Basic Concepts in

Communication
 Basic Concepts

• Communications – activity associated with

distributing or exchanging information
• Telecommunications – technology of
communications at a distance that permits
information to be created any where and used
everywhere with little delay
• Today it, involves
– Data: digital and analog
– Voice: spoken word
– Video: telelcommunication imaging
 Essentials for Communications

Must have a message

Message must have a transmitter
Message must have a medium
Message must be understood
Message must have some level of security

Source System Destination System

Source  Transmitter  Transmission  Receiver  Destination

1 2 3 4 5 6

Medium
Workstation/PC Workstation/PC
 Essentials for Communications

1. Text input information

2. Input data digital bit stream
3. Transmitted analog signal
4. Received analog signal
5. Output data digital bit stream
6. Text output information

Source System Destination System

Source  Transmitter  Transmission  Receiver  Destination

1 2 3 4 5 6

Medium
Workstation/PC Workstation/PC
 Data Communication Tasks

Data System Addressing Multiplexing Capacity

Utilization Congestion Control
Interfacing Routing Router / Server /
Media Control /
Protocol
Signal Generation Recovery Repeater/Amplifier;
Propagation;
Interoperable
Synchronization Messsage Signal Begins &
Formatting Ends
Exchange Security Nature and Timing of
Management Signal
Error Detection & Network MGT Signal Distortion Bit
Correction Error
Flow Control Network MGT Routing Delivery
Error Feedback
Understanding Networking
 Big Picture
What do you see here for a typical network?
Key Network Terminology Explained (1)

• Networks needs to interconnect at a distance by

a form of point to point or point to multiple point
connected media
• A network is a group of computers connected
together in such a way as to allow
• Networks that are interconnected have proven
to be low cost, reliable, and efficient means of
communicating at a distance
 Key Network Terminology Explained (2)

• Node: anything connected to the network,

usually a computer, but it could be a printer or a
scanner
• Segment: any portion of a network that is
separated by a switch, bridge or a router from
another part of a network.
• Backbone: the main cabling of a network that all
of the segment connect to. Usually, the
backbone is capable of carrying more
information than the individual segments.
Network architecture  • Topology: The way each node is physically
connected to the network
 Common Topologies - Bus

• Bus: each node is daisy-chained (connected one right

after the other) along the same backbone. Information
sent from a node travels along the backbone until it
reaches its destination node. Each end of a bus network
must be terminated with a resistor to keep the
Common Topologies - Ring

• Ring: Similar to a bus network, rings

have nodes daisy chained, but the end
of the network in a ring topology comes
back around to the first node, creating
a complete circuit. Each node takes a
turn sending and receiving information
through the use of a token. The token
along with any data is sent from the
first node to the second node which
extracts the data addressed to it and
adds any data it wishes to send. Then
second node passes the token and
data to the third node, etc. until it
comes back around to the first node
again. Only the node with the token is
allowed to send data . All other nodes
must wait for the token to come to
them.
 Common Topologies - Star

• In a star network, each node is connected to a

central device called a hub. The hub takes a
signal that comes from any node and passes it
along to all the other nodes in the network.

•A hub does not perform any type of filtering or routing of the data.
•A hub is a junction that joins all the different nodes together.
 Common Topologies - Star

• In a star network, each node is connected to a

central device called a hub. The hub takes a
signal that comes from any node and passes it
along to all the other nodes in the network.
 Common Topologies – Star Bus

• Prob. Most common topology used today.

Combines elements of the star and bus
topologies to create a versatile network
environment.
• Nodes in particular areas are connected to hubs
(and create star topology), and hubs are
connected together along the network backbone
(like a bus network).
• Often you have stars nested within stars.
Other network topologies (architecture)

• Some basic network topologies not previously

mentioned:
• One-to-one
• Hierarchical
• Hybrid
• Client-server
• Multiple nodes
Key Network Terminology Explained (3)

• Simplex: information flows in only one direction

• Half-duplex: information flows in two directions,
but only in one direction at a time.
• Full-duplex: information flows in two directions
at the same time
 Basic Signal Terminologies
• Bit: binary digit, either 0 or 1
• Baud (don’t really use anymore; not accurate) =
one electronic state change per second
Kilo K 2^10 • Bit rate – a method for measuring data
Mega M 2^20
transmission speed – bits per second
Giga G 2^30
Tera T 2^40 • Mbps – millions of bits per second (data speed;
Peta P 2^50 measure of bandwidth = total information flow
Exa E 2^60 over a given time) on a telecommunication
Zetta Z 2^70
medium
Yotta Y 2^80
• 8 bits = 1 byte
• Mb – million bits (quantity of data)
• MB – million bytes (quantity of data)
• Gbps – Billion bits per second (data speed)
• Teraflops – trillion operations per second
 Data Transmission

• Successful transmission of data depends on:

– The quality of the signal being transmitted
– Characteristics of the transmission medium
• Data rate – bits per second in data
communications
• Bandwidth – bandwidth or signal is constrained
by the transmitter and the nature of the
transmission in cycles per second or hertz
• Noise – Average level of noise over the
communication path.
• Error rate – rate at which errors occur where
error in 1 or 0 bit occurs
Understanding Transmission Medium
 Basic transmission medium concepts

• Medium is the physical path between

transmitter and receiver in a data transmission
system
• Guided Medium: waves are guided along a solid
medium path (twisted pair, coaxial cable, and
optical fiber).
• Unguided medium: waves are propagated
through the atmosphere and inner/outerspace
(satellite, laser, and wireless transmissions).
 Medium examples by type

• Conductive: twisted pairs and coaxial cables

• Electromagnetic: microwave
• Light: lasers and optical fibers (need clear line
of sight)
• Wireless – inner/outerspace; satellite
(omnidirectional  security issues)
 Coaxial cable (1)

• Widely installed for use in business and

corporation ethernet and other types of LANs.
• Consists of inter copper insulator covered by
cladding material, and then covered by an outer
jacket
• Physical Descriptions:

 Inner conductor is solid copper metal

 Separated by insulating material

 Outer conductor is braided shielded (ground)

 Covered by sheath material
 Coaxial cable (2)

• Applications:
– TV distribution (cable tv); long distance telephone
transmission; short run computer system links
– Local area networks

• Transmission characteristics:
– Can transmit analog and digital signals
– Usable spectrum for analog signaling is about 400 Mhz
– Amplifier needed for analog signals for less than 1 Km and
less distance for higher frequency
– Repeater needed for digital signals every Km or less
distance for higher data rates
– Operation of 100’s Mb/s over 1 Km.
 Twisted Pair Cables

• Physical description:
– Each wire with copper conductor
– Separately insulated wires
– Twisted together to reduce cross talk
– Often bundled into cables of two or four twisted pairs
– If enclosed in a sheath then is shielded twisted pair (STP)
otherwise often for home usage unshielded twisted pair
(UTP). Must be shield from voltage lines
• Application:
– Common in building for digital signaling used at speed of
10’s Mb/s (CAT3) and 100Mb/s (CAT5) over 100s meters.
– Common for telephone interconnection at home and office
buildings
– Less expensive medium; limited in distance, bandwidth, and
data rate.
 Categories of Twisted Pairs Cabling System
Category Maximum data Usual application
rate
Specs describe cable
Material, type of CAT 1 Less than 1 analog voice (plain old telephone
Connectors, and Mbps service) Integrated Services
Junction blocks to Digital Network Basic Rate
Conform to a category Interface in ISDN Doorbell wiring
CAT 2 4 Mbps Mainly used in the IBM Cabling
System for token ring networks

CAT 3 16 Mbps Voice and data on 10BASE-T

Ethernet (certify 16Mhz signal)

CAT 4 20 Mbps Used in 16Mbps Token Ring

Otherwise not used much
CAT 5 100 Mbps 100 Mbps TPDDI
155 Mbps asynchronous
transfer mode (certify 100 Mhz
signal)
 Optical Fibers (1)

• Physical Description:
– Glass or plastic core of optical fiber = 2to125 µm
– Cladding is an insulating material
– Jacket is a protective cover
– Laser or light emitting diode provides transmission
light source
• Applications:
– Long distance telecommunication
– Greater capacity; 2 Gb/s over 10’s of Km
– Smaller size and lighter weight
– Lower attenuation (reduction in strength of signal)
Repeaters  – Electromagnetic isolation – not effected by external
electromagnetic environment. Aka more privacy
– Greater repeater spacing – fewer repeaters, reduces
line regeneration cost
 Optical Fibers (2)

• multimode fiber is optical fiber that is designed

to carry multiple light rays or modes
concurrently, each at a slightly different
reflection angle within the optical fiber core.
used for relatively short distances because the
modes tend to disperse over longer lengths (this
is called modal dispersion) .
• For longer distances, single mode fiber
(sometimes called monomode) fiber is used. In
single mode fiber a single ray or mode of light
act as a carrier
 Wireless Transmission (1)

• Frequency range (line of sight):

– 26 GHz to 40 GHz: for microwave with highly
directional beam as possible
– 30 MHz to 1 GHz: for omnidirectional applications
– 300MHz to 20000 GHz: for infrared spectrum; used
for point to point and multiple point application (line of
sight)
• Physical applications:
– Terrestrial microwave – long haul telecommunication
service (alternative to coaxial or optical fiber)
– Few amplifier and repeaters
– Propagation via towers located without blockage from
trees, etc (towers less than 60 miles apart)
 Wireless Transmission (2)

• Satellite is a microwave relay station

• Geostationary orbit (22,000 miles) and low orbit (12000
miles)
• Satellite ground stations are aligned to the space satellite,
establishes a link, broadcast at a specified frequency.
Ground station normally operate at a number of
frequencies – full duplex
• Satellite space antenna is aligned to the ground station
establishes a link and transmits at the specified
frequency. Satellite are capable of transmitting at multiple
frequencies simultaneously, full duplex.
• To avoid satellites from interfering with each other, a 4
degree separation is required for 4/6 GHz band and 3
degree for 12/14 GHz band. Limited to 90 satellites.
• Disadv: not satellite repair capability; greater delay and
attenuation problems.
 Wireless LAN

• Wireless LAN
• HiperLAN (European standard; allow
communication at up to 20 Mbps in 5 GHz
range of the radio frquency (RF) spectrum.
• HiperLAN/2 operate at about 54 Mbps in the
same RF band.
Network Hardware
 Hubs

Reference to • A hub is the place where data converges from

equipment one or more directions and is forwarded out in
one or more directions.
• Seen in local area networks
 Gateways

• A gateway is a network point that acts as an

entrance to another network. On the internet, in
terms of routing, the network consists of
gateway nodes and host nodes.
• Host nodes are computer of network users and
the computers that serve contents (such as
Web pages).
• Gateway nodes are computers that control
traffic within your company’s network or at your
local internet service provider (ISP)
 Routers

• A router is a device or a software in a computer

that determines the next network point to which
a packet should be forwarded toward its
destination.
• Allow different networks to communicate with
each other
• A router creates and maintain a table of the
available routes and their conditions and uses
this information along with distance and cost
algorithms to determine the best route for a
given packet.
• A packet will travel through a number of network
points with routers before arriving at its
destination.
 Bridge

• a bridge is a product that connects a local area

network (LAN) to another local area network
that uses the same protocol (for example,
Ethernet or token ring).
• A bridge examines each message on a LAN,
"passing" those known to be within the same
LAN, and forwarding those known to be on the
other interconnected LAN (or LANs).
 What is the difference between?

• Bridge: device to interconnect two LANs that

use the SAME logical link control protocol but
may use different medium access control
protocols.
• Router: device to interconnect SIMILAR
networks, e.g. similar protocols and
workstations and servers
• Gateway: device to interconnect DISSIMILAR
protocols and servers, and Macintosh and IBM
LANs and equipment
 Switches

• Allow different nodes of a network to

communicate directly with each other.
• Allow several users to send information over a
network at the same time without slowing each
other down.
WANs and LANs
 Major Categories of Networks

• Local Area Networks (LAN)

– A network of computers that are in the same general
physical location, within a building or a campus.
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
• Wide Area Networks (WAN)

Issues of size and breadth.

Data Communications Through WANs (1)

• WANs were developed to communicate over a large

geographical area (e.g. lab-to-lab; city-to-city; east coast-
to-west coast; North America-to-South America etc)
• WANs require the crossing of public right of ways (under
control and regulations of the interstate commerce and
institute of telephone and data communications
established by the gov’t and international treaties).
• WANs around the world relies on the infrastructure
established by the telephone companies (“common
carrier”) or public switched telephone network (PSTN).
• WANs consists of a number of interconnected switching
nodes (today = computers). Transmission signals are
routed across the network automatically by software
control to the specified destination. The purpose of these
nodes are to route messages through switching facilities
to move data from node to node to its destination.
Data Communications Through WANs (2)

• WANs originally implemented circuit switching and

packet switching technologies. Recently, frame
relay and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
networks have been implemented to achieve
higher operating and processing speeds for the
message.
• WAN transmission speeds are _______
• WAN are owned by the common carrier in the
U.S. and governement in most foreign
countries.
• Interconnected devices, I.e. LANs or Personal
Computers (PC) or Workstation or Servers can
be (usually are) privately owned by companies.
 Circuit Switching Technologies

• Circuit switching is a dedicated communications path

established between two stations or multiple end points
through nodes of the WAN
• Transmission path is a connected sequence of physical
link between nodes.
• On each link, a logical channel is dedicated to the
connection. Data generated by the source station are
transmitted along dedicated path as rapidly as possible.
• At each node, incoming data are routed or switched to
the appropriate outgoing channel without excessive
delay. However, if data processing is required, some
delay is experienced.
• Example of circuit switching above is the telephone
networks.
 Packet Switching Technologies

• It is not necessasry (as in circuit switching) to dedicate

transmission capacity along a path through the WAN rather
data are sent out in a sequence of small chucks, called
packets.
• Each packet, consisting of several bits is passed through
the network from node to node along some path leading
from the source to the destination
• At each node along the path, the entire packet is received,
stored briefly, and then transmitted to the next node.
• At destination all individual packets are assembled together
to form the complete text and message from the source.
Each packet is identified as to its place in the overall text
for reassembly.
• Packet switching networks are commonly used for terminal-
to-computer and computer-to-computer communications.
• If packet errors occur, the packet is retransmitted.
 Frame Relay Techniques

• Packet switching was developed at a time (1960’s) when

digital long distance transmission facilities exhibited a
relatively high error rate compared to today’s facilities. A
large amount of overhead was included for error detection
and control. Each packet included additional bits and each
node performed additional processing to insure reliable
transmission.
• Frame relay has removed the overhead bits and additional
processing. It has become unnecessary to invoke these
overhead checks and thereby enables higher capacity
transmission rates.
• Frame relay takes advantage of these high rates and low
error rates.
• Frame relay networks are designed to operate efficiently at
user data rates of 2 Mb/s and higher. (packet switching
originally designed with a 64 Kb/s data rate to the end user).
• Frame relay achieves these higher rates by stripping out
most of the overhead involved with error control.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

• ATM also referred to as “Cell Relay”

• Evolution from frame relay and circuit switching.
• Major differences: Frame relay uses variable length
packets called “frames”. ATM uses fixed length packets
called “cells”.
• ATM provides little overhead for error control like frame
relay, and depends on inherent reliability of the
transmission system and on higher layers of logic in the
end systems to identify and correct errors.
• ATM is designed to operate in range of 10s to 100 Mb/s
compared to frame relay (2 Mb/s)
• ATM allows multiple virtual channels with higher data
rates for transmission paths. Each channel dynamically
sets on demand.
 ISDN and Broadband ISDN Technology

• Integrated services digital network (ISDN) was intended to

be a world wide public telecommunication network to
replace existing public telecommunication networks and
deliver a wide variety of services.
• ISDN has standardized user interfaces, implemented a
set of digital switches and paths supporting a broad range
of traffic types and providing a value added processing
service
• ISDN is multiple networks, but integrated to provide user
with single, uniform accessibility and world wide
interconnection.
• First generation ISDN was narrowband, 64 Kb/s channel
of switching and circuit switching orientations. Frame relay
resulted from the ISDN narrowband efforts.
• Second generation is broadband ISDN. It supports high
data rates of 100s Mb/s and has a packet switching
orientation. ATM resulted from the broadband ISDN
efforts.
 Local Area Network

• Small interconnected of personal computers or

workstations and printers within a building or small area
1. Ethernet
up to 10 Kms.
2. Token Ring
• Small group of workers that share common application
programs and communication needs.
• LANs are capable of very high transmission rates (100s
Mb/s to G b/s).
• LAN equipment usually owned by organization. Medium
may be owned or leased from telephone company
provider or common carrier.
• PC or Workstation interconnected to medium (twisted
pair; fiber optics; etc) through concentrators to servers.
LAN is interconnected with other networks via switches
and router/gateways.
• Advanced LANs using circuit switching are available.
ATM LANs, fibre channel baseband, and broadband
LANs are being used. Etc.
 What is ethernet?

• A group of standards for defining a local area

network that includes standards in cabling and
the structure of the data sent over those cables
as well as the hardware that connects those
cables.
• Independent of the network architecture
• Flavors of ethernet
• IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Specification
– Great detail specifying cable types, data formats, and
procedures for transferring that data through those
cables
• IEEE 802.5 Token Ring Specification
 Network Interface Card (NIC)

• Every computer and most devices (e.g. a

network printer) is connected to network
through an NIC. In most desktop computers,
this is an Ethernet card (10 or 100 Mbps) that is
plugged into a slot on the computer
motherboard.
 How does Ethernet work?

• Using MAC addresses to distinguish between

machines, Ethernet transmits frames of data
across baseband cables using CSMA/CD (IEEE
802.3)
 What is a MAC Address?

• Media Access Control (MAC) Address – are the

physical address of any device, e.g. a NIC in a
computer on the network. The MAC address
has two parts of 3 bytes long. The first 3 bytes
specify the company that made the NIC and the
second 3 bytes are the serial number of the
NIC.
 What is a Token Ring?

• All computers are connected in a ring or star

topology and a binary digit or token passing
scheme is used in order to prevent the collision
of data between two computers that want to
send messages at the same time.
 How do Token Rings work?

1. Empty information frames are continuously

circulated on the ring.
2. When a computer has a message to send, it inserts
a token in an empty frame (this may consist of
simply changing a 0 to a 1 in the token bit part of
the frame) and inserts a message and a destination
identifier in the frame.
3. The frame is then examined by each successive
workstation. If the workstation sees that it is the
destination for the message, it copies the message
from the frame and changes the token back to 0.
4. When the frame gets back to the originator, it sees
that the token has been changed to 0 and that the
message has been copied and received. It removes
the message from the frame.
5. The frame continues to circulate as an "empty"
frame, ready to be taken by a workstation when it
has a message to send.
Understanding Network
Protocols
Protocols of Computer Communications
and Networks
• Protocol are used for communication between computers
in different computer networks. Protocol achieves:
– What is communicated between computers?
– How it is communicated?
– When it is communicated?
– What conformance (bit sequence) between computers?
• Key elements of a protocol are:
– SYNTAC: Data format and signal levels
– SEMANTICS: Control information for coordination and error
handling
– TIMING: Synchronization, speed matching, and sequencing
• Examples of protocols:
– WAN Protocol: TCP/IP
– LAN Protocol: Media Access Control; Contention; Token
Passing
 Protocol Architecture

• Architecture provides high degree of

cooperation between two computers.
• Example:

• INSERT DIAGRAM of file transfer 

 ISO/OSI Reference Model (1)

• Open Systems Interconnection

• No one really uses this in the real world.
• A reference model so others can develop
detailed interfaces.
• Value: The reference model defines 7 layers of
functions that take place at each end of
communication and with each layer adding its
own set of special related functions.
• Flow of data through each layer at one
 ISO/OSI Reference Model (2)

File Transfer, Email, Remote Login 

ASCII Text, Sound (syntax layer) 

Establish/manage connection 
End-to-end control & error checking
(ensure complete data transfer): TCP 

Routing and Forwarding Address: IP 

Two party communication: Ethernet 

How to transmit signal; coding
Hardware means of sending and 
receiving data on a carrier
 What is TCP/IP?

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – uses a set of

rules to exchange messages with other Internet points at
the information packet level
• Internet Protocol (IP) – uses a set of rules to send and
receive messages at the Internet address level
• Is the predominate network protocol in use today (Other
includes OSI Model) for interoperable architecture and
the internet.
• TCP/IP is a result of protocol research and development
conducted on experimental packet switched network by
ARPANET funded by the defense advanced research
projects agency (DARPA). TCP/IP used as internet
standards by the internet architecture board (IAB).
 TCP/IP Five Independent Levels
HTTP / FTP / Telnet /
SMTP / SLIP / PPP  • Application Layer: contains the logic needed to
support the various user applications. Separate
TCP keep track of the module are required for each application.
individual packets  • Host-to-host or transport Layer: collection of
And reassemble mechanisms in a single and common layer
IP handles actual  • Internet Layer: IP provides the routing functions
delivery of packets across the multiple networks
• Network access layer: concerned with access to
and routing data across a network for two end
systems attached to the same network.
• Physical Layer: covers physical interface
between PC or workstation and a transmission
medium or network
 TCP (example)

• Web Server: serves HTML pages

• TCP layer in the server divides the file into one
or more packets, numbers the packet, then
forward packets individually to IP.
• Note: each packet has the same destination IP
address, it may get routed differently through
the network.
• TCP (on the client) reassembles the individual
packets and waits until they have arrived to
forward them as a single file.
• Connection-oriented protocol
 IP

• Connectionless protocol (I.e. no established

connection between the end points that are
communicating.)
• Responsible for delivery the independently
treated packet !!!!
• TCP responsible for reassembly.
 Associated TCP/IP Protocols & Services

HTTP This protocol, the core of the World Wide Web, facilitates
retrieval and transfer of hypertext (mixed media) documents.
Stands for the HyperText Transfer protocol
Telnet A remote terminal emulation protocol that enables clients to log
on to remote hosts on the network.
SNMP Used to remotely manage network devices. Stands for the
Simple Network Management Protocol.

DNS Provides meaningful names like achilles.mycorp.com for

computers to replace numerical addresses like 123.45.67.89.
Stands for the Domain Name System.
SLIP/ SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) and PPP (Point to Point
PPP Protocol) encapsulate the IP packets so that they can be sent
over a dial up phone connection to an access provider’s modem.
Considerations?
 Examples

• Multimedia (audio/video stream) Bioinformatics

Educational CD’s as an example of extending
network capacity
 Further Readings

• Basics: Complete Idiots Guide to Networking,

3rd Edition (Wagner and Negus)
• Practical Network Cabling (Freed and Derfler)
• Networking books by William Stallings:
– Business Data Communications
– Operating Systems: Internals and Design Principles
– Data & Computer Communications
– Local and Metropolitan Area Networks
– High-speed networks TCP/IP and ATM Design
Principles
• Online Audio/Video Recording of Networking
Class:
– http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/~jain/videos.htm
 Basic Ethernet Bus

• Carrier Sense - When a device connected to

an Ethernet network wants to send data it first
checks to make sure it has a carrier on which to
send its data (usually a piece of copper cable
connected to a hub or another machine).
• Multiple Access - This means that all
machines on the network are free to use the
network whenever they like so long as no one
else is transmitting.
• Collision Detection - A means of ensuring that
when two machines start to transmit data
simultaneously, that the resultant corrupted
data is discarded, and re-transmissions are
generated at differing time intervals.
Ethernet Bus Topology
Collision
 Star Topology

• An Ethernet hub changes the topology from a

'bus' to a 'star wired bus', here's how it works.
Again, machine 1 is transmitting data to
machine 4, but this time the signal travels in and
out of the hub to each of the other machines. As
you can see, it is still possible for collisions to
occur but hubs have the advantage of
centralised wiring, and they can automatically
bypass any ports that are disconnected or have
a cabling fault. This makes the network much
more fault tolerant than a coax based system
where disconnecting a single connection will
bring the whole network down.
Star Topology
 Using Switch

• To overcome the problem of collisions and other

effects on network speed, a switch is used.
• With a switch, machines can transmit
simultaneously, in this case 1 & 5 first, and then
2 & 4. As you can see, the switch reads the
destination addresses and 'switches' the signals
directly to the recipients without broadcasting to
all of the machines on the network.
• This 'point to point' switching alleviates the
problems associated with collisions and
considerably improves network speed.
 Ring Topology

• Unlike Ethernet, Token Ring uses a ring

topology whereby the data is sent from one
machine to the next and so on around the ring
until it ends up back where it started. It also
uses a token passing protocol which means that
a machine can only use the network when it has
control of the Token, this ensures that there are
no collisions because only one machine can
use the network at any given time.
Ring Topology