Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73

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Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Full length article

Empathy and embodied experience in virtual environment: To what

extent can virtual reality stimulate empathy and embodied
experience?
Donghee Shin
School of Media and Communication, Chung-Ang University, #1411, Bldg. 303, Heukseok-ro 84, Dongjak-gu, Seoul, 06974, South Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigates the user experience to clarify what it is like to experience stories in VR (virtual
Received 26 March 2017 reality) and how immersion influences story experiences in immersive storytelling. This study explores
Received in revised form the immersive storytelling context, developing and testing a VR experience model that integrates
6 September 2017
presence, flow, empathy, and embodiment. The results imply that users’ personal traits correlates im-
Accepted 9 September 2017
Available online 20 September 2017
mersion in VR: user experience in VR depend on individual traits, which in turns influence how strongly
users immerse in a VR. The way users view and accept VR stories derives from the way they envisage and
intend to experience them. Rather than simply being influenced by technological features, users have
Keywords:
Virtual environment
intentional and purposeful control over VR stories. The findings of this study suggest that the cognitive
Immersive storytelling processes by which users experience quality, presence, and flow determine how they will empathize
Virtual reality story with and embody VR stories.
Immersion © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Virtual storytelling
Empathy
Embodiment
Presence
Flow

Virtual reality (VR) is often used in storytelling. As it is consid- experiences, whether immersion influences cognition, and in what
ered an effective medium for interactive storytelling, the industry ways the UX is improved by new forms of heightened immersion.
seems keen to introduce an interactive element into every VR piece. Although the word is widely used, “immersion” has not been pre-
VR storytelling allows the user to enter a virtually recreated sce- cisely defined or explained with users. This term has become even
nario that represents a story. Stories are produced as computer more ambiguous in the emerging domain of VR storytelling. It is
graphic virtual environments, which can be inserted into online therefore unclear whether immersion has an impact on the degree
virtual worlds and watched either conventionally on a monitor, or to which users assign meaning to stories (empathy) or to objects
via fully immersive systems such as head-tracked display. VR is encountered in a mediated environment (embodied cognition). To
redefining the rules around narrative structure, character devel- ensure a successful rollout of VR storytelling, it is critical to un-
opment, and storytelling. The goal of VR storytelling is to tell a story derstand how users perceive the value of a VR story, how empathies
that will stimulate emotions that will influence action (Shin, 2017). are formed, how value perceptions influence action, and what users
The VR and storytelling industries, taken together, expect the appreciate about their experiences at an underlying level. To ensure
availability of VR devices to improve user experiences (UXs) that a future rollout of VR is successful, it is important to under-
because higher levels of immersion or presence will enable users to stand how average users encounter VR stories and how they react
experience the feeling of being in another location while watching overall. To address this issue, the present study tests a VR experi-
content and using services (McMahan, Lai, & Pal, 2016). ence model on four different groups, examining how the immer-
Despite high expectations and popularity, it remains unclear sion and empathy tendencies influence and/or are influenced by
whether users genuinely feel presence and flow during immersive presence and flow in the VR story process. By exploring users’
cognitive processes, this study aims to determine what it is actually
like to experience a story in VR, focusing on the following research
questions (RQs):
E-mail address: dshin1030@cau.ac.kr.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.09.012
0747-5632/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D. Shin / Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73 65

RQ1. How does immersion relate to human traits of empathic understand the factors affecting attitudes and intentions. The re-
behavior in VR stories? sults should prove valuable for market researchers engaged in VR
and storytelling, as they face the challenge of developing improved
RQ2. How do the human tendencies of immersion and empathy
immersion and empathy indicators on which to base numerous
perceive presence and flow differently?
user-based interaction and interface design decisions. The key to
RQ3. How do users perceive immersion and how does immersion developing great VR stories is the medium's adoption by con-
influence empathy in VR stories? sumers, something that may be difficult to achieve.
The findings in this study suggest that immersive interfaces do
not necessarily enhance the sense of engagement or satisfaction
(e.g., Hamari et al., 2016; Trentini, 2015). Instead, these findings
1. Literature review
highlight a new role for immersion, as redefined through user re-
sponses. The meaning of immersion depends on user traits and
1.1. Virtual reality storytelling
contexts; the function of immersion is strongly dependent on user
sense-making and intention (Reinhard & Dervin, 2012). While this
VR is a computer-generated experience that can simulate
argument is similar to the one by Weibel, Wissmath, and Mast
physical presence in real or imagined environments (Kerrebrock,
(2010), which confirmed the correlation of user personality and
Brengman, & Willems, 2017). The wide diffusion of VR technolo-
immersion in general VR, this study focuses on the specific user
gies has created a trend: delivering stories through VR. VR has the
traits (empathy) and particular storytelling consumption context.
potential to support incredibly complex narratives, tailored to
In doing so, it examines how engagement converges and diverges,
promote complex viewer interactions. Put simply, users feel they
exploring the qualities that define VR and make it a uniquely
are present in VR; they are dropped right into a scene, as if they
engaging experience.
were part of the story. Immersion and presence are terms used to
Users view and accept VR stories in the way they imagine and
describe an experience in which the line between reality and
want to experience them. Although providers design VR constructs
imagination is blurred. Reactions to stories are much more
and develop stories, ultimately, it is the users who must engage
emotional. People get sick during fast motion videos and horror
with those stories. This argument highlights the active aspects of
stories filmed in 360
. Yet storytelling in VR is much more than just
immersion and its dynamic relationship with user cognition. The
getting out of the way when taking a 360-degree shot. With VR,
importance of immersion mainly comes from user cognition, rather
users have a 360-degree canvas to step into, instead of passively
than being pre-embedded within technological properties or
watching a narrative unfold from outside the frame. This new
existing (separate) entities (e.g., Shin, 2016).
canvas has the potential to make storytelling truly immersivedbut
The results of this study contribute to ongoing research in two
it is no easy feat to design stories for this type of experience.
aspects. First, the VR model advances current immersion research
VR has become a popular means of telling stories and bringing
and the user research by identifying key variables (immersion) and
the world closer to audiences. VR storytelling can be an effective
clarifying their underlying relations. As VR storytelling rapidly de-
tool for sharing experiences. In a virtual environment, viewers who
velops, traditional technology-based frameworks must be modified
are close to characters, and sharing the same space, may feel their
to reflect the heterogeneous and complex nature of user prefer-
emotions or situations more strongly. To absorb oneself in VR can
ences. Although the concept of immersion is widely used to
stimulate empathy. Stimulated empathy with others in VR can
describe VR, it is not clear what immersion isdor how people
make the virtual environment seem more realistic to users. The
actually experience it. In the VR context, a series of questions re-
New York Times, for example, created a VR project on child refugees:
mains unanswered, regarding how users feel about the stories they
The Displaced (Fig. 1). Paired with photographs and text were VR
experience via VR, how immersion influences performances and
video portraits of three refugee children in South Sudan, Ukraine,
values, and how users react to their VR experiences. This study
and Lebanon. Instead of taking audience members from one place
clarifies the cognitive processes of users, i.e., how they perceive
technological properties, how immersion elicits user confirmation,
and how technological cues trigger empathy and embodied expe-
riences. It concludes that user roles are active in adopting,
consuming, and experiencing VR stories. These arguments have
implications for heuristic-based usability and users’ cognition-
evaluations, which enable us to make meaningful claims about
the VR implications of UX frameworks (e.g., Bailey, Bailenson, &
Casasanto, 2016).
Second, this study can provide guidance on interaction and
interface design for VR and related virtual services. The findings
offer practical guidelines that can help VR industries develop sto-
rytelling service evaluation frameworks capable of determining the
adoption potential of new VR-related services. The industry is
working to ensure that content is more enjoyable and engaging
(Aronson-Rath, Milward, Owen, & Pitt, 2015). As VR content clearly
represents a specific market segment (Bachen, Ramos, Raphael, &
Waldron, 2016), a thorough user analysis is essential for
achieving successful implementation and diffusion (Shin, 2016).
The cognitive model derived from this study can be used to develop
such a framework; it can be applied to services that are primarily
functional, as well as to those that are specifically directed at user
motivations and attitudes. The findings of this study should be
useful to firms attempting to increase VR adoption and to Fig. 1. The Displaced virtual reality film (from New York times VR).
66 D. Shin / Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73

to another along a distinct storyline, The Displaced grounded users Table 1

in particular environmentsda moment in each child's life. It was a Sample demographics of survey (N ¼ 200).

powerful experience, triggering user empathy. Characteristics Frequency Percentage Mean S.D.

Age 31.17 3.19

1.2. Theory of empathy Under 19 11
20e30 89
As the case of The Displaced illustrates, empathy appears to be 31e40 78
41e50 22
the most important factor in VR. It is probable that VR can be used
Gender
to make people care about groups such as refugees, the homeless, Female 100 50.0
and those with physical and mental impairments. Empathy and Male 100 50.0
embodied cognition are two concepts that frequently arise in dis- Prior experience 1.7 months 4.21
1e2 months 95
cussions of VR and storytelling (Shin & Biocca, 2017). VR story-
2e4 months 87
telling triggers an embodied experience in an unchangeable 4e6 months 13
narrative that allows queries of the environment without altering Over 6 months 5
any individual's story trajectory. Users of VR are able to embody
Empathy
experiences by viewing, game playing, and feeling perceptual cues
Immersion Group 1: high immersion and Group 3: high immersion and
linked to those experiences (Shin & Biocca, 2017). Embodied ex-
high empathy low empathy
periences create the sensation of personally having the VR expe- Group 2: low immersion and high Group 4: low immersion and low
rience. Users who embody avatars tend to perceive avatar actions as empathy empathy
their own. In addition to embodiment, people can understand and
empathize more when they comprehend another person's subjec-
tive experience and environment. VR content stimulates empathy, The 3D immersive technologies created a sense of being in a
allowing people to understand others. Empathizing can help to different location, and gave viewers the opportunity to emotionally
more strongly combine VR and physical reality, thus producing engage with the story. By experiencing a virtual version of the story
higher credibility (Beadle, Brown, Keady, Tranel, & Paradiso, 2012). location as a witness/participant, and by feeling the perspective of a
VR can convey another person's experience or feelings to a character depicted in the story, users received specialized access to
viewer. In VR environments, viewers may strongly feel another the sights and sounds (and even to the feelings and emotions)
person's emotions or situation by being in the same space, close to associated with the story.
that character. Becoming absorbed by VR can stimulate empathy. A 2  2 between-subject survey was designed for this study; it
Stimulated empathy in VR can increase a user's overall empathy consisted of two levels of immersion (VR-content-based and flat-
and the perception that a virtual environment is realistic. Through screen-TV-based), and two personality traits (high empathy trait
empathy, users can feel a sense of embodiment or embodied and low empathy trait). In the high immersion group, people
cognition based on the stories. Kliteni, Groten, and Slater (2012) watched the story wearing VR headsets, such as the Samsung HMD
argue that VR users create a virtual body inside the immersive and Google Cardboard models used for VR-content-based delivery.
virtual environment as an analog of their own biological bodies. In In the low immersion group, people watched the story on normal
other words, the embodied cognition in VR helps users feel a sense TVs, websites, and apps. Empathy levels were divided into high
of embodiment (Hofer, Husser, & Prabhu, 2017). VR does not merely empathy and low empathy groups. The trait tests were composed of
make users feeldit also changes who they are in the virtual space. five questions about tendencies and attitudes, adopted from the
Fully immersive VR offers a sense of embodiment, in which users empathy score used by Beadle et al. (2012).
see themselves as part of the VR environment. At the same time,
users feel that VR components are parts of their own bodies (Bailey
et al., 2016). 2.2. Scales and measurements

2. Study design Presence was measured using items from the engagement
subscale designed by Shin (2013). Flow was measured using items
2.1. Participants developed by Bachen et al. (2016). Empathy and embodiment were
measured using questions drawn from Shin and Biocca (2017).
Participants were gathered voluntarily from different sections of Engagement was measured using items proposed by Wiebe, Lamb,
various college courses related to VR, games, and new media. The Hardy, and Sharek (2014). The final scales used in this study con-
number of participants was set at 200, so that four different models sisted of fifteen items, with three items per factor. The initial
could be compared by 2  2 groups (Table 1). questionnaire was developed, based on these previous studies
The participants either watched content-based VR news while (Shin & Biocca, 2017).
wearing a head mount display (HMD), or saw the same stories on a A pretest was undertaken to examine test-retest reliability and
flat-screen TV. The news clips were approximately 10 min long; construct reliability before conducting the fieldwork. Twenty col-
they featured a story about contemporary social issues. The news lege students with some knowledge and experience of VR appli-
clips (The Displaced) were selected from contemporary news cations participated in the pretest within a two-week interval. After
coverage. The Displaced is a VR story created by the New York Times. the pretest, a final sample was used for data analysis. Cronbach's
It is an 11-min long narration of the stories of three refugee children alpha test was employed to identify poor item-to-total correlation
forced from their homes by tragic wars. The documentary can be measure items. After eliminating items that failed the test, retest, or
readily watched on a smartphone, tablet, app, or website such as alpha test phases, the remaining items were measured using
YouTube. The documentary was selected for this study as it touched Cronbach's alpha, the scores for which ranged between 0.79 and
on highly empathetic issues and was widely accepted and 0.89, suggesting satisfactory construct reliability (Table 2). The
acclaimed. convergent and discriminant validity of the model was examined
Within the story clips presented via a VR headset, participants using a procedure suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981). A
could control the news coverage sites using 360-degree controllers. confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to examine the
 D. Shin / Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73 67

Table 2 differences between the two. Presence can be immersion into a

Convergent validity and internal consistency reliability. virtual space, whereas flow can be an experience of immersion into
Variables Cronbach's alpha AVE Composite reliability a certain user action. In this study, presence was associated with the
Presence 0.8710 0.642 0.884
technological features of the medium, and flow with user task
Flow 0.7995 0.631 0.854 characteristics.
Empathy 0.8002 0.722 0.923 The concept of presence refers to the extent to which two people
Embodiment 0.8521 0.724 0.912 interacting via a technological medium feel as if they are together
Engagement 0.8922 0.645 0.925
(Nicovich, Boller, & Cornwell, 2005). Since its initial conceptuali-
zation, presence has been defined as a technology user's awareness
of another person in a mediated environment. Since the emergence
convergent validity of each construct; this analysis showed that of VR, the concept has been understood as a feeling of being con-
most items had factor loadings greater than 0.8, which is consid- nected to other social users. Presence can be viewed as a state of
ered very significant by Fornell and Larcker (1981). Other items mind, whereas immersion is an experience over time (Jennett et al.,
ranged between 0.7 and 0.8, a level also considered significant by 2008). Using the results of an experiment, Bracken (2005) has
Fornell and Larcker (1981). Most items had factor loadings with argued that improved image quality leads to viewers experiencing
greater absolute values than those of the original model. To increased presence.
determine validity, a test of correlation among the factors was
conducted to measure the reciprocal relationships between them. A H1. Presence has a positive effect on the embodiment of VR.
simple linear correlation (Pearson's r) was employed to determine H2. Presence has a positive effect on empathy within VR.
the extent to which variable values were proportional to each other. Flow is related to presence; it is a state of profound enjoyment
The generally modest inter-correlations among variables indicated and concentration experienced during activities or performances
no significant multi-collinearity problem. In addition, the square (Teng, 2010). While flow has been extensively used in game studies
root of the average variance extracted (AVE) from the construct was (e.g., Nah, Eschenbrenner, Zeng, Telaprolu, & Sepehr, 2014), it can
much larger than the correlation between the construct and other also be a significant predictor of VR experiences and outcomes
constructs in the model. To assess how well the model represented (Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff, & Smyslova, 2013). According to flow theory,
the data, five goodness-of-fit indices were evaluated: the c2 test people experience flow when an activity's challenges fully engage
statistic, the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), the normed fit index (NFI), their skills, without overwhelming them. VR that promotes flow
the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the has been theorized to increase users' motivation to play and thus to
comparative fit index (CFI). The relative chi-square (c2/df) was increase playing (Bachen et al., 2016). In VR environments,
below the desired value of 5.0. All of the goodness-of-fit indices achieving a flow experience is an important goal (McGloin, Farrar, &
were within acceptance levels. The internal consistency of the three Fishlock, 2015). Previous studies have found that flow has a positive
scales was also strong, as indicated by the coefficient alpha. influence on user engagement (e.g., Hamari et al., 2016; Jin, 2012).
This study posits a cognitive model to investigate the effects of flow
3. The model and hypotheses experiences on engagement.
H3. Flow has a positive effect on user engagement in VR
The VR cognitive model postulates two constructs that (directly
storytelling.
or indirectly) influence empathy and embodiment, which then in-
Presence will positively contribute to flow. The more users feel
fluence user engagement (Fig. 2). In applying this integrated model
immersed in the simulation experience, the more likely they are to
to a technology-mediated environment, flow and presence were
enter a state of flow, as they complete tasks (e.g., Jin, 2012). As users
posited as antecedents to empathy and embodiment, which were
become more involved and absorbed, it follows that they will
considered to be key drivers of VR experience (see Fig. 3).
identify more with the main character, express greater empathy
afterwards for the people in the story, and be more interested in
3.1. Presence and flow understanding the issues those people face (Shin, 2017).

While some researchers consider presence and flow to be H4. Flow is influenced by presence in VR storytelling.
similar (e.g., Bystrom, Barfield, & Hendrix, 1999), there are clear

H1 Embodiment
H5

H4 H3
Presence Flow Engaging

Empathy
H2 H6

Control Variables
-Immersion level
-Empathy level

Fig. 2. Research model.

68 D. Shin / Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73

environment to be queried without altering any individual's story

trajectory (Bailey et al., 2016). Users of VR are able to embody ex-
periences by viewing, playing, and feeling perceptual cues linked to
those experiences (Shin & Biocca, 2017). Embodied experiences
create the sensation of personally having an experience in VR
(Trentini, 2015). Users who embody their avatars tend to perceive
avatar actions as their own (Hofer et al., 2017). In addition to
embodiment, people can understand and empathize when they
comprehend another person's subjective experience and environ-
ment. VR content stimulates empathy between people: it allows
people to understand others. Embodied cognition acknowledges
that the mind and body are agents working together to make
meaning of VR experiences.
VR can convey another person's experience or feelings to a
viewer. In VR environments, viewers strongly feel another person's
emotions or situation by being in the same space, and close to that
character. Becoming absorbed in VR can stimulate empathy. Stim-
ulated empathy in VR can make users perceive a virtual environ-
ment as a more realistic and generally empathic experience.
Through empathy, users can feel a sense of embodiment or
embodied cognition based on the news stories. A VR user creates a
virtual body inside the immersive virtual environment as an analog
of his or her biological body (Kliteni et al., 2012). In other words, the
embodied cognition in VR allows users to feel a sense of embodi-
ment (Shin & Biocca, 2017). VR storytelling does not merely make
users feeldit also changes who they are in the virtual space. Fully
immersive VR can offer users a sense of embodiment, through
which they see themselves as part of the VR environment. At the
same time, users feel that the VR components are parts of their own
bodies (Trentini, 2015). Thus, the following hypotheses are
proposed:
H5. Embodiment has a positive effect on engagement when
experiencing VR storytelling.
H6. Empathy has a positive effect on engagement when experi-
encing VR storytelling.

4. Findings

Table 3 describes the means, standard deviations, and correla-

tions among all key variables in the model. These data show that
the VR story successfully induced high levels of presence and flow.
The means also show that the sample had high initial levels of
empathy and expressed almost equally high levels of empathy for
the displaced people after watching the story, as well as high levels
of embodiment in the story scenes, despite substantial variation
among the four different groups.

4.1. Results from the overall hypothesis testing

The results of the hypothesis tests show that all of the hypoth-
Fig. 3. Group differences in the models (dashed lines indicate non-significance and
eses were supported at relatively high levels of significance. As
solid lines show that the coefficient is significant at a level of 0.05 or higher).
hypothesized, presence positively influenced embodiment and

3.2. Embodiment and empathy

Table 3
Means, standard deviations (SD), and correlations.
Arousing empathy and embodiment has almost always been at
1 2 3 4 5 M SD
the core of storytelling (Kliteni et al., 2012). In VR, storytellers have
found a new tool to give viewers an even closer physical sensation Presence e 4.22 1.15
Flow 0.212 * 4.42 1.25
of another person's lived experience. Empathy and embodied e
Empathy 0.334** e 4.30 1.16
cognition are two concepts that frequently arise in discussions of Embodiment 0.482*** 0.524*** 0.531*** e 4.45 1.13
VR and storytelling (Shin & Ahn, 2013). VR stories trigger an Engagement 0.135 0.315** 0.382** 0.452* e 4.20 1.27
embodied experience in an unchangeable narrative that allows the * ** ***
Note: ¼ p < 0.05; ¼ p < 0.01; ¼ p < 0.001.
 D. Shin / Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73 69

empathy (H1 and H2). The participants’ perceived presence in the flow did significantly influence engagement (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.59,
story was positively correlated with embodiment (r ¼ 0.482, p ¼ 0.000). Embodiment and empathy did moderately influence
p ¼ 0.000; R2 from linear regression ¼ 0.1345) and with empathy engagement (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.28, p ¼ 0.047; Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.29,
(r ¼ 0.334, p ¼ 0.000; R2 from linear regression ¼ 0.2924). Presence p ¼ 0.036). Finally, for Group 4, the effects of presence and flow on
did positively contribute to flow (H4) with a positive correlation empathy and embodiment were insignificant (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.22,
(r ¼ 0.212, p ¼ 0.05). Presence explained 21.11% of the variance in n.s.; Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.19, n.s). The effects of empathy and embodiment
flow. The third hypothesis, that flow would positively influence on engagement were also not significant.
engagement, showed good support (r ¼ 0.315, p ¼ 0.000, 15.36% of In sum, these models showed notable group differences. High
the variance explained). Finally, the study found strong support for immersion groups (Groups 1 and 3) generally showed immersion
H5 and H6, which proposed that embodiment and empathy would effects on flow; in high empathy groups (Groups 2 and 4) empathy
positively contribute to engagement in story. Engagement was and embodiment had a significant effect on engagement. These
significantly related to embodiment (r ¼ 0.452, p ¼ 0.000, 25.32% of results suggest that, while immersion influences presence and flow
variance explained) and to empathy (r ¼ 0.382, p ¼ 0.000, 18.9% of to a certain level, embodiment and empathy are more dependent
variance). on the disposition of particular users.

4.2. Results related to group differences 5. Discussion

Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the impact of Overall, these findings show that the immersive properties of a
all of the variables together in the model. Given the whole sample VR story promote the perception that the story is real and live,
(n ¼ 200), the data were a good fit for the model (X2(3) ¼ 2.41, helping to break down barriers between virtual reality and users.
p ¼ 0.438, RMSEA ¼ 0.0000, SRMR ¼ 0.019), using goodness-of-fit The findings also reveal the users’ cognitive processes in the VR
criteria suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999). Results showed that storytelling context, explaining the dynamic role played by im-
presence had a significant effect on flow (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.26, mersion. The immersive experience in VR, in which viewers feel
p ¼ 0.000). Presence also had a significant effect on empathy and they are part of the action, is not bestowed by HMD (or indeed
embodiment (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.34, p ¼ 0.000). The hypothesized anything related to technological devices), but is reconstructed via
positive influence of empathy and embodiment on engagement user cognition. VR stories are reprocessed using user sense-making
was confirmed (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.29, p ¼ 0.000; Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.45, processes. Users actively create their own VR, based on their un-
p ¼ 0.007). Flow had a significant effect on engagement as well (Std. derstanding of the story, their empathic traits, and the nature of the
Coeff. ¼ 0.37, p ¼ 0.0005). For the sample as a whole, all paths were medium. In other words, VR developers propose immersion but
found to be significant. It is interesting to examine whether the users process it, based on their own preferences and needs.
model accounts equally well for the experiences of users at each
level, and in each empathy category. 5.1. Insights related to the group differences
Overall, the data were a good fit for the model (Group 1 n ¼ 50,
X2(3) ¼ 2.96, p ¼ 0.175, SRMR ¼ 0.041; Group 2 n ¼ 50, The group differences that emerged through significant paths in
X2(3) ¼ 1.641, p ¼ 0.521, SRMR ¼ 0.014; Group 3 n ¼ 50, the model relate to the users' cognitive processes in response to
X2(3) ¼ 1.344, p ¼ 0.430, SRMR ¼ 0.013; Group 4 n ¼ 50, engagement. High immersive devices may have affected the users'
X2(3) ¼ 1.232, p ¼ 0.620, SRMR ¼ 0.020). Four major differences perceived presence and made them feel flow, but the users' own
that emerge from a comparison of these analyses are worth noting traits ultimately determined whether they felt empathy or
(see Fig. 4a and b). First, in Groups 1 and 2, presence was a signif- embodiment. Likewise, the users' own decisions and intentions
icant predictor of both empathy and embodiment, but only for determined whether such empathy and embodiment influenced
Group 1 did it significantly influence engagement (Std. engagement. Of course, high levels of immersion may have
Coeff. ¼ 0.18, p ¼ 0.027). In Group 2, empathy and embodiment did contributed to certain levels of embodiment and empathy (as
not significantly influence engagement. Second, for Group 1, flow shown in Groups 1 and 3, where the coefficients were larger than
was significantly influenced by presence (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.59, for Groups 2 and 4); however, the users’ own traits (empathy levels)
p ¼ 0.000); this was not the case for Group 2 (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.15, n.s.). determined their levels of empathy and embodiment and aroused
Third, for Group 3, presence did not influence empathy and engagement.
embodiment (Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.15, n.s.; Std. Coeff. ¼ 0.21, n.s.), whereas Overall, the model shows that all of the paths were significant in

Fig. 4. A two-tiered process of immersion.

70 D. Shin / Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73

Group 1. As in the overall model, all of the paths of Group 1 were experience). Flow may link the two processes; the consequence of
supported. This finding suggests that, by and large, people view the two-tiered process is engagement.
high immersion as influencing empathy, which then triggers user The first reaction of most viewers to VR storytelling is a sense of
engagement. However, Groups 2 and 3 reveal an important presence: “it feels like being there.” This emotional reaction to VR
cognitive mechanism: the intrinsic empathy of users plays a key triggers responses that go deeper than the initial reaction, which
role in triggering embodiment, which then determines engage- mainly involves superficial presence. The subsequent reaction in-
ment. In other words, the immersion level is less critical in the volves human emotional states: developing feelings such as
mechanism than are users' own idiosyncratic traits. The results of empathy, compassion, and embodiment. Within the users' sense-
Groups 2 and 3 show an interesting contrast between the first making, two processes of different natures can be identified: the
process (from presence to flow, empathy, and embodiment) and the immersion quality is established explicitly and implicitly by users,
subsequent second process (from empathy, flow, and embodiment and then empathy starts to kick in. A user's experience of process is
to engagement). Group 2 was influenced by the first process, while simply the application of an intrinsic value to an external reality, as
Group 3 was influenced by the second process. This implies a two- it has been reconstructed on the basis of cognition. Accordingly, the
tier process of immersion. When users receive external stimuli, process is composed of cognitive and volitional acts that rely on
those stimuli are transmitted to the user cognition where they are each other. It is the user's cognition of reality that starts off the
interpreted and processed. The stimuli are reprocessed by the process. His or her level of empathy will determine the nature of
users’ own internal cognitive processes, which are based on pre- the procedure, as well as the sense-making that results from it.
vious experience, intrinsic traits, and context. This inference is also It can therefore be said that flow plays a certain role in the two-
consonant with the result of Group 4, where no significant paths tiered process mediating presence and empathy. It is worth
were found. In a less immersive environment, users with little examining a potential underlying mechanism that might account
empathy do not feel a strong sense of empathy or embodiment and for the effect of flow on empathy and embodiment. In this study,
thus there is weak engagement. flow was tested as a potential mediator of this effect.
In VR, it might be said that technical quality does not directly
influence performance, value, or experiences. In VR, immersion 5.3. The mediating role of flow
plays assist in eliciting the cognitive process which motivates
human-media interaction, thus facilitating user experiencing pro- The effect of presence had a marginal influence on flow (H4) in
cesses. Note that the paths from empathy and embodiment to the overall model. As immersion and presence are the key factors in
engagement (H5 and H6) are much higher than the path from VR, these effects were expected to have the greatest influence. The
presence to empathy and embodiment (H1 and H2). Previous marginal role played by these factors highlights the hidden role of
research in the user study literature shows a direct or immediate user process. This finding somewhat contradicts previous findings,
relationship between immersion, flow, and presence and perfor- which have shown that flow is influenced by the high technology-
mance value (e.g., Jin, 2012). The results of this study indicate that mediated environment (e.g., Bystrom et al., 1999). It may be infer-
such processes may be complicated or even multi-tiered, being red that, in a VR context, flow works independently from techno-
modified by the users’ own cognitive assessments. In other words, logical quality, being influenced by the users’ own will, mood, and
immersion and presence (as technological properties) are one disposition. Perhaps it can also be inferred that technology is now
aspect; how users feel about or interpret such properties is a so well-developed that technological differences are commodi-
different aspect. How such technological properties are used for tized, and users consider all technologies similar.
eliciting empathy and embodiment is primarily dependent on user This study used Baron and Kenny's (1986) procedure to test
preferences and cognition. Whether users are attracted to the VR mediating effects. First, the single order relationships among the
story and willing to engage with the virtually recreated environ- variables were confirmed through statistically significant Pearson
ment, and the extent to which they experience presence and flow, correlations in the expected direction. As predicted, presence and
all depend on their intrinsic cognitive motivations for engaging in empathy were correlated (r ¼ 0.51), presence and flow were
and empathizing with meaningful cognitive activities. Presence is correlated (r ¼ 0.54), and flow and empathy were correlated
not an external factor bestowed upon users; rather, it is a fluid state (r ¼ 0.57). Next, three regression analyses were performed,
that is reprocessed and redefined by users. following the method recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986).
When presence is triggered by the level of immersion, it in- The first equation regressed flow on presence (F(1,97). 44.80,
fluences flow. Users cognitively asses such presence and flow. If p < 0.001). Presence explained 31% of the variance in flow. The
they believe them to be worthwhile, they internalize those qualities second equation regressed empathy on presence (F(1,97). 40.93,
by putting themselves into the VR stories. The mechanism works p < 0.001). Presence explained 29% of the variance in empathy. The
only when technical qualities are appropriately translated into their third equation regressed empathy on both presence and flow. This
associated cognitive qualities. Accepting immersion is a sense- final equation satisfies the two requirements for a mediator effect:
making process by which people confer some meaning upon 3D a) the hypothesized mediator, flow, was a significant predictor
objects and related experiences. VR users play a significant role in (t.4.58, p < 0.001) and explained 20% of the variance in empathy; b)
adapting and responding to VR stories using empathy and the variance in empathy explained by presence was reduced from
embodiment. 31% in the second equation to 10% in the third equation. Thus, the
reduced direct association between presence and empathy, when
5.2. The two-tiered process of VR experience flow was included in the model, supported the hypothesis that flow
was at least one of the mediators in the relationship between
Based on the previous discussion, it can be inferred that VR presence and empathy. Thus, flow was proven to be a mediator
experience follows a two-tiered process of immersion and between presence and empathy.
empathy, although the two components are built upon one another Similarly, flow was found to be a mediator in the effect of
and can be clearly demarcated (Fig. 4). The two-tiered process of presence on embodiment. The R values for flow were lower than
immersion comprises presence and flow, which are experienced by those for empathy, suggesting that the mediating effect of flow on
users in the first place (user experience) and then empathy and embodiment is weaker than the effect of empathy. This result may
embodiment, which are selectively experienced by users (quality of be partly explained by limited role played by embodied cognition in
 D. Shin / Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73 71

this experiment. The 360-degree function in the experiment was consistent with those of previous studies (e.g., Burns & Fairclough,
weak and the time of experiment was too short for participants to 2015; Hou, Nam, Peng, & Lee, 2012). Users become immersed
feel embodied cognition. because they desire to do so and have specific expectations about
The significant mediating role played by flow implies that VR what the outcome should be. Users discover the most meaning
users want to confirm performance before making the decision to where a storyline is relevant to themselves. People who are inclined
adopt. It has generally been supposed that a strong presence leads toward immersion and innovativeness enjoy seeing news stories
to stronger empathy (Bracken, 2005). In the VR storytelling context, through VR; people who are aware of the news stories are more
however, high presence does not lead to empathy; rather it is likely to experience empathy and embodiment than those who are
mediated by flow. Flow mediates the connection between presence not. In our post-experiment interviews with participants (a post-
and empathy. The experience of being immersed in a VR story hoc analysis, carried out after the experiments), many of them
fosters a mental state of operation in which the user is highly talked about the importance of being aware of the story. In other
involved in viewing. words, people who understood the issues in the story, and could
relate to them, found it much easier to empathize and embody the
5.4. The interaction dynamics of empathy, embodiment, and content than those who did not. This post-experiment interview
engagement finding highlights the contextual factors that interact with
immersion.
Based on the users' cognitive processes, it can be further infer- In existing research, immersion has been considered a powerful
red that there is a more active role for users in VR. Many previous determining factor that triggers users' perception of presence and
immersion approaches have treated users as data subjects, passive influences satisfaction. Given the user's active role, an engaging
consumers of content and services, providing their data to research experience is more about process than outcome. The immersive
(e.g., Gutierrez et al., 2007). With the rise of VR technologies and experience can be viewed as an interactive and ongoing procedural
services, the user's role has changed from passive consumer of aspect, rather than a static or consequential factor. Immersion can
technologically provided immersion to active creator of immersion. be a fluid and reflective concept, rather than a fixed and isolated
The VR user creates, adapts, and modifies immersion, depending on factor. The users' values and attitudes are represented in VR
his or her day-to-day activities and context. viewing processes. The majority of studies on perceived engage-
The role of the user is important in processing immersion, ment have focused on discrete factors (content, services, systems,
forming presence, and influencing user engagement. Previous etc.), neglecting the way in which those factors are processed (e.g.,
theories have assumed that users are passive agents who receive how users perceive, accept, experience, and interact) or related
immersive hallucinations (e.g., Bracken, 2005; Gutierrez et al., (e.g., how a particular instance of immersion is related to specific
2007; Huang & Liao, 2015). For example, the widely used immer- content). Procedural and contextual views of immersion highlight
sion measurements (e.g., time elapsed unnoticed; being unaware of the dynamic nature of users' quality of experience.
incidents or people nearby; heart rate quickening during scary or The findings in this study reveal the dynamic way in which user
exciting moments) treat users as passive recipients of technology or cognition is initiated and how it influences immersion. Immersion
content. Subjects in human experiments are inherently influenced and users interact and co-evolve: immersion influences users,
by technological immersion. As this study and numerous others while being shaped by users. This interaction is neither one-time
have indicated, users apply much conscious effort and intentional nor temporary; it constantly evolves and interacts with users. The
work toward immersion, in particular with VR content. They immersive tendency of users seeks immersive endeavors and
voluntarily initiate their intrinsic cognitive processes to engage in immersive environments, which reinforce users in their attitudes
and enjoy effortful cognitive activities within VR, not because of the and future intentions. This phenomenon can be called a virtuous
external influence of immersion, but because they decide it is cycle of immersion, and should be the object of future studies.
worthwhile to do. For this reason, the notion of immersion should
be shifted: whereas previous research has seen immersion as a 6. Implications
strong stimulus igniting illusion, hallucination, or delusion (e.g.,
Bracken, 2005), future research should see immersion as a cogni- This study has offered an integrated model showing how
tive dimension alongside consciousness, awareness, understand- different levels of immersion and user empathy in VR storytelling
ing, empathizing, embodying, and contextualizing, which helps contribute to a user's cognitive process. The experience of presence
users understand the content and stories delivered. The concept of and flow emerged as a strong predictor of empathy and
immersion not only takes into account the technological aspects of embodiment.
VR but also the emotional, motivational, and cognitive processes
involved in focusing engagement. Rather than being a static entity 6.1. Theoretical implications
separate from users, immersion is a dynamic fluid that flexibly
exists between technology and user cognition. Following this line of This study provides new insights into the dynamic effects of
discussion, immersion should be sought, not from technology, but immersion on VR users' attitudes and motivation. While virtual
within users’ in-situ contexts: their cognition, interaction, and worlds are well known as a context in which users can experience
behavior. immersion, presence, and flow, the way in which these experiences
Users are actually highly participative and intentional. VR con- are processed by users remains unexplored. Previous studies have
tent users are able to interact with their surroundings within the consistently shown the importance of immersion in the adoption of
story in meaningful and purposive ways. High participation allows VR technologies (e.g., Teng, 2010); this study clarifies the immer-
users to have fuller experiences of VR environments that can only sion factor by highlighting how it functions in a VR storytelling
suggest the full intensity of real-life experiences. This argument is context. This study has confirmed that VR viewing and interaction
consistent with the finding that immersion is, to a large extent, are positively associated with engaging qualities. In turn, those
dependent upon personal traits (Weibel et al., 2010). More perceptions are positively associated with the viewer experiences
absorptive and willing-to-be-immersed personalities are able to of empathy and embodiment, as well as with engagement. It has
become more immersed in VR content by triggering presence and revealed the links between an experience, technology, and users’
cueing flow into the empathic process. These findings are largely interaction with the mediated world. It has also explored the two-
72 D. Shin / Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018) 64e73

tiered process of immersion that includes user experience (pres- performance and quality of particular news services. Understand-
ence and flow) and quality of experience (empathy and ing user cognitive process mechanisms may thus be a valuable
embodiment). strategic goal for the industries developing future storytelling.
Although the issues of immersion and presence have emerged To increase the immersive experience of VR stories, engaging
as key factors in VR storytelling development, to date, there has content should be developed. Immersion alone is not sufficient to
been little research on this issue, especially in relation to actual UX. generate the desired feeling. To fully realize such features, they
New factors, such as immersion, should be closely examined based must be accompanied by high quality content and enjoyable ser-
on UX and interaction. Immersion should be conceptualized, vices. User engagement in VR can be significantly increased and
measured, and examined during users’ interactions with technol- combined with more emotional involvement, depending on the
ogy, instead of relying on technical features. This finding suggests quality of the picture. These findings indicate that VR should pro-
that immersion is not viewed as real; an experience in a virtual vide both quality content and relevant, socially meaningful stories
world is different from one in a real environment. VR, across to users. VR users are more likely to experience emotions in
different platforms, challenges the concept of reality and enables us response to relevant and engaging news stories. When providing
to rediscover and explore reality. content in VR, it may be important for the content industry
So far, there has been a tendency to view presence and im- (broadcasters, brands, and filmmakers) to choose the right stories
mersion as technology-dependent factors. Likewise, users have and ensure that they are produced using high image quality and
been considered mere objects of such technology-dependent fac- appropriate storytelling methods. Storytelling techniques will
tors (e.g., Nicovich et al., 2005). Immersion has been studied as a remain useful in VR, as numerous studies have confirmed the
direct factor triggering illusion, hallucination, and delusion. As this importance of narratives in VR. These results imply that VR stories
study has found, immersion can be a part of a cognitive dimension have sense-making benefits that surpass those of traditional sto-
that includes consciousness, awareness, empathizing, embodying, rytelling. VR-induced negative effects should therefore be mini-
and contextualizingdhelping users assimilate into VR. In this light, mized and managed. More thorough research and development are
immersion can be seen as a dynamic fluid that flexibly exists be- necessary, particularly into the possible connections between
tween technology and users. Immersion exists in a dormant state presence and flow, and between flow and empathy. Exploring the
and becomes concrete when users experience it. Thus, instead of influence of content variables on presence will help to design
seeking immersion from technology, it should be sought within narrative virtual environments and to understand the use of virtual
users’ in-situ contexts: their cognition, interaction, and experience. humans in storytelling interfaces.
Immersion is a user-dependent factor defined by and for users. Finally, the two-tiered process of immersion can be particularly
Overall, the finding constitutes a theoretical improvement on useful for the VR industry. In designing VR stories, presence and
UX and the user acceptance literature. The model identifies ante- flow can be tailored to reflect user traits. For example, additional
cedents of user engagement in VR and represents an improvement narratives can be provided for people who are less empathic. More
over traditional UX studies, since it integrates cognitive and affec- sophisticated presence can be provided for highly empathic people.
tive attitudes as the primary aspects of influence. These attitudes Empathy and embodiment can be aligned with the intended level
are driven by underlying beliefs, including presence, flow, and of presence and flow. In this way, technological features and
perceived quality. Assessing these beliefs improves forecasting for cognitive processes can be harmonized. The industry may set
VR content acceptance and the diffusion of VR storytelling in the different marketing targets via VR storytelling: one for user expe-
long run. rience focusing on immersion and presence and the other for
quality of experience focusing on empathy and embodiment.
6.2. Practical implications Marketing firms may also need to come up with additional mar-
keting tools to arouse empathy and embodied cognition.
The practical implications of VR storytelling include the poten-
tial for new service strategies and design guidelines. Understanding
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10.1111/jcom.12148. fessor of Ministry of Education in Korea. Prior to Chung-Ang University, he was a
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virtual reality communications. In Virtual, augmented, and mixed reality, lecture versity. As a Director of Interaction Science Research Center, he also served as a Prin-
notes in computer science (Vol. 9740, pp. 59e70). cipal Investigator of BK21 Plus, a national research project hosted by the Ministry of
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