The TCP/IP Network Protocol

• Consists of Application, TCP, IP, and NA layers
• Original message is broken into packets at the
TCP layer
• Each layer adds control data to the message.
This process is called encapsulation

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TCP/IP Vs. OSI

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TCP/IP Vs. OSI

• As it can be seen from the previous pages there are a number of comparisons which
can be drawn between the two models. This section will therefore be focusing on
highlighting the similarities and differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models.
• SIMILARITIES
• The main similarities between the two models include the following:
• They share similar architecture. - Both of the models share a similar
architecture. This can be illustrated by the fact that both of them are constructed with
layers.
• They share a common application layer.- Both of the models share a common
"application layer". However in practice this layer includes different services
depending upon each model.
• Both models have comparable transport and network layers.- This can be illustrated
by the fact that whatever functions are performed between the presentation and
network layer of the OSI model similar functions are performed at the Transport layer
of the TCP/IP model.
• Knowledge of both models is required by networking professionals.- According to
article obtained from the internet networking professionals "need to know both
models". (Source:
• Both models assume that packets are switched.- Basically this means that individual
packets may take differing paths in order to reach the same destination.
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TCP/IP Vs. OSI

• DIFFERENCES
• The main differences between the two models are as follows:
• TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards around which the internet has
developed. The OSI model however is a "generic, protocol- independent
standard." (www.netfact.com/crs)
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.
• TCP/IP appears to be a more simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it
has fewer layers.
• TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact
because TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the internet was
developed therefore it mainly gains creditability due to this reason. Where as in
contrast networks are not usually built around the OSI model as it is merely used as a
guidance tool.
• The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4
layers.

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Standards
• Required to allow for interoperability between
equipments.

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Standards Organizations and

Consortia
• Define the physical and operational
characteristics of networking hardware and
software.
• Standards are recommendations that vendors
should follow to achieve interoperability with
products from other vendors.
• Industry Consortia
ATM Forum - ATM technology
Frame Relay Forum - Frame Relay technology
W3C - World Wide Web Consortium
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Standards Organizations
• IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force
• IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers
• ANSI - American National Standards Institute
• ITU-T - International Telecommunication Union -
Telecommunication Section (previous CCITT)
• ISO - International Standards Organization.
• TIA - Telecommunications Industry Association
• EIA - Electronics Industries Association

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STANDARDS: IEEE 802 Series

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Data Transmission
• Data is sent in chunks called packets or frames
• The exact structure of packets (size, contents) depend on
the protocol that is used for communication
• Typical structure: destination address, source address,
type of data, information regarding how to reassemble the
original message, data itself, CRC for error checking.

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Physical data transmission

• Metallic cables: coaxial cables and twisted pair
cables
Carrier: Electrical pulses (electrons).
Problems: Signal attenuation, noise, bandwidth
and length limitations.
• Optical fiber
Carrier: Modulated light (photons)
Problems: Expensive
Advantages: High bandwidth, sleuth-resistant,
long distance transmission.

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Baseband transmission
• One carrier frequency is used (also called
narrowband)
Electrical signal applied directly between the
wires (example: Ethernet)
Basic limitation: only one bit can be transmitted
at any given time
Efficiency is increased by using Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM)
TDM flavors: synchronous and asynchronous
Signal attenuation is a big problem for baseband
networks

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Broadband transmission
• Signal is sent by modulating a carrier (AM
or FM).
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
can be used to send multiple
transmissions concurrently over a single
cable/fiber
• Using narrow band filters, receivers are
able to separate out multiple signals.

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Baseband Vs. Broadband

Signalling
• Baseband:
-A baseband transmission is carried over a single wire using digital
signaling.
-Baseband communications are bidirectional. Signals can be both
sent and received (but not simultaneously.)
- Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) allows multiple signals to be
sent via baseband transmissions on a single cable. TDM
allocates the multiple signals across time slots.
• Broadband:
-Broadband transmissions are analog transmissions.
-The media used in broadband transmissions is split into two
channels to allow signals to be both sent and received.
-Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is used to create multiple
broadband channels.

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Switching Paradigms
• Circuit switching
• Packet switching
- Virtual circuits
- Datagram delivery
• Burst switching

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Circuit switched network

• A connection is set up by physically connecting

segments of physical wire to form a continuous
electrical circuit.
• Presently, the circuit is formed using TDM in the
synchronous mode
• Advantage: guarantees the bit rate and, usually,
constant, predictable latency
• Downside: cost of the connection depends on
the reserved bandwidth, not on actual amount of
data transferred over the circuit.
• Examples: phone lines, ISDN lines

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Packet Switching

• Information chopped into small units (packets)

and is sent one at a time
• Multiplex several data streams
• Many sources of packets can coexist attached to
one transmission medium
• Multiplexing is statistical and network behaviour
is not entirely predictable
• Packets carry their destination addresses in
headers
• Examples: Ethernet, FDDI, Frame Relay, IP
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Connection-oriented vs.
connectionless
• Connection-oriented: Networks are aware about two
systems communicating. The network must admit a
communication stream before data exchange starts
• Connectionless: Network has no idea that two systems
communicate. Connection is never refused

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Connection-oriented network

• Implementation: virtual circuits, signaling

protocols
• Advantages: more predictable traffic
• Disadvantages: need call set-up which
introduces delay; wastes network
resources

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Connectionless networks

• Implementations: addresses in packet

headers
• Advantages: no call set-up delay, no
busy signal
• Disadvantages: difficult to reserve
resources

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Topics to be Covered
• Module-I: Introduction and Overview, the OSI model, TCP/IP standard. (5)
• Module-II: Digital Data Communication – Synchronous vs. asynchronous transmission; signal
encoding schemes - NRZ vs. RZ schemes, Error Handling - VRC, LRC, CRC; Interfacing details
and Physical layer. (3)
• Module III: Datalink layer functionalities, DLC protocols - Stop-and-wait, Sliding window,
performance analysis of ARQ schemes; MAC protocols - pure ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, CSMA,
CSMA/CD, Binary exponential back-off algorithm, CSMA/CA; LAN standards, Ethernet, Token
bus, Token ring, FDDI MAN standard, DQDB protocol, wireless LAN. (7)
• Module IV: Queuing theory and delay analysis, backbone design; (2)
• Module V: Network layer Issues, Point-to-point networks, Packet networks – Addressing and
Routing, Routing algorithms – Dijkstra’s algorithm, Bellman-Ford algorithm, Floyd-Warshall
algorithm, Internet protocol – IP Addressing, Datagram routing. (5)
• Module VI: Transport layer issues, Flow control and error control, Transmission control protocol
(TCP) – Flow and error control in TCP, Congestion control; User datagram protocol (UDP). (4)
• Module VII: Examples of different large scale network deployment; ISDN, BISDN, ATM. (2)
• Module VIII: Session and Presentation layer protocols, Network security. (2)

Text books:
• Data and Computer Communication by William Stallings, 7th edition.
• Computer Networks by A. S. Tanenbaum, 4th edition.
• Data Networks by Dimitri P. Bertsekas and (Author) Gallagher, 4th edition.
• Computer Network: A Top-Down Approach, Kurose and Ross, 7th Edition.
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Topics to be Covered
1. Traffic Generation
2. The OSI Model
3. DLC Protocols
4. MAC Protocols.
5. LAN Standards
6. Internetworking
i. TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
ii. Datagram Routing
7. LAN Interconnection Devices.
8. RS 232-C, X.25 Standards.
9. ISDN, BISDN
10. Frame Relay, ATM

Text Book:
1. Data and Computer Communications by Stallings
2. Internetworking with TCP/IP, Comer and Stevens, PHI, 2nd Ed.,
Reference Books:
1. Books by Tanenbaum, Forouzan, Leon-Garcia

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