Advanced Open Water Diving

NASE Snorkeling Manual
nin
NASE Advanced Open

Water Diver Manual
Published by:
NASE Worldwide
808 Moody Lane
Flagler Beach, FL 32136
www.ScubaNASE.com
Concept and Development:

Patrick Abercrombie, NASE Regional Training Manager
Editor:
Harry Averill, NASE Training Director
Reviewed by:
Scott Evans, NASE Executive Director
Version 121215
Copyright Notice
This work is Copyright (©) 2012 by the National Academy of Scuba Educators and its principal author. All
rights reserved under USA and international copyright law.
If you are an NASE Instructor in Active status, you may provide this document in electronic form to stu-
dents enrolled in the NASE Advanced Open Water Diver course, so long as you make them aware of this
copyright notice. Otherwise you may not:
• Post this document on any website, bulletin board or other Internet-connected portal.
• Transfer this document to any non-authorized individual via email, CD-ROM, DVD, flash drive or other
electronic media.
• Transfer this document to another individual in printed form.
You may, however, make archival copies of this document for personal use, or store it on any personal com-
puter or mobile device you own so long as, in so doing, it is solely for your own personal use.
NASE Advanced Open Water Diver Manual niin
Contents
NASE Advanced Open
Water Diver Manual.......................................................................................i
Introduction............................................................................ 1
What Does This Course Entail?................................................................ 3
Skills Review and Assessment............................................10
Competency and Core Skills Defined................................................. 12
Mask Clearing...............................................................................................21
Regulator Recovery and Clearing.........................................................32
Gas Sharing................................................................................................... 41
Alternate Air Source Configurations....................................................51
Buoyancy Control.......................................................................................63
Advanced Dive Planning.....................................................75
The NASE Dive Planning Checklist.......................................................76
Advanced Gas Management.................................................................94
Team Diving: Dive Planning in Action..............................................102
Underwater Navigation.................................................... 115
Natural Navigation................................................................................... 117
Compass Navigation...............................................................................127
Using an Underwater Compass..........................................................134
Measuring Distance.................................................................................148
Navigating Around an Obstacle.........................................................154
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NASE Advanced Open Water Diver Manual niiin
Deeper Diving.....................................................................157
Deeper Diving: What and Why?..........................................................158
Deep Diving Risks and Hazards..........................................................162
Equipment for Deeper Diving ............................................................173
Planning and Making Deep Dives......................................................180
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NASE Advanced Open Water Diver Manual n1n
Introduction
Welcome to the NASE Advanced Open Water Diver course — an
Advanced course unlike any other. In this program, we’ll cover a
number of topics, including:
n Core Skills Review and Assessment

n Advanced Dive Planning
n Underwater Navigation
n Deeper Diving
Throughout this course, you’ll see us use the terms Advanced

Open Water course and Advanced course interchangeably. It’s im-
portant to keep in mind, however, that while this course can in-
crease your overall level of training and experience, it won’t nec-
essarily make you an “advanced” diver. That comes from gaining
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significantly more experience, and from building on your base of

knowledge and skills whenever possible. This course provides a
good foundation and a great starting point, though.
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What Does This Course Entail?

The NASE Advanced Open Water Diver course involves two steps:
knowledge development and in-water training.
n Knowledge development takes place through self study, using

the NASE Advanced Open Water eLearning course. To com-
plete this course, students must demonstrate mastery of more
than 60 different learning objectives, covering the topics out-
lined previously.
n Skill development takes place through a series of instructor-su-

pervised open-water training dives involving natural naviga-
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tion, compass navigation and deeper diving. If time allows, the

instructor may include one or more additional dives designed
to provide an introduction to popular specialty diving activi-
ties, such as night diving and underwater imaging.
As with most NASE courses, there is no set number of required

dives. What we require instead is that Advanced students log at
least 150 minutes of Actual Bottom Time (ABT), under instructor
supervision, while meeting the skill performance objectives for
the Advanced course.
Prior to these dives, your instructor will most likely con-

duct a review and assessment of core diving skills, such
as regulator recovering and clearing, mask clearing and
no-mask breathing, and sharing air while stationary, trav-
eling and ascending. Depending on circumstances, this
may take place in confined water, such as a swimming
pool, or on a shallow open-water dive, under controlled
conditions.
Why is this?
n NASE standards require instructors to ensure that all students

entering the Advanced Open Water Diver course possess the
same level of ability as newly certified NASE Open Water Div-
ers. Okay, does this mean we think NASE divers are better than
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divers of other agencies? Let’s just say that, while we require

that our beginning divers be able to perform largely the same
skills as divers of other organizations, we do ask more of them.
Specifically, we require that our entry-level divers be able to per-

form all entry-level skills while maintaining neutral buoyancy. We
also require that students log at least 100 minutes under instruc-
tor supervision before being certified as NASE Open Water Divers.
n Many students take the Advanced course as a means to get

back into diving after a period of inactivity. For them, the skills
review and assessment is essential.
While diver training has progressed over the past 60 years in ar-
eas such as eLearning and the use of dive computers, for most
organizations, the way core skills are taught has not changed
substantially since the 1950s. You’d think, after all this time, that
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someone would come up with a better way to do things. Well,

we think we have.
Thus, the NASE Advanced Open Water Diver course provides
us with a means to introduce students from other training orga-
nizations to our way of doing things. Okay, you might be thinking,
Who are these guys to think they can do it better than anyone else?
Well, we’ll let you in on a little secret: We actually dive. Not only
are we based in north Florida, where we can dive year-round in a
variety of environments, we’re also the only diver training orga-
nization that not only has its own training pool, but its own com-
mercial diver training school and deep-water training site.
We discuss the core skills review and assessment in greater de-
tail in the next section.
It’s Not the Advanced Diver Course, It’s the

Advanced Open Water Diver Course
We said at the beginning that this course would not necessarily
make you an Advanced diver (even it provides an excellent start-
ing point). Becoming a “real” advanced diver involves gaining ad-
ditional experience and working to expand your base of knowl-
edge and skills.
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So why do we call it the Advanced course if it does not make you

an advanced diver? Perhaps we can best explain it this way:
What you are about to take is not an “advanced” div-

er course; it’s an Advanced Open Water Diver course (as
opposed to a Basic Open Water Diver course). Both are
components of a two-part entry-level program. In other
words, we have a basic entry-level program and an ad-
vanced entry-level program.
In an ideal world, no training agency would issue a permanent

certification card until divers had completed both parts of their
entry-level training. Unfortunately, that’s not how the system
evolved. We can better explain this by reviewing the limits of
entry level diver training.
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n The recommended depth limit for recreational diving is 30

m/100 ft; however, the Open Water Diver course (of any train-
ing agency) is only designed to prepare students to plan dives
to 20 m/65 ft.
n If newly certified Open Water divers plan to make a dive under

anything other than direct instructor or divemaster supervi-
sion, we encourage them to stay within conditions no more
adverse than those in which they were trained.
In contrast, the Advanced Open Water Diver course helps pre-

pare divers to go beyond those limits.
n Advanced Open Water Divers are trained to plan and make

dives with similarly qualified buddies to the maximum recom-
mended depth of 30 m/100 ft.
n Because Advanced Open Water students will be exposed to

a greater assortment of dive sites and conditions than those
they encountered during entry-level training, the range of
conditions in which they can dive comfortably and safely will
expend as well.
Still, there are limits to what the Advanced course prepares divers
to do.
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n While we encourage Open Water course graduates to make

their initial dives under instructor or divemaster supervision,
we encourage Advanced Open Water Divers to limit their dives
to dive boats and popular dive sites where there are other,
more experience divers on hand who can help in case of an
emergency.
n Before you and your buddies plan and make dives at more re-
mote sites, where there may not be other divers around, you
would be wise to take the NASE Rescue Diver course. This
way you’ll be less likely to need others’ assistance if a situation
arises.
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Skills Review and Assessment

The first part of the NASE Advanced Open Water Diver course is
a review and assessment of core skills from the basic Open Water
course. Before you can take part in Advanced course navigation
and deep dives, you need to demonstrate that you have at least
the same level of competency as a newly certified NASE Open
Water Diver.
If you are not yet familiar with NASE diver training, this
may not sound as though we are asking a lot. However,
once you discover what it is we expect of entry-level div-
ers, you will realize this is actually quite an achievement.
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This section is divided into six parts:
n Competency and Core Skills Defined

n Mask Clearing
n Regulator Recovery and Clearing
n Gas Sharing
n Alternate Air Source Configurations
n Buoyancy Control
The purpose of this section is two-fold:
n To let you know what to expect (and what will be expected of

you).
n To provide you with tips and suggestions that will help you
perform your best.
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Competency and Core Skills Defined

Study Questions
As you go through this material, look for the answers to the
following:
n How does NASE define skill competency?
n In what skills should students entering the NASE Advanced

Open Water Diver course be able to demonstrate
competency?
n Why does NASE start the Advanced course with a review and
assessment of core skills?
To get started, we need to begin with some definitions. In this

section, you learn:
n How NASE Defines Competency

n NASE Core Skills Defined
n Why the Emphasis on Core Skills at This Level?
How NASE Defines Competency

In simplest terms, NASE simply asks more of students than most
other training organizations. Blame our background in commer-
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cial, technical and — especially — cave diving. We’re obsessed

with excellence, particularly when it comes to buoyancy control.
We can tell you this, though: If you show up at a dive resort or

charter operator who is familiar with what NASE asks of its divers,
your abilities will never be questioned.
NASE training standards require that students be able to
demonstrate competency in a variety of skills and abilities at var-
ious levels of training. But what do we mean by competency? As
NASE defines it, competency is the ability to perform a given skill:
n On command.
n Repeatedly.
n Without significant error.
n Without undue stress.
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What this means is that, should your instructor signal you to per-
form a particular skill, you are able to do it immediately, without
having to psych yourself up or prepare yourself mentally or emo-
tionally. And, should your instructor ask you to perform that skill
again, you can do so without having to prepare mentally or emo-
tionally as well.
It also means that, while your performance does not necessarily

have to be letter perfect, you can’t make any major mistakes. Just
how perfect depends on the level of training.
n It would be unrealistic to expect a beginning student to recov-

er and clear a regulator as quickly or as smoothly as we would,
say, an instructor candidate.
n Still, students need to meet the stated performance objective.

If that objective is to completely clear a mask of water, the stu-
dent has to be able to get all the water out of the mask.
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n Additionally, regardless of training level, the student can’t just

fumble his or her way through the exercise. A few stumbles
might be okay; however, it can’t take five minutes to complete
a simple task, nor can it appear as though the student arrives
at the result by accident.
The other condition for competency is without undue stress. In

other words, a little stress is okay. It can’t appear, however, that
you are about to have heart failure at any moment.
The NASE Advanced Open Water Diver course has a number of

performance objectives in which students must demonstrate
competency. Before this can happen, however, students must
first be able to demonstrate that they have developed and main-
tained competency in certain core skills.
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Core Skills Defined

Divers in NASE entry-level courses must be able to demonstrate
competency in a variety of skills. Chief among these are:
n Mask removal, replacement and clearing, and no-mask

breathing.
n Regulator recovery and clearing using both reach and sweep

methods.
n Alternate air source use while stationary, ascending and

traveling.
n All aspects of buoyancy control.
Prior to taking part in any Advanced Open Water Diver course

navigation, deep or specialty dives, students must first demon-
strate competency in these four areas. This can take place in a va-
riety of ways. Here are some examples:
n If your Advanced Open Water instructor is the same one who

certified you the weekend before, then he or she has presum-
ably already seen you perform these core skills at an accept-
able level within the preceding 30 days. No further assessment
is necessary.
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n Similarly, if you recently completed training with another in-

structor in the same dive operation as your Advanced instruc-
tor, he or she may simply elect to take your entry-level instruc-
tor’s word as to your abilities.
n On the other hand, if it has been more than 30 days since your
instructor — or another instructor whom he or she knows and
trusts — has assessed your abilities, your Advanced instructor
may insist on some sort of in-water review of core skills. The
same may be true if you are a recent entry-level course grad-
uate, but your NASE Advanced Open Water instructor knows
little about the people who originally certified you.
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If your instructor deems it necessary to get in the water for a

core skills review, there are several ways this can take place. For
example:
n Your instructor may conduct a core-skills review and practice

session in a pool or other body of confined water.
n The instructor may designate the first open-water training

dive in your Advanced course as a core skills review and prac-
tice dive. In this case, the dive is likely to take place in shallow
water under very controlled conditions.
n If the instructor deems it necessary to conduct further review

and practice of core skills, he or she may schedule a make-up
core skills session, or may integrate this with other open-water
training dives.
Why the Emphasis on Core Skills at This Level?

You may wonder why the emphasis on core skills at this level
of training. In other words, why beginning skills in an advanced
course? It is actually for several reasons.
n To start, as we mentioned early on, it’s not an Advanced Diver

course; it’s an Advanced Open Water Diver course (as opposed
to a Basic Open Water Diver course). Both are components of a
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two-part entry-level program. In other words, we have a basic

entry-level program and an advanced entry-level program.
n Many divers enroll in the Advanced Open Water course as a

means to become active after a period of inactivity. In this
case, the skills review is not only wise, but essential.
n Finally, NASE teaches a number of things in its entry-level pro-

grams that others do not. Many students who enroll in the
NASE Advanced Open Water course completed their entry-lev-
el training with another organization. The skills review is a way
for them to gain these additional abilities.
Most training agencies ostensibly require their instructors to con-

duct a basic skills review with unfamiliar students before partic-
ipating in any continuing education course. In practice, this sel-
dom happens.
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NASE is the only training agency we’re aware of that covers

this skills review and assessment in its Advanced course materials.
This helps ensure that this important part of Advanced Open Wa-
ter training does not get left out.
The remainder of this section will focus on things we cover in
the NASE Open Water Diver course that others generally do not.
If you did your initial training with another organization, you may
find this quite eye opening.
Key Points to Remember

n NASE defines competency as the ability to perform a given skill
on command, repeatedly, without significant error and with-
out undue stress.
n Students in the NASE Advanced Open Water Diver course

must demonstrate competency in mask clearing, no-mask
breathing, regulator recovery and clearing, gas sharing and
buoyancy control. These are skills you should have mastered
during entry-level training.
n NASE starts the Advanced course with a review and assess-

ment of core skills to ensure that every student enters the
course with the same level of ability and is not lacking in any
area that could affect safety.
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Mask Clearing
Study Questions
following:
n What is the primary reason some divers have difficulty with

mask clearing and no-mask breathing?
n What is the best way to deal with difficulty clearing masks

and no-mask breathing?
n What can you do if you managed to get certified without

becoming truly comfortable with mask clearing and no-
mask breathing?
No matter how much money you spent on your mask, no matter

how well it fits, it’s naive to think it will never flood (or at least get
some water inside).
n Any mask can be knocked loose by a buddy’s errant fin stroke

or by turning suddenly and hitting your mask against a bulk-
head or other piece of wreckage.
n Mask straps can always break or become unbuckled.
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n In a worst-case scenario, you can always completely lose your

mask under water.
Whatever the cause, these things happen. Every diver not only
needs to be able to clear a mask, but to breathe without one
long enough to make a slow ascent to the surface. As a NASE div-
er, you need to be able to do the following:
n Completely flood, then remove your mask.
n While continuing to breathe without a mask, swim a distance

of no less than 10 m/35 ft (conditions permitting).
n At the end of the swim, replace and completely clear your

mask of water.
The good news is, roughly three quarters of the people reading
this can do this skill without difficulty. The other 25 percent may
be thinking that they just signed up for the wrong course.
In that ideal world we always make reference to, no diver would

ever get certified unless he or she could comfortably and repeat-
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edly remove, replace and clear a mask of water. Unfortunately, far

too many divers manage to get certified without ever truly mas-
tering this skill.
Your instructor may have thought he or she was doing

you a favor by letting you slide on this one. In fact, that
instructor was doing you the worst disservice imaginable.
The good news is, there is a reason why one in four new students
has difficulty with mask clearing. Once you understand why, you
can take steps to correct the problem.
If you are among the fortunate 75 percent, this section may be
largely academic. Bear with us; you may learn something that will
enable you to help the unfortunate 25 percent who still struggle
with this skill.
Here is what we will look at in this section:
n Why Johnny Can’t Clear

n Preventing the Problem
n Solving the Problem After the Fact
Why Johnny Can’t Clear

To better understand why some divers have difficulty with mask
clearing, you first need to understand why most divers do not. It
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has to do with the ability to separate nose breathing from mouth

breathing.
n When your mask floods, the last thing you want to do is inhale
through your nose because, if you do, you will inhale water.
n Yet, at the same time you are not inhaling through your nose,
you have to be able to inhale through your mouth to get the
air from your regulator you’ll need to clear the mask.
n When it comes time to exhale, you need to be able to do so

through your nose, so that the air goes into your mask and not
out your regulator exhaust tee.
Most divers can do this without thinking. A small percentage,

though, either lack the innate ability to separate nose and mouth
breathing, or never learned to do so in childhood. Here is what
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happens to these people when they try to follow the advice tra-
ditionally given for mask clearing:
n Some of these people will simply panic the minute their

mask fills with water, as they immediately start inhaling water
through their noses. In a few cases, this marks an immediate
end to their diver training.
n Those who don’t succumb to immediate panic will attempt to

follow the instructions to “look up and exhale through your
nose.” What happens when they do, however, is that most of
their exhalation goes out through their mouths and does little
to expel water from their masks.
n Now, when these divers go to inhale, their lungs attempt to

draw air in simultaneously through their noses and mouths. As
they are already looking up, this inevitably causes water to go
right up their noses.
The result? Instant panic and very little progress in learning to ac-
tually clear a mask.
Preventing the Problem

NASE Instructors are taught to help students prevent mask clear-
ing problems before their beginning course even starts by show-
ing them how to identify whether or not they can easily sepa-
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rate nose and mouth breathing. If students discover they cannot,

there are exercises the instructor can give them to help overcome
this problem before in-water training begins.
Additionally, we tell instructors to first have students become

comfortable with breathing with their face in the water without
the added stress of having to clear a mask. Once students are
comfortable with no-mask breathing, mask clearing is compara-
tively easy.
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Now all of this is great if you are just learning to dive. What do
you do, however, if you are already certified but aren’t comfort-
able with mask clearing? The good news is, there are tricks you
can use to help deal with this problem.
Solving the Problem After the Fact

Let’s say you are a certified diver whom, for whatever reason, still
isn’t comfortable with mask clearing. You know you may have to
do a 10 m/35 ft no-mask swim before you can take part in other
Advanced course activities. More importantly, however, is the fact
that you cannot safely participate in diving without being comfort-
able with mask clearing and no-mask breathing. What do you do?
Relax. We have some tricks that can help.
To start, you need to be able to separate nose and mouth
breathing. Try this:
n Start by holding the palm of your hand centered over you

nose and mouth and almost touching your face. This will al-
low you to feel when you are exhaling through your nose and
when you are doing so through your mouth.
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n Hold your mouth slightly open and exhale. You should feel
and hear most of your breath come out of your mouth.
n Now repeat the exercise with your mouth closed. You should
feel and hear most of your breath come out of your nose.
Now that you can tell the difference, try this.
n While holding your mouth slightly open, move your tongue

toward the back of your throat with the tip of your tongue just
touching the roof of your mouth.
n While holding your tongue in this position, inhale and exhale

several times.
With any luck, you’ll discover that, with your tongue in this posi-
tion, you’ll inhale and exhale only through your nose — despite
the fact your mouth is open. Now do this:
n Run a bathtub full of warm water (bubbles are optional).
n Hop in the tub with just your snorkel.
n Put your snorkel in your mouth and your face in the water.
n Try breathing in and out through your snorkel with your nose
exposed to water.
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n If you are successful with what is, essentially, no-mask breath-

ing, try breathing in through your snorkel and out your nose,
as you would when clearing a mask.
This is what we have instructors whose students think they will

have difficulty with mask clearing do prior to the beginning
course. It can work after the beginning course as well.
Now let’s say you are still having difficulty with mask clearing.
Here are some additional tricks you can try:
n If you can’t prevent exhaled air from coming out your regula-
tor by moving your tongue, try simply sticking the tip of your
tongue into your regulator mouthpiece to block the air flow.
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n If you can’t seem to prevent water from coming up your nose,

try pinching off your nose each time you inhale.
n Don’t look up — at least not initially. If you are unsuccessful in

getting all of the water out of your mask on a single breath,
looking up all but guarantees you will inhale water on your
next breath. Instead, look forward and slightly down as you
inhale and exhale. You only need to look up as the last of the
water leaves your mask, so that the bottom of the mask skirt
becomes the lowest point and you get the last of the water
out.
These are the same tricks NASE Instructors use with beginning
students who are having difficulty with mask clearing. They can
work for you, too.

n The primary reason some divers have difficulty with mask
clearing and no-mask breathing is that they lack the ability to
separate nose breathing from mouth breathing.
n The best way to deal with difficulty clearing masks and no-
mask breathing is to prevent it from becoming a problem in the
first place.
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n If you are still not truly comfortable with mask clearing and
no-mask breathing, there are several things you can do prior
to the Advanced course that may help.
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Regulator Recovery and Clearing

Study Questions
following:
n What is the primary reason divers learn regulator recovery

and clearing in entry-level courses? How does this relate to
how they might need this skill in real life?
n What will most likely happen to a missing second stage if

you are diving like a fish?
n What aspect of primary second stage loss is generally not

covered in most entry-level scuba courses?
n What is the first thing you should do if you lose your primary
second stage under water?
Regulator recovery and clearing are such fundamental skills they

are often the very first skill new divers learn. As a NASE Advanced
Open Water student, you need to be able to recover and clear a
regulator second stage that has fallen behind you, using either
the reach or sweep method.
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We most likely needn’t elaborate on exactly how you recover

and clear a regulator. Instead, we’d like to focus on a few things
that typically aren’t part of how these skills are traditionally
taught. Here is what we will discuss:
n The “Why” Behind These Skills

n What Happens When You “Dive Like a Fish”
n What Often Isn’t Covered in Entry-Level Training
n The First and Best Response to a Lost Regulator
The “Why” Behind These Skills

When your entry-level instructor first introduced regulator re-
covery, he or she may have justified it by saying something like,
“In the unlikely event someone knocks a regulator out of your
mouth…” Does this happen in real-life diving? Yes — but only
very rarely.
The primary reason entry-level divers learn this skill is that

there are a number of exercises in beginning diver train-
ing, such as gas sharing, that require students to take a
regulator out of their mouth and drop it. At the conclu-
sion of the exercise, students need to be able to find that
second stage and resume breathing. It would, in fact, be
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difficult to teach a beginning scuba class if students did

not develop this ability early on.
What’s worth noting is that, when you learned this skill, you most
likely did it under conditions that were very untypical of real-life
diving. Specifically, you most likely did it while kneeling upright
on the bottom — something you almost never do when diving in
the real world. What this means is that how you learned this skill
may not be very helpful if you have to use it in real life.
What Happens When You “Dive Like a Fish”

One of NASE’s tenants is Dive like a fish, not like an ape. It refers to
the fact you never see fish standing, sitting or walking upright on
their tails. Fish are almost always horizontal — and divers should
be, too.
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To start, when you are maintaining proper body position, you

can’t get a regulator second stage to simply drop behind your
shoulder. A conventional second stage will simply drape itself out
in front of you, where you can easily look down and see it.
An exception exists in the case of the more modern, “tech

style” regulator system configuration, where the primary
second stage is attached to a one-meter/40-inch or longer
hose that comes under the right arm and ends in a 90- or
120-degree swivel.
If one of these second stages gets away from you, the hose will
initially run down your back — but then the second stage itself
will dangle from beneath your arm pit. If you can’t recover this
type of second stage by simply reaching for it with your left hand,
you can easily do so by either the reach or sweep method.
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The only time divers should ever be vertical is when descending,

ascending or resting on the surface. In fact, about the only time
a conventional second stage would ever get behind you is when
you are vertical on the surface. For this reason, any meaningful
practice of regulator recovery should include recovering the sec-
ond stage while floating on the surface with your BC partially
inflated.
As the best way to recover a second stage is to never let

it get away from you in the first place, you need to get
in the habit of always keeping a conventional primary
second stage draped across your shoulder when at the
surface. If you are using the newer, under-the-arm type
of second stage, it’s important to have a stainless snap
on the second stage and clip it to a right-shoulder D-ring
whenever it is not in your mouth — just as we do in tech
and cave diving.
You’ll read more about this new type of regulator system configu-
ration in the section on gas sharing.
What Often Isn’t Covered in Entry-Level Training

Among the most likely causes of a lost primary second stage is
what happens when the five-cent cable tie that keeps the rubber
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mouthpiece attached to the second stage breaks. You most likely

won’t even notice the second stage get away from you. What you
will notice is when you take that next breath and get a mouth full
of water through the now-empty mouthpiece instead of air.
In this case, simply recovering the second stage won’t be

enough, as you are going to end up with a second stage with no
mouthpiece.
n If you are sufficiently adept, you may be able to wrestle the

mouthpiece back on the second stage. The catch is, you may
already be out of air and need to take a breath before you can
get the mouthpiece back in place.
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n If you do succeed in getting the mouthpiece back on, you are

still left with a second stage whose mouthpiece has no cable
tie to hold it. This means you can just as easily lose it again.
The bottom line is that you should never use a second stage
whose mouthpiece is not held securely in place by a cable tie or
other suitable device. To do so is to invite catastrophe.
Which brings us to our next point…
The First and Best Response to a Lost Regulator

You most likely remember practicing regulator recovery in your
basic Open Water course. After cavalierly tossing the second
stage over your right shoulder, you dutifully began exhaling tiny
bubbles while you hunted for the missing second stage. And
hunted. And hunted — as a sense of panic grew from the feeling
that you might not find it before running out of air.
The irony is, while you hunted, your regulator system of-
fered you a perfectly functional second stage in the form
of your alternate air source — which you were blithe-
ly ignoring. Remember also, from our previous discus-
sion, that if you succeeded in finding the missing second
stage, odds are that in real life, it would be missing a
mouthpiece.
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What this underscores is the fact that, when a regulator second

stage suddenly goes missing, your first response should not be to
begin hunting for it. Instead, you should locate and begin breath-
ing from your alternate. Do that and you will have all the time in
the world to deal with the missing second stage (which may be
unusable anyway). Any meaningful practice of second stage re-
covery needs to include this important first step.
If you are using an integrated alternate-air-source inflator or the

newer, “tech style” regulator configuration (in which the alternate
is stowed in an elastic necklace just a hand’s width from your
mouth), you should be able to find and begin breathing from
your alternate almost instantly. If you are using the older, more
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traditional “octopus” configuration, you may need to hunt for

your alternate — especially if you failed to stow it in a reliable re-
tainer.

n Regulator recovery in entry-level classes is taught primarily to
facilitate the teaching of other skills. It’s important to practice
this skill, however, in a way that is more typical of what might
happen in real life.
n If you are maintaining a horizontal body position, an over-the-

shoulder second stage will tend to simply hang down in front
of you as opposed to getting lost behind you.
n One situation seldom covered in entry-level scuba courses is

what to do if the mouthpiece comes off your primary second
stage.
n If you lose your primary second stage under water, the first
thing you should do is begin breathing from the alternate. Do
this before wasting time looking for the missing second stage.
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Gas Sharing
Study Questions
following:
n What possible scenarios should you be prepared for in an

out-of-air situation?
n What is the best way to quickly get gas to an out-of-air diver?
n Why might divers want to use an alternate air source for

traveling as opposed to ascending?
What is the best way to share gas with another diver? This is a
question divers have posed since the invention of the alternate
air source in the late 1960s. In this section we’ll look at:
n Possible Gas Sharing Scenarios.

n The Best Way to Share Gas.
n When Gas Sharing is a Matter of Convenience.
By the way, throughout this section — and the course in gener-

al — we tend to use the terms gas sharing and air sharing inter-
changeably. When we do, we mean the same thing. So “share air”
can also mean sharing Nitrox or even mixed gas.
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Possible Gas Sharing Scenarios

Assuming, for a moment, that the potential donor is equipped
with a conventional alternate-air-source second stage, there are
four possible ways an air-sharing situation can play out:
n The out-of-air diver could simply swim up, take the donor’s al-
ternate air source second stage and begin breathing from it.
This would be nice — but, while it is something that theoreti-
cally could happen, the odds of it actually happening are slim.
n The out-of-air diver could also swim up, signal I’m out of
air/give me air! and wait for the donor to pass the alter-
nate-air-source second stage. We’d hope that this takes place
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very quickly, as the out-of-air diver very likely needs breathing

gas right now.
n The third alternative is for the out-of-air diver to signal I’m out
of air/give me air! At this point, the donor passes his primary
second stage and, thus, does not force the out-of-air diver to
wait while he locates his alternate-air-source second stage,
gets it out of its holder and turns it around so that the receiver
can actually breathe from it.
n The final scenario is that the out-of-air diver is so desperate for

air that he swims up and literally rips the primary second stage
out of the donor’s mouth. This does not happen anywhere
near as often as divers sometimes claim it does — but it does
happen.
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The Best Way to Share Gas

Which of these four scenarios just outlined is the one NASE rec-
ommends? Do we really need to ask?
Just in case this is still not as readily apparent as it should

be, NASE recommends passing the primary second stage
in an out-of-air emergency.
There are really only two drawbacks to this approach:
n It means the donor will be momentarily without air. Big deal.

He is not the one in a state of near panic. The couple of sec-
onds it will take him to switch to his alternate won’t be any-
where near as stressful as asking the out-of-air diver to wait
five to ten seconds or more while the donor fumbles for his
alternate.
n If you are using a traditionally configured regulator system, the

receiver won’t get the benefit of the four extra inches of sec-
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ond stage hose that the donor’s alternate generally has. But,
you know what? As long as both divers end up with a working
second stage, does it really matter?
On the flip side, passing the primary second stage offers numer-
ous benefits.
n It’s fast: There is, in fact, no faster way to get gas to an out-of-
air diver. It’s the difference between sharing air in less than a
second and having to wait up to ten or more seconds to find
and pass a conventional octopus. This is time an out-of-air div-
er may not have.
n It works with any gear configuration: If you are equipped with

an alternate-air-source inflator, this is the only method you
can use. But it works equally well with conventional alter-
nate-air-source second stages — or any combination of the
two.
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n It reduces the likelihood of upside-down second stages: The nat-

ural wrist motion associated with turning a primary second
stage around to face an out-of-air diver will keep it right side
up. In contrast, the wrist motion associated with passing a con-
ventional octopus often turns the second stage upside down.
This can result in an already panicky diver breathing water af-
ter every exhalation.
n In the unlikely event a panicky diver does rip a second stage out
of your mouth, you’ll be ready: All you will have to do is pick up
and begin breathing from your alternate-air-source second
stage.
Passing the primary second stage has been a standard part of

cave and technical diver training for more than 20 years. These
environments are unforgiving. A delay in passing gas under these
conditions can be fatal — just as it can be in recreational diving.
Passing a Second Stage: When you pass a second stage

to an out-of-air diver, there are certain things it’s important to
remember.
n Keep the second stage right-side up: Fortunately, if you are pass-
ing your primary second stage, your natural wrist motion as
you turn the second stage to face the out-of-air diver will tend
to ensure this.
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n Don’t block the purge button: If the out-of-air diver gets the sec-
ond stage in his or her mouth before you can let go of it, you
want this person to be able to purge it. Holding the second
stage by the hose, close to the second stage body, tends to
work better than holding on to the second stage itself.
n Don’t force the second stage into the other diver’s mouth: This
might only serve to heighten the distressed diver’s state of
panic. Instead, hold the second stage directly in front of the
receiver’s eyes, so that he or she can clearly see it. Let the re-
ceiver take the second stage and guide it into his or her own
mouth.
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When Gas Sharing is a Matter of Convenience

C’mon! Since when is air sharing not a matter of life and death?
Well, consider the following:
Divers A and B are making a shallow reef dive from a boat.

Their plan is to follow the reef line until the first diver
reaches 140 bar/2,000 psi, then turn the dive and return
the way they came. Several minutes into the dive, Diver A
notices he has 165 bar/2,400 psi remaining. He asks Div-
er B how he is doing on air. Diver B discovers, much to his
horror, that he only has 90 bar/1,300 psi left — less than
he theoretically needs to get back to the boat.
What are they to do?
n One option would be to ascend immediately, then swim back

to the boat on the surface. Doing so would expose the divers
to rougher seas, stronger currents and boat traffic — plus the
fact swimming at the surface is almost always more exhaust-
ing than swimming under water. Not a great idea.
n Another option would be to attempt to make it back to the

boat on Diver B’s remaining air. If they do, however, it’s unlikely
Diver B will have sufficient gas to make it all the way and, the
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closer Diver B gets to actually running out of air, the greater

the risk in this approach.
n The third option is for Diver B to start breathing from Diver A’s
alternate air source second stage, while they both start head-
ing back for the boat under water. Now it doesn’t take a math
genius to figure out that, even with 165 bar/2,400 psi remain-
ing, Diver A may not have sufficient gas to get them both back
all the way. That’s okay. He doesn’t have to.
All Diver A really needs to do is get Diver B sufficiently close to

the boat that Diver B will have no difficulty making it the rest of
the way on the 90 bar/1,300 psi he has left.
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Long surface swims are not only not a lot of fun, they are
also not all that safe. After all, the surface is where most div-
ing accidents happen. So long as divers have sufficient gas
to breathe, swimming under water is almost always more
desirable, and anything divers can do to facilitate staying
under water is generally a good idea.
Traditional diver training paints sharing air as a life-or-death situa-

tion requiring an immediate ascent. As you can see, however, that
is not always the case.

n An out-of-air diver may wait for you to pass him or her a func-
tioning second stage — or he may simply grab your alternate
or the one in your mouth.
n Passing an out-of-air diver your primary second stage can get

air to the diver faster than hunting for an alternate, and helps
minimize the risk of upside-down second stages.
n Alternate air sources are not just for out-of-air ascents. They
can help get a low-on-air diver close enough to an exit point
that he or she can make it the rest of the way on their remain-
ing air.
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Alternate Air Source Configurations

Study Questions
following:
n What is the chief benefit of the traditional regulator

configuration?
n What are the benefits of alternate-air-source inflators?
n Where did the modified tech configuration come from? What

is its chief benefit?
n What should sidemount divers never need to do but always

be able to do? Is this more or less complex than with other
configurations?
At this point in your diving career, you may be:
n Considering the purchase of your first regulator system.

n Considering the replacement of your current regulator.
n Contemplating the reconfiguration of your current regulator
for greater safety and ease of use.
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Whatever the case, it helps to be aware of all the options avail-

able to you. We’ve included this information because how you
configure your regulator system directly impacts how you share
air. In this section, we’ll look at four such configurations:
n Traditional Regulator Configuration

n Alternate Air Source Inflator
n Modified Tech Configuration
n Sidemount
For each configuration, we’ll look at both the benefits and draw-
backs and leave you to draw your own conclusions.
Traditional Regulator Configuration

This is the configuration you most often see. It consists of:
n A first stage.
n A primary second stage on a standard-length hose.
n A color-coded alternate-air-source second stage on a slightly
longer hose.
n A low-pressure BC inflator hose.
n An SPG or instrument console.
It’s important to understand that this configuration was not the

result of a meeting between diving’s top safety and educational
experts as to what constituted the ideal regulator system. It sim-
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ply evolved and, as such, may have more potential drawbacks

than any other approach.
Benefits of this configuration include:
n It’s familiar. Everyone knows what it is and how it works.
n The alternate-air-source second stage generally has a slightly

longer hose than a standard second stage. This helps facilitate
gas sharing.
Drawbacks of this configuration include:
n There are a lot of hoses and they tend to stick out in all
directions.
n It does not facilitate passing the primary second stage to an

out-of-air diver.
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n Depending on design, it may be very easy for an out-of-air div-

er to end up putting the alternate in his or her mouth upside
down. This can cause the diver to inhale water and panic.
The only way to minimize the risk posed by the last point is to use
a side-exhaust alternate-air-source second stage. This has no up
or down, and thus cannot be put in a diver’s mouth upside down,
causing him or her to inhale water.
Alternate Air Source Inflator

As you should remember from your beginning course, this com-
bines the functions of an alternate-air-source second stage and
a BC power inflator into a single unit. Unlike the traditional reg-
ulator configuration, this can only work by passing an out-of-air
diver the primary second stage, while the donor picks up and be-
gins breathing from the inflator.
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n It’s simpler and cleaner, having one less hose than the tradi-
tional regulator configuration.
n By its very nature, it facilitates passing the primary second

stage.
n Because this configuration only works by passing the primary

second stage, it minimizes the risk of an out-of-air diver get-
ting a second stage in his or her mouth upside down.
n After passing the primary, the donor is less likely to have to

hunt for the remaining second stage, as it is in a familiar loca-
tion he or she accesses all the time.
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n Alternate-air-source second stages tend to dangle a bit more

than conventional equipment.
n You lose the option for an out-of-air diver to simply swim up,
take the alternate, and begin breathing on his own. However,
as we mentioned in the last section, this seldom happens in
real life — and, when it does, it carries with it the risk of up-
side-down second stages.
n If the primary second stage is equipped with a standard

length (i.e., shorter) hose, this may interfere somewhat with
gas sharing.
You can mitigate this last point by equipping the primary second
stage with a one-meter/40-inch or longer hose, making it, in es-
sence, a variation on the modified tech configuration discussed
next.
Modified Tech Configuration

The modified tech configuration is a single-first-stage adaptation
of the same hose configuration used by back-mounting technical
and cave divers.
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n The primary second-stage hose is at least one meter/40 inches

long. If this length is used, the hose is routed under the right
arm and connects to the second stage with a 90- or 120-de-
gree swivel. Longer hoses are routed under the arm and once
around the head, in the exact same manner as tech and cave
divers do. This is the hose that goes to an out-of-air diver.
n The alternate-air-source second stage is on a shorter-than-

standard-length hose and is suspended from a breakaway
elastic necklace, putting it within a hand span of the wearer’s
mouth. This is what the donor uses after passing the primary.
(An alternate-air-source inflator may be used in place of this.)
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n The low-pressure inflator and high-pressure hose are typically

shorter than those found on traditionally-configured systems.
n It facilitates passing the primary second stage to an out-of-air

diver.
n Unlike a conventional configuration, there is no hunting for

the alternate once the primary is passed.
n The hose length and routing help ensure that the overall con-
figuration is extremely streamlined, with no hoses sticking out
or dangling unnecessarily.
Drawbacks of this configuration? There are very few, and include:
n If setting up this configuration for the first time, or re-config-

uring an existing system, you will likely have to invest in addi-
tional hoses and hardware, as those required for this configu-
ration are not likely to come standard.
n As with an alternate-air-source inflator, you may need to ex-

plain your system’s operation to new buddies.
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Sidemount
Once the sole domain of advanced cave divers, sidemounting has
suddenly taken off as the configuration of choice among many
serious divers. Like everything else, sidemounting has both bene-
fits and drawbacks — especially when it comes to gas sharing.
As the name implies, sidemounting involves carrying two

separate tanks and regulators, mounted along the wear-
er’s sides. To keep the volume of gas inside each bottle
even throughout the dive, sidemounters regularly switch
back and forth between regulators.
Among the benefits of sidemounting is that, if everyone on a

team is using sidemount, no team member should ever have to
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share air with another. However, when sidemount divers dive

with non-sidemounters, or when diving at a site where they may
come across an out-of-air diver from another team, sidemount
divers need to be able to share gas.
All sidemounters should equip at least one regulator with

a longer hose. However, as sidemounters shift back and
forth between bottles and regulators, they will not always
be breathing from that longer hose.
If approached by an out-of-air diver, a sidemount diver will need

to remember which regulator he or she is using, and donate the
one with the long hose, regardless of whether or not it is the one
in the donor’s mouth.
In summary, the benefits of this configu-

ration include:
n Sidemount divers should never need

to share gas with one another, as they
carry both the equipment and the gas
needed to manage their own out-of-
air emergency.
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n If approached by another diver who needs gas, a sidemounter

will likely have more than sufficient gas to do so.
n Depending on the situation and configuration, a sidemounter

may even be able to pass an out-of-air diver a complete inde-
pendent cylinder with its own regulator and pressure gauge.
n Just as overall gas management with sidemount is more com-

plex, so is managing an out-of-air emergency.
n Sidemounters must be able to remember which of their two

bottles has the long hose and donate it — not just whatever
regulator they happen to be breathing from at the moment.
You can mitigate some of the gas-sharing problems associated

with sidemount simply by equipping both regulators with a long
hose. Then, no matter which regulator you are using, you just do-
nate the one in your mouth.

n The traditional regulator configuration’s chief benefit is its
popularity; everyone knows how it works. It carries the risks,
however, of divers breathing from upside-down second stages
and second stages that are hard for the donor to locate.
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n Regulators equipped with alternate-air-source inflators can be

simpler and cleaner than traditional regulator systems, and
can facilitate passing a primary second stage to others (as that
is the only way they work).
n The modified tech configuration is an adaptation of the same

hose configuration used by back-mounting technical and cave
divers. It is among the best possible configurations to have if
you need to donate gas to others.
n While sidemount divers should never need to get gas from an-
other diver, they should nevertheless be prepared to give gas
to others. Doing this can be more complicated than with other
configurations.
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Buoyancy Control
Study Questions
following:
n What two pieces of equipment greatly facilitate maintaining

good body position under water?
n What is the foundation and most important component of

the Buoyancy Control Pyramid?
n What is meant by diving like a fish?
n What is meant by the three As of buoyancy control?
The number one complaint among dive operators is that new

divers can’t control buoyancy. And no wonder! The typical scuba
student spends up to 90 percent of his time in the water standing,
sitting or kneeling on the bottom. How can he or she ever learn
buoyancy control doing that?
One thing NASE prides itself on is that our students learn

to control buoyancy from the first minute they get in the
water. For us, neutral buoyancy is not a “skill” — some-
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thing to be demonstrated on command while, the rest of

the time, students sit like rocks on the bottom.
If you did not have the benefit of such training, it’s understand-
able you might have some concerns about your own buoyancy
control skills — especially considering that you’ll be expected to
demonstrate all of the required core skills while maintaining neu-
tral buoyancy. Don’t worry. There are things you can do that can
dramatically improve your buoyancy control abilities with just a
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modest amount of practice. Topics we’ll cover in this section in-

clude:
n Start With the Right Equipment

n Dive the Buoyancy Control Pyramid
n Dive Like a Fish
n Practicing the Three As
Mastering buoyancy control requires practice. Still, you need to

know what you are doing during that practice. After all, practice
does not make perfect. Only perfect practice makes perfect.
Start With the Right Equipment

NASE encourages divers to wear full-length exposure protection,
all the time. To start, it helps keep divers warmer. Full-length suits
also provide full-length exposure and abrasion protection above
and below water.
Equally important, though, by providing additional buoy-

ancy in the legs, full-length wet suits help divers main-
tain a near-horizontal body position. (It’s tough to control
buoyancy if your feet are perpetually sinking.)
As far as weight-integrated BCs go, not only are they more com-
fortable and more convenient to wear, but by concentrating
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ballast at a point more in line with most divers’ natural balance

point, they make maintaining proper body position easier.
Unfortunately, even though over 95 percent of BCs sold in

the past two decades have been weight-integrated, the
majority of rental BCs are not. This means it’s going to be
tough to control buoyancy if you keep relying solely on
rental gear. (It’s also difficult to control buoyancy if you
need to learn a new BC configuration each time you dive.)
Purchase a good-quality, weight-integrated BC. Become familiar

with it and learn to use it effectively. Not only will doing so pro-
vide you with years of service, you’ll also do a vastly better job of
keeping your buoyancy under control.
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Dive the Buoyancy Control Pyramid

There’s an illustration called the Buoyancy Control Pyramid that
shows the relationship between the three key elements of buoy-
ancy control: proper weighting, BC use and breath control.
Proper weighting is not only the foundation of the Buoyancy

Control Pyramid, it is, by “volume,” more important than the oth-
er two elements combined.
Properly Weighted Divers Don’t Always Float at Eye

Level: You may have been told that a properly weighted diver
will float at eye level. Bull pucky.
Exactly where a properly weighted diver will float at the

beginning of a dive is dependent on far too many vari-
ables to make a blanket statement like that. Factors rang-
ing from the type and thickness of the exposure suit worn
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to the amount of breathing gas likely to be consumed

during the dive will all impact where a diver floats at the
beginning.
Regardless of the equipment used, every diver’s goal should be

the same — that is, to wear the least weight possible. Using the
least weight possible (without risking uncontrolled ascents) helps
achieve several goals:
n It keeps divers safer. Properly weighted divers are the ones

least likely to have difficulty maintaining positive buoyancy at
the surface.
n It makes controlling buoyancy easier under water, as divers

only have to compensate for exposure suit compression, and
not the compression of an unnecessary air bubble in their BCs
that is there solely to offset the unneeded weight.
n It helps divers maintain better body position under water.
So what is the best way to determine how much weight a diver

needs?
n In open water, you generally need only enough weight to be

able to initiate a feet-first descent by exhaling fully. This won’t
be your final weight check, but it’s a good start.
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n The ultimate weight check will come at the end of each dive,
at safety stop depth, when you have between 35-70 bar/500-
1,000 psi remaining. This is the point during the dive at which
you will be the most buoyant and, consequently, need the
most weight.
During your end-of-dive safety stop, you should be able to hover

motionless with no air in your BC. If you can’t do this at the end
of the first dive, keep adjusting your weight with each subse-
quent dive until you can.
Dive Like a Fish

After a lifetime of standing, walking and sitting erect, you will
have a natural tendency to want to stand, kneel or sit on the bot-
tom. Get over it.
You need to get in the habit of doing everything un-

der water while maintaining a perpetual state of neutral
buoyancy.
Among other things, this means that:
n When you descend, you don’t plummet to the bottom like a

rock, but rather add air to your BC as needed during the de-
scent so that you arrive at the bottom neutral (in fact, you
should never even come in contact with the bottom).
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n Conversely, when you ascend, vent air as needed so that you

never come up faster than 10 m/30 ft per minute.
n Develop the ability to perform all critical scuba skills — includ-

ing emergency procedures — while neutrally buoyant.
Let’s face it: If you suddenly find yourself needing to clear a mask
or share air, there may be nothing below you but fragile coral,
deep mud or, in the case of a wall dive, nothing at all. If you can’t
perform these important skills without a solid surface to rest on,
you’re screwed.
Remember: You’re a fish, not an ape. Dive like it.
Practicing the Three As

You can facilitate the process of practicing buoyancy control by
following the three As: Awareness, Anticipation and Action.
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Awareness: As a diver, you need to be perpetually aware of not

only your current depth, but also any changes in depth you make.
(Changes in depth may require you to add or remove air from
your BC.)
The best way to do this is to maintain a visual reference in the
form of an ascent/descent line, the bottom below you, or a wall
or slope on either side of you. Lacking a visual reference, you will
need to keep your eyes glued to your computer or depth gauge
until a visual reference comes back into view.
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Anticipation: When you become aware of a change in depth,

you should anticipate the possible need for a buoyancy adjust-
ment by locating and holding on to your BC’s inflation/defla-
tion mechanism. Once you begin rising or sinking out of control,
it may be too late to begin hunting for it. Anticipate this need
ahead of time by locating the inflator mechanism preemptively.
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Action: If you do find yourself rising or sinking, take action by

adding or venting air from your BC as needed.
Be aware that kicking often masks the need for buoyancy

adjustments. For example, if you kick with your fins at a
slightly downward angle, their thrust can generate lift to
help keep you off the bottom. Unfortunately, this is not
very streamlined and the thrust from your fins can stir up
silt or damage fragile plant and animal life.
One of the best things you can do when learning to control

buoyancy is to stop frequently. If your buoyancy is under control,
every time you stop you should simply hover. If you find yourself
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having to kick to maintain depth, you need to vent or add air as

needed.

n Among the keys to buoyancy control is wearing the right
equipment. This usually means full-length exposure suits and
weight-integrated BCs.
n Proper weighting is not only the foundation of the Buoyancy

Control Pyramid, by “volume,” it is more important than the
other two elements combined.
n Diving like a fish means overcoming your natural tendency to

stand, kneel or sit on the bottom. Like fish, divers should strive
to be neutrally buoyant and horizontal at all times.
n You can facilitate the process of practicing buoyancy con-

trol by following the three As of: Awareness, Anticipation and
Action.
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Advanced Dive Planning

As the diving you do becomes more advanced, so must the pro-
cess of dive planning. Advanced diving can involve managing
risks and hazards that go beyond those encountered in most en-
try-level dives.
Topics we will discuss in this section include:
n The NASE Dive Planning Checklist

n Advanced Gas Management
n Team Diving: Dive Planning in Action
Bear in mind that, even though the risks you encounter at this
level may increase, so too may the rewards.
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The NASE Dive Planning Checklist

Study Questions
following:
n What are the things you need to do before leaving home?
n When would you need to conduct on on-site assessment and

what should it include?
n What key things will you want to check before suiting up?
n What components need to be part of your final dive plan

review?
n What does the pre-dive check acronym ABC stand for?
While going through this next section, you’ll need to be able to

refer to the NASE Pre-Dive Checklist. This is available from several
places:
n When taking the NASE Advanced Open Water eLearning

course, it’s among the items you download at the beginning
of the course.
n It appears in the Appendix of the Advanced Open Water eBook.
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n You can also download it from www.ScubaNASE.com. Find it in

the Student Forms section, under Advanced Open Water.
While we normally encourage students to save paper whenev-

er possible, this is one document you will want to print out and
keep in front of you for the remainder of this section.
The checklist is divided into five sections:
n Before You Leave Home

n On-Site Assessment
n Final Gear Check Before Suiting Up
n Dive Plan Review
n Final Equipment and Buddy Check
Most of what appears on the checklist is fairly self explanatory.

Much of it may have been covered in your beginning course.
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In this section, we’ll elaborate on some of the checklist items, dis-

cussing things that may not have been covered in your entry-lev-
el course, or differentiating between dive planning for vacation
boat dives and local shore dives closer to home.
Before You Leave Home

Dive planning starts before you ever leave the house. There are
tasks you will need to perform, and items you will want to be
sure to pack.
Tasks: This portion of the checklist is fairly straightforward. A

few things to note:
n Many dive trips have been compromised because equipment

maintenance was not up to date, computer batteries were on
the verge of dying or a dive light simply was not re-charged.
Don’t let this happen to you.
n Imagine driving an hour or more to your local dive site only

to discover conditions were not conducive to diving. Be smart.
Check the weather before you go and, if there is a website that
reports local dive conditions, check it as well.
n What if, after a weekend of diving (or a week-long dive va-

cation), you failed to show up for work on Monday morning?
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Would anyone know where you’d gone? Would they even

know where to begin looking? Always tell someone other than
your dive buddy where you are going and when you should
be back — and check in with this person when you get back.
Packing List: In terms of course and accessory equipment,

there should be no surprises here. Obviously, you’ll need less in
the way of exposure protection on a tropical vacation trip, nor
will you need to worry about things like tanks and weights.
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Given the current airline restrictions on number of

checked bags and their size and weight — and the fact
that, for the first time in memory, the airlines are actually
charging to check even one bag, it may be tempting to
leave items such as BCs and regs at home. Don’t do it.
Even at those resort dive operations where the management is

good about purchasing quality rental gear, and about making
sure that equipment is properly maintained, there is not guaran-
tee that:
n The rental BC and reg you pick up hasn’t been used by several
dozen strangers — just in the preceding couple of weeks.
n One of those strangers encountered any problems with the

equipment’s behavior that he somehow failed to report to the
dive operator.
Rest assured that if you report the problem to most dive opera-
tors, they will act promptly to make things right. Unfortunately,
that may come after the defective gear has ruined a dive — or
worse.
The bottom line is, you are always best off bringing and using
equipment you know and trust. Doing so doesn’t even have to
cost you a fortune in excess baggage fees. Many manufacturers
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now make ultra-compact, ultralight BCs, regulators and other

equipment that you can fit in your carry-on bags.
Emergency and Survival Items: We want to spend some

time discussing the items listed under Emergency Kit, as this is of-
ten not covered in entry-level courses.
n First Aid Kit: It’s a fact that, in life, feces occur. You’d best be pre-
pared. You can expect that most dive operations will have
some sort of first-aid kit on hand. Still, it’s a good idea to have
your own — especially if you and a buddy may some day be
off diving by yourselves. Diving requires special first-aid sup-
plies. Fortunately, you can get diver-specific and affordable
first-aid kits from organizations such as Divers Alert Network
(DAN).
n Emergency Oxygen: Among the most serious of diving-relat-

ed injuries is Arterial Gas Embolism (AGE) and decompression
sickness (DCS). The best possible first aid for both of these in-
juries is to have the affected diver breathe pure oxygen. Pos-
itive-pressure resuscitation with pure oxygen is also the best
possible way to revive a drowning victim. Oxygen administra-
tion requires specialized training and it is a good idea to take
this training in conjunction with your Rescue Diver course.
After you receive this training, it is a good idea to make sure
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there is always emergency O2 on site — even if that means

bringing your own.
n Visible Surface Signal: There are two distinct types of visible

surface signals: safety tubes and signal mirrors. Depending on
circumstances, you may want to have both. Inflatable safety
tubes are a great way to make sure your dive boat and others
can see you, even in rough seas. Signal mirrors can help gain
the attention of people in search aircraft, and rescue and dive
vessels
n Audible Surface Signal: Visible signals are great when someone

is looking for you or looking right at you. How do you gains
the attention of someone who is not looking your way — or
when line-of-site is obscured by fog, high seas or other factors?
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This is why you need an audible surface signal. Whistles are the
most common. Some divers also like to use a horn-style signal
powered by air from their BC low-pressure inflator hose. Just
remember that if you are out of air, you can’t signal with one
of these, so carry a whistle as a backup.
n Folding Snorkel: Modern jacket-style and back-inflation BCs

rendered snorkels largely redundant in the early 1980s. If
you absolutely must swim at the surface, you are best off just
breathing from your regulator. If air conservation is an issue,
try swimming on your back while breathing through your
nose and mouth (and maintaining verbal contact with your
buddy). Unless diving from a beach and having to navigate
through shallow water to a distant kelp bed, it’s best to avoid
surface swims altogether.
Having a snorkel that you won’t need attached to your mask can
cause problems. Still, many argue that it’s better to have a snorkel
and not need it than to need it and not have it. We agree; how-
ever, our recommendation is to consider carrying a small folding
snorkel in your emergency kit pocket, rather than go around with
a bulbous monstrosity you never use attached to your mask.
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n Pocket Mask™: For years Rescue Divers have been taught a

method for in-water resuscitation that involves direct mouth-
to-mouth contact. If this is a good idea, why does so much of
modern CPR training focus on the use of barriers? Worse, the
blow-on-the-cheek method used to teach this technique isn’t
remotely close to what you would actually have to do to effec-
tively ventilate a diver on the surface.
Reality check: Direct-contact mouth-to-mouth resuscitation in the

water doesn’t work. The only way to effectively ventilate a drown-
ing victim on the surface is with an oral/nasal mask, which has
the added benefit of providing better protection against commu-
nicable diseases. Use of oral/nasal masks is covered in the Rescue
Diver course.
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On-Site Assessment
When diving from boats, you’ll generally get an assessment of
dive site features and conditions from the crew. When you and a
buddy are diving from shore, however, this is something you will
need to do yourselves.
The checklist contains seven items to check. Most of these are

fairly self-explanatory. Some items you will want to pay particu-
larly close attention to include:
n Conditions okay for diving? Don’t just assume conditions will

be safe and enjoyable, even if you checked ahead of time. See
for yourself. Sometimes, the best decision you can make is to
choose an alternate location or to simply turn around and dive
another day.
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n Summoning help: To start, don’t just assume your cell phone

will get reception; check for bars before you get in the water.
No service? Where is the nearest alternate phone? Make sure
you know the local EMS number and who will respond. You’ll
also need to know the number for DAN or the equivalent local
diving emergency medical number; they are the second num-
ber to call after activating EMS. Also, look around. Are there
other dive groups you could go to for help if needed? If not,
where is the closest home, business or government facility you
could go to for assistance?
Final Gear Check Before Suiting Up

Few things are worse than suiting up, only to discover you have
a problem that could have been solved had you only done a fi-
nal gear check. This is another area where the checklist is fairly
self-explanatory. Some things worth noting:
n You will generally want to assemble your scuba unit and other
equipment before donning your wet suit or dry suit. In warm
weather, donning your exposure suit prematurely risks heat
exhaustion or heat stroke. An exception exists in cooler weath-
er, when your suit is dry and the air is cold. In these circum-
stances, it may be more comfortable to don your suit first, and
let it help keep you warm.
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n Depending on your gear configuration and the amount of

lead used, you may want to install the weight pockets in your
BC before putting it on, or wait and do it after donning the BC.
Common sense and prior experience will likely dictate which
is best. Just remember that, once the weight pockets are in-
stalled, your scuba unit will be considerably less stable when
you try to hold it upright.
n Depending on how close you are to entering, this may be the

point at which you will want to turn your air all the way on.
Do not give in to the persistent myth that, unless you turn the
knob back a partial turn, you will somehow damage the valve.
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So long as you don’t force the turnwheel in either direction,

there is little danger of valve damage. What has happened,
however, is divers accidentally turning their air all the way off,
then opening the valve a partial turn. This may allow the regu-
lator to breathe adequately at the surface, but leave the diver
starved for air at depth. Better to gently turn the valve all the
way on or all the way off. This way there is less chance for error.
Dive Plan Review

Your final dive plan review needs to include:
n Where you are going (and who will be in charge of navigation).

n Planned and maximum depth and time.
n Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR).
n Whether the remaining gas is half usable or all usable.
We’ll discuss advanced gas management in greater detail in the

next section.
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You will likely discuss these things at some length prior to the
dive. You will want to review them again, however, just prior to
entering the water or descending.
Final Equipment and Buddy Check

Conditions and circumstances will dictate where you do your fi-
nal check. On a shore dive with calm conditions and little or no
current, you may be able to do this in waist-deep water or while
floating on the surface. On dive boats or in rough seas or break-
ing surf, you’ll need to do it before entering. No matter where it’s
best to do your final check, don’t start your dive without confirm-
ing that you, your equipment and your buddy are, in fact, ready
to descend.
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Various diving texts recommend different procedures you and

your buddy can follow when doing this final check. Unfortunate-
ly, many of these checklists don’t reflect modern dive equipment.
Additionally, while it would be theoretically ideal for you and a
partner to do a detailed systems check of each other before each
dive, this is not something real human beings seem willing to do.
The best pre-dive checklist we’ve seen is one that is not only in-
credibly easy to remember (unless, for some reason, you never
learned your ABCs), it’s something you can easily do with a buddy
or by yourself. Here are the components:
n A: The A stands for air. This is the single most important thing
to check. Is your air turned all the way on? You can have a
buddy check this for you but, remember, buddies can as easi-
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ly turn your air off accidentally as they can turn it on. The best
thing you can do is take several deep breaths from your reg-
ulator while watching your pressure gauge. If the pressure
doesn’t fluctuate, and the regulator continues to breathe easily,
you’re most likely good to go. If the pressure bounces or drops,
you or your buddy may have accidentally turned the air off. Re-
member, while there are many problems you can encounter in
and under the water, the only real emergency is being without
air. Having air to breathe gives you the time you need to solve
anything else.
n B: The B stands for BC. There are two things to check here. First,
are all BC controls connected and functioning? (In other words,
does the BC actually inflate when you push the button?) Sec-
ond, is your BC inflated to the proper level? This is generally
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half-full; however, in some circumstances, such as drift dives

from boats, you may need to be able to immediately descend
upon entering, in which case you need to enter the water with
a totally deflated BC.
n C: The C stands for Computer. The first thing you want to do

here is activate the computer and check it for function. It’s
been a while since any manufacturer made a computer that
did not self-activate on descent. Still, you don’t want to be a
meter or more under water when you discover your computer
simply isn’t working. Second, if diving Nitrox, you need to con-
firm that your computer is set to the correct Fraction of Oxygen
(FO2). If it is set to the wrong FO2 value, or if it has defaulted
since last being set, you may risk either DCS or oxygen toxicity.
Finally, it’s a good idea to ask your buddy to give you a visual
once-over, looking for items such as twisted straps, hoses or ac-
cessory items caught under straps and so on. When your buddy
says you’re good to go (and confirms that he or she is ready, too),
it’s time to dive.
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n Things you need to do before leaving home include: making
sure equipment maintenance is up to date; checking condi-
tions; letting someone know where you are going and when
you will be back; and, reviewing your equipment checklist. Re-
member that emergency/survival items such as audible and
visible surface signals may be vital.
n When diving from shore, you are the one responsible for site
assessment. This includes items such as making sure condi-
tions are conducive to safe diving and knowing how to sum-
mon help.
n In all but cold weather, you will want to assemble your scuba
unit and other equipment before donning your wet suit or dry
suit. Depending on how close you are to entering, this may be
the point at which you will want to turn your air all the way on.
n Your final dive plan review needs to include: where are you
going (and who will be in charge of navigation); planned and
maximum depth and time; Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR); and,
whether the remaining gas is half usable or all usable.
n The pre-dive check acronym ABC stands for Air, BC and

Computer.
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Advanced Gas Management

Study Questions
following:
n What must your Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR) provide

sufficient gas to cover?
n How do you determine MGR for any particular dive?
n What is Usable Gas? What is the difference between all

usable and half usable?
In your entry-level course, discussion of gas management may

have been limited to statements such as Don’t let your pressure
gauge go below 50 bar/750 psi or, Keep the pressure gauge nee-
dle out of the red zone. For the shallower depths that beginning
divers are supposed to be limiting themselves to, this may be
adequate.
Now, however, you are in the Advanced course. You are learn-
ing to plan and make deeper dives, and dives in more challeng-
ing environments. Such a simplistic approach to gas manage-
ment isn’t going to cut it any more.
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In this section, we discuss the kind of gas management skills that

more advanced divers need. Topics we will be covering include:
n Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR)

n Usable Gas
Good gas management practices go beyond simply having

enough gas to deal with emergencies. Their real focus is on pre-
venting those situations from happening in the first place.
Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR)

Having an alternate air source is of little value unless you keep
enough gas in reserve to get you and an out-of-air diver safely to
the surface. Doing so means keeping sufficient air set aside to al-
low for two divers to breathe continuously while:
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n Taking a moment at the bottom for the out-of-air diver to re-

sume breathing at a normal or near-normal rate, to establish
clear communication between divers and, possibly, to deal
with entanglement, entrapment or other problems.
n Ascending at a rate of no more than 10 m/30 ft per minute.
n Making a three-minute safety stop at 3-6 m/10-20 ft.
Additionally, you have to account for the fact that, even if you
allow a minute for the distressed diver to get his or her breath-
ing back under control, both divers are still likely to consume gas
faster than they would under less stressful conditions.
Finding Minimum Gas Reserve

The calculations needed to precisely determine Minimum Gas Re-
serve (MGR) requirements are covered in the Deep Diver course.
If you would like to get a head start on this, however, you will
find more in-depth discussions of both Surface Air Consumption
(SAC) rates and MGR calculations in the Appendix of the NASE
Advanced Open Water Diver digital eBook. You can also download
this Appendix and the NASE SAC and MGR Calculators from www.
ScubaNASE.com. Look in the Student Forms section under Ad-
vanced Open Water Diver course.
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For now, you may be able to use the MGR values that appear on
the NASE Pre-Dive Checklist.
Depth Minimum Gas Reserve

10 m/35 ft 45 bar/700 psi
20 m/65 ft 60 bar/900 psi
30 m/100 ft 90 bar/1300 psi
40 m/130 ft 120 bar/1700 psi
These values are based on the following assumptions:
n Both divers have an “under stress” Surface Air Consumption

(SAC) rate of no more than 30 liters/1.0 cubic feet per minute.
n Both divers are using cylinders no smaller than the popular 11

liter/80 cubic foot size.
One thing you should notice immediately is that, as depths ap-

proach 20 m/65 ft, the amount of reserve gas you learned was
acceptable in your beginning course may be nowhere near ade-
quate. Also bear in mind that, if you have reason to believe you
have a higher-than-average gas-consumption rate, even the val-
ues listed on the Pre-Dive Checklist may not be sufficient.
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If this is the case, you should go ahead and read the in-depth
SAC and MGR information, and use the SAC and MGR Calculators
to determine Minimum Gas Reserve values that are more appro-
priate for you.
Usable Gas
As the name implies, Usable Gas is the amount of gas you have
available to use after you deduct your Minimum Gas Reserve
from your actual starting pressure. Depending on circumstances,
this gas may be all usable or half usable.
n If, at any point during the dive, you and your teammates can
make a direct ascent to the surface and not be faced with a
long surface swim, your gas is all usable. This means you don’t
have to begin ascending until you hit your MGR.
n If, on the other hand, you need to ensure you can return to
your starting point under water, in order to avoid a long sur-
face swim, your gas is half usable. This means that as soon as
you have consumed half your usable gas, you need to turn
around and head back to your starting point on the remaining
half.
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Here are some examples that may better illustrate these points.
n Let’s say you plan a dive on a small- to medium-sized wreck in

30 m/100 ft of water. It’s normal on deeper dives to not stray
too far from the descent/ascent line. In this case, because you
are always within a minute of the anchor line, you can consid-
er your remaining gas all usable. In other words, as long as you
are back at the anchor line and beginning your ascent before
you hit your MGR, you’re fine.
n Now let’s say you and your teammates plan to follow a shallow
reef line away from the boat. Given the shallow depth, your air
is likely to last quite a while, and you could conceivably end up
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300 m/1,000 ft or more away from the boat. Given factors such
as waves, current and boat traffic, the last thing you want to risk
is having to swim back to the boat on the surface. This means
your remaining gas is half usable. Thus, if your MGR is 45 bar/600
psi, and your starting pressure is 200 bar/3.000 psi, you have 155
bar/2,400 psi in usable gas. Deduct half of this from your start-
ing pressure and you will see that you will need to turn around
when the first team member hits 125 bar/1,800 psi.
Divers are forever arguing over which alternate-air-source config-

uration or which ascent method is the “best” way of dealing with
an out-of-air emergency. In so doing, they overlook the obvious:
The best way of dealing with an out-of-air emergency is to never let
it happen in the first place. The concepts of Minimum Gas Reserve
and Usable Gas help you and your buddies do just that.
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n Your Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR) must provide sufficient gas
to make a slow ascent and safety stop while sharing air with
another diver. You must also make allowances for spending up
to a minute on the bottom before ascending, and for both div-
ers consuming gas at a higher-than-normal rate.
n Generally recommended MGRs can be found on the NASE

Minimum Gas Reserve table. More precise MGR values can be
determined using the NASE Surface Air Consumption (SAC)
rate and MGR Calculators.
n Usable Gas is the amount of gas you have available to use after
you deduct your Minimum Gas Reserve from your actual start-
ing pressure. If you can safely surface at any point during the
dive, this difference is all usable. If it is important that you be
able to return to your starting point before surfacing, this dif-
ference may only be half usable.
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Team Diving: Dive Planning in Action

Study Questions
following:
n What benefits does team diving offer?
n How does solo diving differ from diving in teams?
n How many members constitute the ideal dive team?
n What goals must team members agree upon ahead of time?
n What is the best position for team members to maintain,

relative to one another?
Why do experts always encourage diving in teams of two or

three? What constitutes the ideal team? How can you work effec-
tively as team members under water? In this section we look at:
n Team Diving Benefits

n Solo Diving: The Team of One
n The Ideal Team
n Team Goals
n Team Positioning
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Simply being with other divers doesn’t make you a team. Real
teamwork requires planning and discipline.
Team Diving Benefits

Every diver training organization and nearly every diving expert
recommends and encourages divers to dive in teams of two or
more. There is a reason for this: team diving offers benefits in the
areas of safety, enjoyment and efficiency that solo diving gener-
ally does not. These benefits include:
n Safety: This is, arguably, the single greatest benefit of team div-
ing. Unless you are carrying some sort of independent alter-
nate air supply, such as a pony or sidemount cylinder, a buddy
with an alternate air source will likely be your only option if
you want to make a slow ascent and safety stop while con-
tinuing to breathe normally. However, increased safety goes
beyond just this. If you are incapacitated or lose consciousness
under water, no amount of self-rescue training will save you. A
competent buddy, however, may well be able to.
n Enjoyment: Man is a social creature. Most of us find that activ-

ities are a lot more enjoyable when we get to do them with
others. That’s not to say you can’t have fun on your own —
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just that you are likely to have more fun when you dive with
others.
n Efficiency: Two or three divers can almost always accomplish

more than one diver can. Before the dive, two or more divers
can split the planning, logistics and heavy lifting. During the
dive, two or more sets of eyes will almost always see more
than one pair does. Additionally, as each diver has individual
strengths and weaknesses, you can assign tasks according to
each diver’s abilities and simply get more done.
Despite these benefits, team diving is not without its drawbacks.

These chiefly have to do with what happens when one diver’s
safety and enjoyment are compromised by the inexperience, in-
ability, poor attitude or poor judgment of another. Some people
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argue that, in such a situation, the competent diver might simply

be better off on his or her own. Which leads us to…
Solo Diving: The Team of One

Depending on who you talk to, solo diving is either a crime
against humanity, whose evil is only eclipsed by dope dealers
and terrorists, or a misunderstood activity whose benefits may,
at least at times, outweigh those of team diving. Which point of
view is correct? It really depends on circumstances.
n A competent, self-reliant diver could, conceivably be safer

than two incompetent buddies, or a competent diver whose
safety is compromised by an egregiously bad partner.
n There is no question, however, that two or three competent

and self-reliant divers, diving together as a coordinated team, are
far safer than one diver diving alone, no matter how competent.
NASE recognizes that some divers will elect to dive by them-

selves, whether doing so is wise or not. Ultimately, the decision
to solo dive is one each diver has to make for himself (assum-
ing a dive operator even allows solo diving from their boats or
premises).
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Before one even considers solo diving, common sense dictates

there are certain conditions that must be met, including:
n Experience: Solo diving requires an overall level of experience

and ability well beyond that of someone with just a few hun-
dred dives under his or her belt.
n Training: Diving independently of a buddy requires special-

ized training in the techniques of buddy-independent diving.
Some organizations offer specific courses in this. All training
agencies offer certifications that, while not intended to qualify
someone for solo diving, nevertheless effectively do. We’ll dis-
cuss this last point in greater depth shortly.
n Equipment: Solo diving requires specialized equipment —

chiefly in the area of redundant gas supply. With no buddy
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around to help you solve an out-of-air situation, you effectively

have to carry your “buddy” with you, in the form of an addi-
tional bottle, such as a pony bottle or sidemount cylinder.
Even with sufficient training, experience and equipment, there

are some risks these precautions simply can’t mitigate, including:
n Sudden Incapacitation: A severe injury or the sudden onset of

an illness can incapacitate a diver beyond the ability for him to
care for himself.
n Loss of Consciousness: If you lose consciousness while diving

in a team, your teammates may well be able to get you to the
surface and resuscitate you. That can’t happen when you are
by yourself.
n Severe Entrapment or Entanglement: We know, from first-hand

experience, of good divers who nevertheless perished in situ-
ations where a buddy could have gotten them unentangled or
unstuck. Unfortunately, no buddy was around to do so.
A number of organizations and individuals simply condemn solo

diving under all circumstances. However, there is a certain hypoc-
risy in doing so. Consider the case of an instructor, assistant in-
structor or divemaster who is teaching, assisting with training or
guiding less experienced divers.
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n Where a solo diver’s attention might be focused almost en-

tirely on his own safety and survival, the dive leader’s atten-
tion is generally focused outward to those for whom he is
responsible.
n While the instructor, assistant instructor or divemaster is busy

looking out for the safety and well being of their students,
who is looking out for them? You might be tempted to say,
“Well, isn’t the divemaster the instructor’s buddy — and vice
versa?” No, they are not. They are neither looking out for one
another or likely even close to each other.
n In a teaching situation, a dive leader who suddenly finds him-

self without air can always pick up on one of his divers’ alter-
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nate air sources. But what if he suddenly becomes incapacitat-

ed or unconscious? Are his students or divers anywhere near
qualified to respond?
NASE Worldwide neither encourages nor condemns solo diving.

The decision to do so is one each diver has to make — although
divers would be wise to consider all of the risks in doing so.
NASE does not offer a specialized Solo Diver certification.

We do, however, offer Divemaster, Assistant Instructor and
Instructor training and certification and, as you have seen,
some of the risks involved in teaching and guiding divers
go beyond those of solo diving.
One thing we can tell you, however, is that solo diving is an ac-
tivity well beyond the limits of someone at your current level of
training. That should pretty much table further discussion for the
time being.
The Ideal Team

How many members constitute the ideal dive team? Depending
on circumstances, two or three.
n Two divers is, of course, the minimum — and what we gener-

ally think of when we hear someone refer to a buddy team.
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n A team can also be comprised of three divers. This is common

when the overall dive group has an uneven number of mem-
bers. In cave diving, three divers is considered the ideal team,
as you have two people to help in the event of an out-of-air
emergency, instead of just one. The same thing can be true in
recreational diving — or you can have a situation in which the
three-person team degrades into one buddy pair and a solo
diver. That’s not good.
n With the exception of a class or dive group being lead or guid-

ed by a designated divemaster or leader, teams of four or
more divers generally don’t work. They quickly break up into
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individual buddy pairs and, sometimes, the occasional solo

diver. Better to stick with two- or three-person buddy teams.
Team Goals
Among the surest ways to guarantee failure is for a dive team to
get in the water with no clear idea of where they are going, who
is responsible for getting them there and back, and what they
will do along the way or when they get there. Before you and
your teammates even get in the water, there are things you need
to discuss and agree upon, including:
n Where do you want to go? Do you have a specific destination in

mind, such as a reef or wreck, or do you just want to do a sce-
nic tour of the bottom.
n How do you plan to get there? Is there a specific compass head-

ing you need to follow or (more likely) a natural-navigation
route that will take you where you want to go?
n Who will be primarily responsible for navigation? Even though

all team members need to agree on where you are going and
how you will get there, you need to designate one person as
being primarily responsible for navigation. If you don’t, you
risk having the team split up and go in different directions.
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n What special activities do you plan to engage in? Is it just a sight-

seeing dive — or do you plan to shoot photos or video? Bear
in mind that, unless all team members are engaged in the
same activity, things are likely to not work out too well.
You also need to agree on the parameters of planned and max-

imum depth and time, as well as Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR)
and whether or not your remaining gas is half usable or all usable.
Team Positioning
Even though you’ve designated a team “leader” who will be pri-
marily responsible for navigation, you’ll want to avoid swimming
single-file. A single buddy pair is best off swimming side-by-side.
Depending on circumstances, a three-person team may be better
off swimming three-abreast, or having the lead diver swimming
just slightly in front (but where he can still turn and maintain eye
contact with fellow team members).
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There are several reasons why side-by-side positioning is better

for recreational divers.
n It minimizes the risk of a diver being left behind.
n It allows divers to keep their buddies in sight at all time and

maintain direct eye contact simply by turning their heads.
n Divers can gain their buddies’ attention and signal one anoth-
er instantly.
n If there is an out-of-air or other emergency, divers are in the

best possible position to respond.
When descending or ascending along a line, divers should face

one another, try to remain within arm’s reach and maintain eye
contact.
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n Team diving offers benefits in the areas of safety, enjoyment
and efficiency that solo diving generally does not.
n Solo diving requires special training and equipment, and a

level of overall experience that is well beyond what most rec-
reational divers possess. Even then, there are risks that no
amount of training and equipment can manage that simply
aren’t present when divers dive in teams.
n The ideal dive team is two or three divers. Any more than this
tends to break down into separate buddy pairs and, possibly,
one or more solo divers.
n As part of the planning process, team members need to agree

on where they are going, how they will get there and what
they plan to do along the way or at their destination. They also
need to agree on parameters such as depth, time and Mini-
mum Gas Reserve.
n Team members are best off swimming side by side. Doing

so helps avoid buddy separation and allows divers to quickly
communicate with one another and respond quickly to any
problems.
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Underwater Navigation
Why worry about navigation? Compasses are complex and no
one can remember all of those terms like bearing and azimuth —
or even what they mean…right? What makes it worth the time to
learn?
As it turns out, the ability to navigate under water is among
the most valuable of all scuba skills. Among its many benefits:
n You no longer need to blindly follow a divemaster, instructor

or more capable buddy. As a navigator, you can be the one
who leads the way.
n By learning to navigate, you use time and breathing gas more

effectively, wasting little or no time wondering where the heck
you are.
n As being lost can put you some distance from the security of
the boat or shore, or in hazardous environmental conditions,
being able to navigate is also safer.
Nevertheless, many divers find the thought of having to do so

daunting. Unfamiliar terms such as azimuth, bearing, heading
and reciprocal make the process sound intimidating, as does the
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notion that you need graduate-level trigonometry to navigate

successfully.
The good news is, the vast majority of the time, all you
need under water is what we call natural navigation. This
is merely an extension of how you find your way around
on land. In fact, if you’ve made even one dive in which
you did not blindly follow someone else, you’ve already
used natural navigation — possibly without realizing it.
On rare occasions, you also need to be able to use an underwater

compass. Forget the bewildering terms and complex mathemat-
ics, though. We’re going to make this idiot-simple.
Let’s get started.
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Natural Navigation
Study Questions
following:
n What are several examples of underwater “roads” divers can

follow when navigating without a compass?
n How do underwater signs and landmarks affect your ability

to navigate without a compass?
n How can divers combine the elements of natural navigation

to find their way under water?
n What is the most important factor in natural navigation?
If you have made even one dive during which you were not
blindly following someone else, you’ve already made use of nat-
ural navigation — possibly without even realizing it. Natural navi-
gation under water is merely an extension of how we get around
on land. Consider how you get home from work at night:
n You follow roads.

n You turn at intersections.
n You are further guided by signs and landmarks.
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You do much the same under water.
Underwater Roads
The “roads” we follow under water are seldom paved and gener-
ally not man-made. Nevertheless, they can point the way as sure-
ly as if they were. Examples of underwater “roads” that divers fre-
quently follow include:
n Reef Lines and Sand Channels: Coral reefs often array them-
selves in lines with edges that are easy to follow for long dis-
tances. Coral reefs will also frequently lie parallel to one anoth-
er, forming easily followed sand channels between them.
n Walls and Slopes: Walls are vertical; slopes are angled. Navigating
them, however, is much the same. You can, for example, swim
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along the base of a wall or slope. Alternately, you can swim

along the drop off where the wall or slope begins. You can also
swim part way down a wall or slope by following a depth con-
tour. Do this by using your computer to maintain a constant
depth while keeping the wall or slope on your right or left (you
can return to your starting point by maintaining the same depth
and keeping the wall or slope on the opposite side).
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n Man-Made “Roads:” Occasionally, you actually follow a man-

made road under water, such as one that existed before a
quarry was flooded or a lake was dammed. More common ex-
amples of man-made “roads” include the sides of a shipwreck
or guidelines installed by divers to help others find their way
around a popular dive site.
Where any of these “roads” intersect, you have the opportunity

to change direction. Examples might include:
n Two intersecting reef lines.

n A wreck lying perpendicular to a drop off.
n A permanent guideline intersecting a wall or canyon.
Signs and Landmarks

Underwater signs and landmarks can serve as confirmation that
you are, in fact, headed in the right direction. They can also mark
a point at which you will want to change direction. Given suffi-
cient visibility, you can even navigate by swimming across a fea-
tureless bottom from one landmark to the next. Examples of un-
derwater signs and landmarks include:
n Sunlight: Students in orienteering courses on land learn to use

the sun as a navigational reference. It is possible to do so un-
der water as well — although the fact water quickly diffuses
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sunlight limits this ability. While you are not likely to see sun-
light cast any distinct shadows under water, in shallow water
you may notice that the side of a wreck, reef or rock formation
that is opposite the sun is darker. For the most part, increases
or decreases in the overall levels of sunlight and color provide
confirmation of changes in depth, often warning you of such
changes before you can consult your dive computer.
n Depth: As a generalization, the shallower the depth, the closer

you are to shore. There are exceptions, however, such as when
ascending the side of an isolated pinnacle.
n Sand Ripples: Sand ripples, if present, will generally run parallel

to shore. You can confirm this simply by noting the direction
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of incoming waves prior to entering. If you are swimming per-

pendicular to the sand ripples, and the depth is getting pro-
gressively shallower, odds are you are approaching the beach.
n Current and Surge: At times, detecting the presence of current

or surf is easy — such as when it is dragging you along the
bottom.
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In general, however, the signs are more subtle, such as kelp

or vegetation leaning in one direction, or the back-and-forth
motion of soft corals as waves pass overhead. For this infor-
mation to be useful, however, you have to know certain things
going in, such as the direction of longshore currents, or which
direction the waves are moving above you. This further under-
scores the importance of a careful site assessment before en-
tering the water.
n Distinct Coral or Rock Formations: Unusually large coral or rock

formations make great landmarks — particularly if you have
seen them before, or have gotten a detailed description of
them from other divers. These items share the virtue of sel-
dom being identical. Therefore, if you find yourself “a might
bewildered” and then stumble across a familiar landmark, you
will at least know where you are.
n Wrecks and Other Man-Made Artifacts: Coming across a famil-

iar wreck or artifact provides the same sort of confirmation of
where you are as coming across a familiar rock or coral forma-
tion. Additionally, unless very broken up, large wrecks general-
ly make it easy to find your way around — much more so than
trying to follow a series of random coral heads.
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Putting it All Together

The following illustration shows how you can use these various
factors in combination with one another to make a rather lengthy
dive without ever consulting a compass.
In this example, divers are able to follow a reef line, a drop off, an
underwater canyon and a depth contour for several hundred me-
ters or yards before reaching their gas turnaround point.
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Limiting Factors
Nothing in life is perfect and, even though natural navigation is
all you need most of the time, it does have its limitations.
n A flat, featureless bottom may provide little in the way of ref-

erence points for effective navigation. Fortunately, unless you
become lost, the odds of finding yourself in such a situation
are slim. After all, if there is nothing to see, there is little reason
to go there.
n The biggest single limitation in natural navigation is visibility. Try-

ing to find your way under water in poor visibility is like try-
ing to drive in dense fog. When you can no longer see familiar
landmarks, knowing where you are or where to turn is difficult.
When you have no apparent underwater “road” to follow, or can’t

see your way from one way point to the next, natural navigation
can become next to impossible. A similar problem can exist in
good visibility if the distances between landmarks is still greater
than the eye can see. This is why, even though we seldom use it,
compass navigation is a skill every diver needs.
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n Underwater “roads” can include reef lines and sand channels,
walls and slopes, and man-made “roads.”
n Underwater “signs” and landmarks can serve as confirmation

that you are, in fact, headed in the right direction. They can
also mark a point at which you will want to change direction.
n Just as when navigating on land, divers can combine “roads”

and landmarks to find their way under water.
n Underwater visibility generally is the most important factor in

natural navigation. It’s tough to navigate using visual referenc-
es when you can’t see.
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Compass Navigation
Study Questions
following:
n What are the four critical parts of an underwater compass?
Many divers go months — or even years — without needing to

use a compass. Depending on where they dive, some divers never
need to use a compass. Nevertheless, in those comparatively rare
instances where you do need a compass, there is no substitute
for having one — and for knowing how to use it effectively.
In this section, we will discuss:
n Compass Features
n Using an Underwater Compass
n Understanding the Limitations of Compass Use
n Measuring Distance Under Water
Compass Features
Before you can use a compass, you need to understand its fea-
tures and what they do. Underwater compasses fall into two
broad categories: mechanical and digital.
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Mechanical Compass Features: Let’s look at these first.

They include:
n North Needle: The one thing that all compasses have in com-
mon is a needle or indicator that points to magnetic north. On
underwater compasses, this is generally incorporated into a
compass card, a rotating disc that may also have the other car-
dinal points of the compass (East, South and West), as well as
degree numbers and markings. It’s important to understand
that, in order to work properly, the compass card or north nee-
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dle needs to be able to turn freely — and, to do that, you must

be holding the compass perfectly level when using it.
n Center Line: Technically known as a lubber line, this is generally

a brightly colored line that runs down the center of the com-
pass. It’s helpful to think of it as the compass’s center line, as
one of the keys to effective compass use is to keep the center
line of the compass perfectly aligned with the center line of
your body.
n Index Marks: These are generally incorporated into a rotating

bezel, also with degree markings. (On some compasses just
the index marks rotate; the bezel is fixed.) The index marks
are used to mark where the north needle should be pointing
when the compass is aimed in the desired direction of travel.
n Reciprocal Mark: This is a mark on the side of the bezel directly

opposite the index marks. You use this mark when running a
reciprocal compass course — which is basically just returning
to your original starting point.
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n Side Window: Most better-quality compasses also incorporate

a side window. Similar to “bubble” compasses found on boats
and airplanes, the side window allows you to take a direct
reading of your direction of travel, measured in degrees. Some
divers prefer using the side window over the markings on the
top of the compass.
Digital Compass Features: A relatively new development

in underwater compasses, digital compasses are most often in-
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corporated into better-quality dive computers (although it’s rare

for a new dive computer to be introduced that does not have this
feature). Exactly how these compasses work can vary widely by
make and model. As a generalization, most work in a manner
very similar to side-window compasses. You will need to read the
owner’s manual for your particular computer, however, to see ex-
actly how yours works.
Compass Mounting Options: There are at least four differ-

ent ways you can mount an underwater compass:
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n Console Mounting: This is by far the most popular way of car-

rying and using a compass. It not only keeps all of your instru-
ments together, it also makes using the compass easier than
using a wrist-mounted compass. Depending on the make, the
compass may be mounted on the top, side or back of the con-
sole. Ideally, the compass should be on the same side of the
console as your computer or depth gauge, so that you can
monitor depth while following the compass.
n Retractor Mounting: Some divers don’t like the bulk associat-

ed with big consoles, preferring instead to use wrist-mounted
dive computers and other instruments. For reasons we’ll dis-
cuss shortly, there are some limitations to using wrist-mount-
ed compasses. An alternative is to mount the compass on a
retractor. This way, you can pull it out when needed, and leave
it clipped off (or back in your dive bag) when it is not.
n Wrist-Mounting: The most basic compasses come with a wrist

strap. If you find yourself in possession of such a compass, our
advice is to look for an alternative means of mounting ASAP.
n Slate Mounting: It’s unusual to see recreational divers use

slate-mounted compasses. These are more common among
research divers, such as underwater archaeologists, and Spe-
cial Operations divers, such as SEALs, who have very high-tech
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compass boards for traveling long distances to enemy beach-

es. Compass boards also come in handy for underwater map
making and, due to their extended center line, are among the
most accurate ways to use a compass under water.

n The four critical parts of an underwater compass are the bezel,
center or lubber line, index marks and degree markings.
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Using an Underwater Compass

Study Questions
following:
n What factors affect how you set an underwater compass?
n What is the greatest limitation on the accuracy of

underwater compass use?
There are two aspects to using an underwater compass:

n Setting the compass prior to use, and…
n …following the compass under water.
Setting a Compass: Before you can use your compass un-

der water, you need to set it for your intended destination. This
means either establishing a degree heading for that destina-
tion or marking where the north needle should point when the
compass’s center line is aligned in the right direction. This is also
known as taking a heading.
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n Setting a Top-Reading Mechanical Compass: This is pretty easy.

Start by holding the compass perfectly level. Aim the center
line at your desired destination. Allow several seconds for the
north needle to stabilize. Rotate the index marks so that they
are aligned with the north needle.
n “Setting” a Side-Reading Compass: You don’t actually “set” a

side-reading compass as you do a top-reading one. What you
do, instead, is aim the compass at your desired destination, al-
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low several seconds for the compass card to settle, then make
a mental note of the degree heading you see in the side win-
dow when it does.
Most digital compasses will work in largely the same manner as a

side-reading mechanical compass (although some may also pro-
vide a means to lock in a digital heading). Consult your owners
manual for specific instructions.
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By the way, when talking about compass use, you will also hear
the terms bearing and azimuth in addition to heading. For all in-
tents and purposes, they mean the same thing.
Once your compass is set, you are ready to go underwater and
follow it.
Following a Compass: Just as you set top- and side-reading

compasses differently above water, you use them differently un-
der water.
n Following a Top-Reading Compass: As always, start by holding

the compass perfectly level. Align the center line of the com-
pass with the center line of your body. Now turn your body
until the north needle is centered inside the index marks.
Swim in the direction the center line points while keeping the
north needle inside the marks.
n Following a Side-Reading Compass: Again, keep the compass

level. Hold the compass in front of you so that the center line
of the compass aligns with the axis of your body. Turn your
body until the degree heading you noted on the surface is
centered in the side window. Swim in the direction the center
line points while keeping the correct degree heading centered
in the window. It may take a while to get used to the fact the
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compass card is not moving; you and the rest of the compass
are rotating around it.
As we mentioned before, following a digital compass will be

largely the same as following a side-reading mechanical compass.
See your owner’s manual for specifics.
Holding a Compass: If using a console-, retractor- or

slate-mounted compass, just hold the compass in front of you
while keeping the center line aligned with the axis of your body.
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If need be, you can continue to hold onto the compass with one
hand while making a buoyancy adjustment with the other.
But what if you have a wrist-mounted compass? Many div-
ing textbooks show a position in which the diver holds one arm
straight out in front of him, while bringing the arm with compass
across so that the compass is directly in front of the diver’s eyes.
This works great…in theory (and a few divers can actually pull it
off). What usually happens, though, is that while you may think
the compass is correctly aligned with your body’s axis, it is actual-
ly off by several degrees. Also, you now have both hands tied up,
making buoyancy adjustments more of a challenge.
This is what we alluded to earlier when we said that wrist
mounting a compass was a less-than-desirable option. Bear in
mind, too, that many of the computers that have built-in digital
compasses are wrist-mounted models. If you find yourself with
such a compass, what can you do?
n If you anticipate doing a lot of compass following, you may

want to consider moving your compass or your computer to a
retractor.
n As an alternative, you can also take your compass or computer

off your wrist and simply hold it in your hands while running a
compass course (just don’t drop it).
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Running a Reciprocal Course: Sometimes using a compass

entails making a one-way trip. For example:
n When diving in very shallow water (10 m/30 ft or less), it’s com-
mon to travel farther from the boat or shore than you would
on deeper dives.
n This being the case, there is also a greater likelihood that you
may have difficulty finding your way back to your starting
point using natural navigation alone.
n If this happens, you could simply ascend and hoof it back to

the boat or shore on the surface. However, this can be ex-
hausting and puts you at greater risk from boat traffic.
n The better alternative is to surface, take a heading on the boat

or shore, then descend and swim to your exit point under wa-
ter, following your compass heading.
Of course, for this to work, you’ll need to estimate the distance

to your exit point and then swim only that far under water. If the
boat does not appear over head (or you don’t run into the beach),
surface and take a new heading. We will discuss how to measure
the distance covered under water shortly.
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Most of the time, however, you will be relying on your compass

to get you out to your intended destination and back again. The
return trip is what is known as running a reciprocal course.
Here is how you do it:
n Running a Reciprocal Course Using a Top-Reading Compass: If

your compass is equipped with a reciprocal mark, there is no
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need to re-set the bezel. Simply align the compass so that

the north needle points directly at the reciprocal mark. If your
compass lacks a reciprocal mark, simply turn it so that the
south end of the north needle aligns with the index marks.
n Running a Reciprocal Course Using a Side-Reading or Digital

Compass: If your original heading was less than 180 degrees,
add 180 degrees to it. If it was more than 180 degrees, subtract
180 degrees. The new number is your reciprocal course.
Limitations of Compass Use

Using an underwater compass is not like using your car or truck
GPS. Even on your best days, you are going to miss your intended
destination by as much as 10 to 15 degrees. If the distance you
are trying to cover is short, this is no big deal. You’ll likely see your
destination, even if you don’t hit it head on.
If you try to go a greater distance, this 10- to 15-degree

“cone of error” increases the further you go. The problem
is compounded if you try to run multiple-leg courses.
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The following illustration brings the point home:
Dive instructors frequently have students run a small triangu-

lar or rectangular compass course as a means of gaining famil-
iarity with compass use. With the exception of one situation
we will cover later on, such complex courses have no practical
application.
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Something else you should be aware of is the dangers associat-

ed with running compass courses in deeper water. When using
a compass, it’s best if you keep the bottom in sight. Doing so
makes it easier to maintain depth. When you lack this visual refer-
ence, it’s easy to become focused on the compass and lose track
of depth. You could, in fact, be changing depth and not realize it.
Ending up on the surface rather than at your intended

destination is, at best, embarrassing. At worst, if you did
not realize your were rising, you risk coming up at a dan-
gerous rate of ascent. Even worse than this is plunging
into dangerously deep water without realizing it.
Some textbooks recommend having one buddy monitor the

compass while the other monitors depth, alerting the compass
user to any changes. That doesn’t work. Trust us.
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If you absolutely must run a compass course in water with no vi-

sual references, both buddies need to monitor depth. This is why
it is helpful to have your compass in a console with your dive
computer. Doing so makes it easier to monitor depth while fol-
lowing your compass.
Here is a trick that can greatly improve the accuracy of your
compass courses:
n Before swimming blindly with your eyes glued to the compass,

see whether the compass is pointing to a rock, coral formation
or artifact in the distance.
n If it is, ignore the compass; just swim to the object. (Doing so

will help you avoid that 10- to 15-degree error often associat-
ed with simply following the compass.)
n When you reach the object, use the compass to see if there
is yet another object you can swim to along the same line
of travel. Repeat this as often as you can until you reach your
destination.
Doing this will significantly increase the accuracy of your com-

pass courses.
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To re-cap, to stay within the limitations of your compass:
n Keep the distances covered as short as possible. Avoid

long-distance navigation and multi-leg courses.
n When using a compass, keep the bottom in sight. Avoid com-

pass courses with no visual reference as to depth.
n Don’t follow your compass blindly if you see there are one or
more objects you can simply swim to in your line of travel. Do-
ing this increases accuracy and helps you remain on course.
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n The procedure for setting an underwater compass will vary
depending on whether it is a top-reading, side-reading or dig-
ital model.
n Distance is the greatest limitation on the accuracy of underwa-

ter compass use. The longer the compass course, the greater
the margin for error.
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Measuring Distance
Study Questions
following:
n What is the most accurate (although not commonly used)

means of measuring distances under water?
n What commonly used method of measuring distance under

water is considered to be the most accurate?
n What is generally considered to be the most common

method of measuring distance under water?
n What is a common alternative to measuring longer distances

with kick cycles?
When setting your compass on the surface, it’s important to esti-

mate the distance to your intended destination as well. Why? Giv-
en the inherent inaccuracy of underwater compass use, you can
easily miss the object you are swimming to. If you don’t pay atten-
tion to the distance you have covered, you could end up overshoot-
ing your intended destination by a considerable amount.
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Tape Measure
By far the most accurate means of measuring distances under
water is to use a fiberglass tape measure, similar to those found
on construction sites. These are frequently used by underwater
archaeologists and other scientists. Cave divers use these tape
measures and knotted guidelines when making maps. Unfortu-
nately, it would not be very practical for recreational divers to car-
ry and use such a big, bulky item.
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Arm Spans
The most accurate way to measure distances underwater, using

just what you have with you, is arm spans. Of course, to do so,
you will need to measure what your arm span is ahead of time.
Measuring with arm spans is practical when the distance to be
measured is less than, say, a dozen or so arm spans. (For example,
doing a survey of a small wreck.) For longer distances, though,
using arm spans is impractical.
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Kick Cycles
The most common means of measuring distance under water is
to use kick cycles. A kick cycle is the distance you cover in the time
it takes one fin to move from its starting position, to the opposite
extreme, and back to its starting position. To use kick cycles, you
will need to do a baseline measurement, seeing how many kick
cycles it takes to cover a measured distance of, say 100 meters or
yards. Kick cycles have the further benefit of not requiring you to
retrieve a reel or measuring tape afterward.
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Timed Swim
A final way you can measure distance under water is to establish
a baseline for how many seconds it takes you to swim a fixed dis-
tance. If you know that, at a normal pace, you cover 50 meters or
yards in a minute, and you are swimming to a wreck that is 100
meters or yards offshore, you should expect to hit the wreck after
around two minutes of swimming. If you don’t, it may be time to
surface and check your bearings.
It’s important to understand that, short of using a fiber-

glass tape measure, measuring distance under water will
not be perfectly accurate. You can easily be off by 20 per-
cent or more. Additionally, no matter how accurate you
are under water, you are comparing the distance covered
against a visual estimate of distance you made at the sur-
face. This could easily be very inaccurate.
All of this underscores why you should limit compass navigation

to relatively short distances. The less territory you try to cover, the
less the inherent inaccuracy of compass navigation will matter.
Remember the KISS principle: Keep It Simple, Stupid.
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n By far the most accurate means of measuring distances un-
der water is to use a fiberglass tape measure, similar to those
found on construction sites.
n Among commonly used methods of measuring distance un-

der water, arm spans are considered to be the most accurate.
Only a fiberglass measuring tape is more accurate, and its use
isn’t commonplace.
n Kick cycles are generally considered to be the most common

method of measuring distance under water.
n An alternative to measuring longer distances with kick cycles is

to establish a baseline as to how many meters or feet you cov-
er in a fixed number of seconds.
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Navigating Around an Obstacle

Study Questions
following:
n What can you do if you find your compass course blocked by

an obstacle?
Earlier we told you that, with one exception, you should avoid
multi-leg compass courses. This is that exception.
Let’s say you take a heading on a buoy marking an off-

shore wreck. While following your compass to the wreck,
you run into a huge rock outcropping rising from the bot-
tom all the way to the surface. You can’t go over it. You
can’t go through it.
What do you do?
n Start by turning 90 degrees in the direction most likely to take

you around the object. If your compass card has East and West
cardinal points, there is no need to re-set the bezel. Just center
the appropriate cardinal point between the index marks.
n As you swim, count kick cycles.

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n Once you clear the obstruction, note the number of kick cycles
it took to get to this point and return to your original heading.
n Once you are completely past the obstacle, turn 90 degrees

back toward your original route. Begin counting kick cycles.
n Once you have traveled the same number of kick cycles as you
did to clear the obstruction, turn 90 degrees back to your orig-
inal heading.
Go Farther
It is now as though you were able to pass right through the ob-
stacle. Remember you will need to repeat this process when run-
ning the reciprocal course back to shore.

n If you find your compass course blocked by an obstacle, you
can navigate around it using a series of 90-degree turns, and
then returning to your original heading.
Go Farther
Deeper Diving
Deeper diving is a large part of the Advanced course. Any dive
past a depth of 20 m/65 ft is considered a deep dive by recre-
ational standards. In this section we will be discussing for aspects
of deeper diving:
n Deeper Diving: What and Why?

n Deep Diving Risks and Hazards
n Equipment for Deeper Diving
n Planning and Making Deep Dives
Go Farther
Deeper Diving: What and Why?

Study Questions
following:
n What depth ranges are considered within the realm of

recreational deep diving?
n Why might recreational divers want to plan and make

deeper dives?
What? and Why? are the first two questions you should ask
about any specialized diving activity. In this section, the two
questions we will answer are:
n What is Deeper Diving?

n Why Dive Deep?
What is Deeper Diving?

When it comes to recreational diving, most experts consider any
dive past 20 m/65 ft to be a deep dive. Your entry-level training
did not prepare you to dive past this depth — even though the
recommended depth limit for recreational diving is 30 m/100 ft
Go Farther
(with an absolute limit of 40 m/130 ft for divers with specialized

Deep Diver training).
Dives past 20 m/65 ft expose divers to greater risks than

shallow dives do. We will discuss these risks in greater de-
tail in the next section.
The ability to safely make dives past the 20 m/65 ft limit is among
the most common reasons divers enroll in advanced training. To
do that, however, there are some things you need to know first —
which is what we cover in this chapter.
Go Farther
Why Dive Deep?

The answer to this question is fairly straightforward: To see more
and do more. Here are some examples.
n The ability to safely plan and execute deeper dives provides

access to a greater range of dive sites, including many wrecks
and wall dives.
n Most diveable wrecks lie at depths greater than 20 m/65 ft

(shallower wrecks tend to be broken up as hazards to naviga-
tion). Thus, if you want to see and experience these wrecks,
you need to be able to safely manage these greater depths.
n Most tropical wall dives start at depths between 24 m/80 ft

and 30 m/100 ft. While you are not likely to be venturing any
distance down these walls as a recreational diver, your deep
Go Farther
diving qualification will at least enable you to get out over the
edge and look down.
The plain truth is that if you want to see and experience all there
is to see and do as a recreational diver, you need to be able to
safely exceed the 20 m/65 ft limit.

n The depth range for recreational deep diving is between 20
m/65 ft and 30 m/100 ft with 40 m/130 ft feet as the maximum
depth for recreational diving.
n The ability to safely plan and execute deeper dives provides

access to a greater range of dive sites, including many wrecks
and wall dives.
Go Farther
Deep Diving Risks and Hazards

Study Questions
following:
n How does increased gas consumption at depth affect the

planning and execution of deeper dives?
n How does deeper diving impact the risk of decompression

sickness? How can divers manage this risk?
n Can deep divers manage the effects of nitrogen narcosis?

Is there a way to help prevent narcosis? How should deep
divers respond to narcosis symptoms?
n How does loss of ambient light affect deep divers? What

steps can they take to manage this loss?
n Why is some sort of physical reference such as a wall, slope or

down line essential to deeper diving? What can deep divers
do to prevent or manage their loss?
n Why is buddy separation a greater problem at depth? What

steps can deep divers take to avoid this?
Go Farther
Before undertaking any specialized dive activity, you must first

identify the risks and hazards associated with it and how you are
going to manage or overcome those risks. Specific risks that we
will be discussing in this section include:
n Increased Gas Consumption

n Limited No-Decompression Time
n Nitrogen Narcosis
n Diminished Ambient Light
n Loss of Descent/Ascent Line
n Buddy Separation
We will discuss each risk factor in greater depth and explain how,
as an Advanced diver, you can deal with it.
Increased Gas Consumption

You remember from your beginning class that gas consumption
increases in direct proportion to depth.
For example, a cylinder that lasts 60 minutes at the sur-

face will only last 15 minutes at a depth of 30 m/100 ft.
As a result, Advanced divers must not only plan for increased

gas consumption (i.e., allow for a greater Minimum Gas Reserve),
but also monitor pressure more frequently. In deeper water, you
should be checking your pressure gauge at least once every two
Go Farther
minutes at the beginning of the dive, and every minute as you

approach your MGR.
Because the risks and consequences of a sudden gas loss are

greater, you and your teammates also need to be in agreement
as to the best way to share air, and make sure your equipment is
up to the task.
Limited No-Decompression Time

You may have heard other divers say that, as long as you limit
yourself to a single tank, you can’t exceed the no-decompression
limits. That’s not necessarily true of repetitive dives and it is cer-
tainly not true of dives past 20 m/65 ft.
What you will discover as an Advanced diver is that, the

deeper you go, the greater the likelihood you could ex-
Go Farther
ceed the no-deco limits on a single dive — even if it is

your only dive of the day.
This is why deep divers need to monitor their computers more

frequently and avoid repetitive dives to deeper depths. You may
have learned in your beginning class that divers should always
make repetitive dives to the same or shallower depths than previ-
ous dives. Doing so affords maximum allowable bottom time for
each dive and, thus, helps prevent the risk of accidentally exceed-
ing the no-decompression limits.
Nitrogen Narcosis
In your beginning class, you learned about the hazards and risks
associated with nitrogen narcosis. However, as your diving was
Go Farther
limited in depth to 20 m/65 ft, this discussion was largely abstract.

Now that you will be diving to depths approaching 30 m/100 ft,
these risks become very real.
It’s important to remember that the effects of nitrogen

narcosis can vary from diver to diver and day to day. Al-
though the effects of narcosis increase in direct propor-
tion to depth, awareness of narcosis becomes more pro-
nounced as depths approach 30 m/100 ft. It other words,
the deeper you go, the more impaired you are — whether
you realize it or not. It’s only the realization of your level of
impairment that may come on suddenly.
For most of us, the threshold of severe narcosis impairment is 30

m/100 ft. This is one reason why this depth is the recommended
limit for recreational diving. Keep in mind, however, that there is
Go Farther
no guarantee that, on any given day, you won’t get “narced” at

shallower depths.
Despite what some divers claim, there is no way to “man-

age” narcosis, other than lessening its severity by keep-
ing your carbon dioxide levels low by avoiding exertion
at depth. When you suspect impaired thought or action,
you and your ream mates need to ascend immediately.
The good news is, simply moving to a shallower depth may be

all that is needed to reduce the symptoms of narcosis. This may
be an option if diving a slope or wall. If there is no shallow water
available, your only option may be to ascend slowly, make your
safety stop and then call it a day.
Diminished Ambient Light

Even in clear water, ambient light levels decrease significantly at
depth, as does apparent color. The presence of silt and sediment
can make matters worse — in fact, given sufficient sedimenta-
tion, it can be as black as night at 20 m/65 feet, even at noon on a
bright, sunny day.
Go Farther
This is why dive lights are an important deep diving tool, even in
daylight. Dive lights can:
n Enable you to see more (especially in corners, cracks and

crevices).
n Help restore the natural appearance of colors under water.
n Make it easier for buddies to keep track of one another.
Loss of Descent/Ascent Line

Unless diving a wall or slope, a physical or visual reference, such
as anchor or “down” lines, is essential to safer deep diving. With-
out such a reference, you risk getting lost or disoriented, and may
end up surfacing a considerable distance from the boat or shore.
Go Farther
Obviously, you should prevent this from happening; however,

you also need to have a backup plan in case it does.
n Some recreational divers will do as technical divers do, and

carry a surface marker buoy and safety reel to deploy it. De-
ploying a surface marker at depth does carry with it the risk of
entanglement and requires special training. You can get this in
the NASE Tek Basics course.
n If you do manage to surface some distance from the boat or

shore, having the audible and visible surface signals discussed
earlier can be a literal lifesaver.
Go Farther
Buddy Separation
Buddy separation is a serious problem under any conditions, but
is even more so on deeper dives due to reduced gas supply and
available bottom time.
Finding a lost buddy can take several minutes. If you can’t

locate the missing diver after one minute, you can always
follow standard procedure, make a slow ascent and safety
stop, then meet up at the surface. At this point, however,
the dive is over.
Go Farther
To avoid this, deep divers need to remain closer together and es-
tablish eye contact frequently. This is one case where preventing
a problem clearly is the best solution.

n Gas consumption Increases in direct proportion to depth. A
cylinder that lasts 60 minutes at the surface, for example, will
only last 15 minutes at a depth of 30 m/100 ft. As a result,
deep divers must not only plan for increased gas consumption
(i.e., larger Minimum Gas Reserve volumes), but monitor pres-
sure more frequently.
n The deeper the dive, the greater the possibility divers can
exceed the no-decompression limits on a single tank. Deep
divers need to monitor their computers more frequently and
avoid repetitive dives to deeper depths.
n The effects of nitrogen narcosis can vary from diver to diver

and day to day. Although the effects of narcosis increase in
direct proportion to depth, awareness of narcosis becomes
more pronounced as depths approach 30 m/100 ft. There is
no way to “manage” narcosis; when you suspect impaired
thought or action, ascend immediately. Keeping CO2 levels low,
however, can mitigate the onset of narcosis symptoms.
Go Farther
n Even in clear water, ambient light levels decrease significantly

at depth, as does apparent color. The presence of silt and sed-
iment can make matters worse. Dive lights are an important
deep diving tool, even in daylight.
n Unless diving a wall or slope, anchor or “down” lines are es-

sential to safer deep diving. Take steps to avoid their loss, but
have a backup plan in case it happens.
n Buddy separation is a serious problem under any conditions,

but even more so on deeper dives due to reduced gas supply
and available bottom time. To avoid this, deep divers need to
remain closer together and establish eye contact frequently.
Go Farther
Equipment for Deeper Diving

Study Questions
following:
n How does deeper diving affect the selection and

maintenance of your regulator system?
n What options are available to deeper divers in terms of

redundant gas supplies?
n What role can dive lights play in deeper diving?
n Why are dive computers all but essential for deeper diving?
So long as you stay within the recommended recreational depth

limit of 30 m/100 ft, deep diving should not require much more
in the way of equipment than shallower dives — especially if
you purchase the right equipment up front. Still, there are a few
points worth discussing, including:
n Regulator Systems for Deeper Diving

n Redundant Gas Supplies
n Dive Lights
n Dive Computers and Deeper Diving
Go Farther
Regulator Systems for Deeper Diving

It would be foolish to own separate regulator systems for shal-
low and deep diving. If you purchase the right regulator system
going in, the same regulator should be more than adequate for
both. So what makes a good deep-diving regulator?
Bear in mind that any regulator used for deeper diving

must be capable of supplying gas for two divers breath-
ing at higher-than-normal rates. At 30 m/100 feet, the gas
passing through your first stage is significantly denser
than at the surface; two divers will at least double this task
load, even if they are not breathing hard.
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Now you might wonder, Why would any manufacturer make a

regulator that was not adequate for all recreational diving depths?
Good question.
As it turns out, there is a legitimate market for low-end

regulators that will only be used in shallow water. These
unbalanced piston regulators are popular as rental regs;
tech divers use them on their 6 m/20 ft deco bottles.
Unfortunately, some divers are attracted by the low price of such

regs and purchase them for general use as well — only to dis-
cover — sometimes at the worst possible time — that they just
aren’t up to the task. Avoid spending money foolishly; invest in a
medium to top-of-the line regulator from a major manufacturer.
Also bear in mind that regular, professional maintenance, while
essential for any regulator, is especially important for those used
for deeper diving. Ultimately, it is the maintenance that will have
the greatest long-term effect on regulator performance.
Redundant Gas Supplies

Some divers like to have the added security of the type of redun-
dant gas supply used by technical divers.
Go Farther
n For example, many deep divers carry a separate backup gas

supply in the form of a pony bottle or self-contained ascent
bottle.
n If you choose to go this route, keep in mind that this gas sup-
ply must equal your single-diver Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR).
Among the benefits of sidemounting is that this configuration is

inherently redundant.
Dive Lights
As we discussed earlier in this section, dive lights help make up
for the loss of ambient light at depth, restore natural colors and
help divers keep track of one another.
Go Farther
Unlike night diving, where it is important to have both primary

and backup lights, as well as a tank marking light, deep divers
can generally get away with just one hand-held light.
Dive Computers and Deeper Diving

While dive computers are nice to have on shallower dives, their
ability to more precisely account for exposure to elevated partial
pressures of nitrogen make them essential on deeper dives.
To use earlier examples, if your find yourself needing to

move into shallower water to reduce narcosis, or to stay
within an acceptable MGR, your computer’s ability to ad-
just no-decompression limits accordingly will be extreme-
ly helpful — and something you can’t do with dive tables.
Go Farther
As deeper diving often segues into learning technical diving,

consider investing in a multi-gas computer you won’t need to re-
place later on.
Go Farther

n Any regulator used for deeper diving must be capable of sup-
plying gas for two divers breathing at higher-than-normal
rates. Regular, professional maintenance is essential for any
regulator used for deeper diving.
n Many deep divers carry a separate backup gas supply in the

form of a pony bottle or self-contained ascent bottle. Among
the benefits of sidemounting is that this configuration is inher-
ently redundant.
n Dive lights help make up for the loss of ambient light at depth.
They can also restore the appearance of natural color and help
divers keep track of one another.
n While dive computers are nice to have on shallower dives, their

ability to more precisely account for exposure to elevated par-
tial pressures of nitrogen make them all but essential on deep-
er dives. As deeper diving often segues into learning technical
diving, consider investing in a multi-gas computer you won’t
need to replace later one.
Go Farther
Planning and Making Deep Dives

Study Questions
following:
n What environmental conditions should deep divers avoid

and why?
n How does deeper diving affect the distance traveled under

water?
n What impact could surface swimming have on deep divers?
Planning and making deep dives isn’t all that different from mak-
ing shallower dives. All the normal dive-planning rules apply —
as well as the need to establish and stay within a safe Minimum
Gas Reserve. There are also some things you will want to do
when diving deeper. These include:
n Avoid Adverse Conditions

n Limit Travel Distances
n Avoid Surface Swims
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Avoid Adverse Conditions

As previously discussed, advanced divers need to avoid condi-
tions that might increase gas consumption, the risk of DCS or the
possibility of buddy separation or loss of your down line. These
include:
n Strong currents, as these can increase exertion, resulting in el-

evated CO2 levels and a higher risk of DCS.
n Poor visibility, as this can reduce ambient light to near black-

ness and increase the risk of buddy separation and loss of a
physical or visual reference for descents and ascents.
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Limit Travel Distances

Deep divers are best off limiting the distance they travel from
their descent/ascent lines.
n With limited time, divers can’t risk getting lost and, in the pro-
cess, risking exceeding the no-decompression limits.
n With limited gas and a higher MGR, divers don’t have the luxu-
ry of making their remaining gas anything but “all usable.”
This helps explain why wrecks are popular for deeper diving, as
wreck divers seldom travel farther than the length of the wreck.
Go Farther
Avoid Surface Swims

Heavy exertion before and, especially, following deeper dives
can significantly increase the risk of DCS. Unfortunately, surface
swims generally require a lot more exertion than swimming un-
der water.
n The good news is, most deep diving takes place from boats.
As boat captains know it’s best to get directly over the dive
site whenever possible. This reduces or eliminates the need for
any surface swimming.
n If deep diving from shore, unless there is an immediate drop

off, try to return to your starting point under water, as op-
posed to surfacing. Doing so will effectively extend your safety
stop and reduce overall exertion.
Go Farther

n Deep divers must avoid conditions that might increase gas
consumption, the risk of DCS or the possibility of buddy sepa-
ration or loss of your down line. These include strong currents
and reduced visibility.
n Deep divers are best off limiting the distance they travel from
their descent/ascent lines. This is why wrecks are popular for
deeper diving; wreck divers seldom travel farther than the
length of the wreck.
n Heavy exertion before and, especially, following deeper dives

can significantly increase the risk of DCS. Plan deep dives
to minimize or, better still, eliminate the need for surface
swimming.
Go Farther
NASE Advanced Open Water Diver Manual: Appendix I nA-1n
Determining Minimum Gas

Reserve (MGR) with Greater Accuracy
In the section on Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR), you learned why
it’s important that each dive team member establish the mini-
mum amount of breathing gas it will take to surface himself and
a buddy, if that buddy also needs to share air during the ascent.
It is vital to keep this gas in reserve throughout the dive so that, if
the unthinkable happens, each team member has sufficient gas
to deal with it.
In that section, we gave you some general MGR values that
might apply to many divers, given common breathing rates and
use of a popular cylinder size. While these values are better than
having none at all, there are many situations they don’t cover, in-
cluding:
n Divers with substantially different SAC rates.

n Use of varying size cylinders.
n Dives to depths other than the 10-, 20-, 30- and 40-meter
depths discussed earlier in the course.
NASE has created two Microsoft Excel spreadsheets that can help
you more accurately determine MGR, using actual SAC rates, dive
Version Date 121122 Copyright (©) 2012, NASE Worldwide

depths and cylinder sizes. We’ll explain their use at the end of this
section and provide you with a link to download them.
However, as with dive tables and computers, you should not
use these tools without first understanding the underlying princi-
ples behind them. This is what we will cover next.
ATA: The Magic Number

Depth in Atmospheres Absolute (ATA) is a value that is integral to
nearly every calculation dealing with gas consumption and div-
ing physics. Think of it as a “magic number” that will help you
solve almost any diving problem.
You already know, from your beginning diver training, that
pressure increases by one atmosphere for every 10 m/33 ft of de-
scent. You may even have the ATA values for 10 m/33 ft, 20 m/66
ft, 30 m/99 ft and 40 m/130 ft committed to memory. What do
you do, however, when your planned dive depth doesn’t con-
form to these values?

There is a simple formula that will help you determine depth in

ATA for any value in meters or feet.
Here is a variation on that formula that some divers prefer. It

yields exactly the same values.
SAC Rate: Gas Mileage for Divers

Knowing your Surface Air Consumption (SAC) rate is like knowing
what sort of fuel economy you can expect of your car, truck or
SUV. If anything, it’s more important to know your SAC rate. If you
run out of gas above water, you walk to the gas station, gas can
in hand. If you run out of gas under water, you’d best hope for a

nearby and responsive buddy with sufficient gas remaining for

both of you.
Determining your own personal SAC rate involves making one
or more gas consumption runs. The procedure for doing so is fairly
simple.
n Swim for a fixed amount of time (five minutes or more is best)

at a constant depth. Swim at a normal, relaxed pace. Your goal
is to emulate how fast you consume air during a typical dive.
n Note your starting and ending pressures in bar or psi.
The total amount of gas consumed, divided by the number of

minutes you swam, is your gas consumption rate at depth. Divide
this by the depth, in ATA, to get your SAC.
If possible, repeat your gas consumption run at varying depths

and under varying real-life conditions. Averaging the results of
these runs will give you a more accurate number to work with.

Actual gas consumption varies directly by depth. By con-

verting gas consumption rate at depth to its equivalent
Surface Air Consumption rate, we arrive at a constant val-
ue that we can use to solve a variety of problems.
To convert SAC rate to gas consumption rate at depth, simply re-

verse the SAC rate formula.
Converting Pressure to Volume6

Your initial SAC rate calculation will give you a SAC rate value in
bar or psi. If you know, with certainty, that you will always dive
the same size cylinder, this may be sufficient. To assume this will
happen, however, is naive.
Divers frequently use cylinders of varying sizes. Tech

and cave divers routinely switch back and forth be-
tween doubles and singles — often on the same dive.
For this reason, it’s best to convert SAC in bar or psi to SAC in ac-
tual liters or cubic feet. By the way, when expressed in volume,
SAC becomes what is known as Respiratory Minute Volume or
RMV. For simplicity’s sake, however, we’re just going to keep re-
ferring to it as SAC.
Here is the formula for metric cylinders, in which capacity is

measured in liquid volume.
The formula for doing so with imperial tanks is slightly more com-
plex, given the peculiar way in which these cylinders are rated.
Reversing these formulas will give you SAC in bar or psi.

NASE SAC Rate Calculator

You could call up the calculator function on your smart phone
and do each of the calculations needed to determine SAC rate
manually. Unfortunately, all it takes is a single mistyped digit or a
formula entered incorrectly and your entire calculation collapses
like a house of cards — possibly without you knowing it.
For this reason, NASE distributes SAC Rate Calculator spread-
sheets in both metric and imperial versions.
To use these spreadsheets, simply replace the numbers in orange

with actual values.

MGR Formula: Components

To determine a Minimum Gas Reserve value that would provide
sufficient gas for two divers to make a slow ascent and a safety
stop while sharing air, you need to first determine the MGR for
four distinct phases of that ascent.
n First, you need to allow up to a minute between the time div-

ers begin sharing gas and the initiation of the actual ascent.
This allows for divers getting into position, sorting out any
communication issues, traveling a short distance at depth to
re-acquire the descent/ascent line and dealing with possible
problems such as entrapment or entanglement.
n Next, you need to allow for the amount of gas consumed

between the depth at which the ascent begins and the safe-
ty-stop depth of 5 m/15 ft.

n You have to then allow for the gas consumed during the safety
stop.
n Finally, you need to allow for the amount of gas consumed

from safety stop depth to the surface.
Finding MGR for Individual Segments

To determine the Minimum Gas Reserve for each segment of a
gas-sharing ascent, use the following formula:
n To start, you have to assume divers will be breathing some-

what faster than their normal, relaxed SAC rate. In our exam-
ples, we use 150 percent of the normal SAC rate for this.
n You will need to multiply this increased SAC rate by depth in

atmospheres (ATA). This gets complicated during the actual
ascent phase because divers are not at a constant depth. The
easiest way to resolve this is to subtract ending depth from
starting depth and dividing by two. This gives you the average
depth and, thus, the average ATA for the entire segment.

n Next, you need to multiply the resulting value by the time

of the segment in minutes. In addition to the one minute at
depth and three-minute safety stop, you will need to divide
the two ascent distances by an ascent rate of 10 m/30 ft per
minute.
n Finally, as there are two divers, you need to multiply the results
by two. If the divers have substantially different SAC rates, you
need to calculate the MGR for each diver individually, then add
the results together.
NASE MGR Calculator

As with its SAC Rate Calculator, NASE provides metric and imperi-
al versions of a spreadsheet designed to help calculate Minimum
Gas Reserve values.

NASE Advanced Open Water Diver Manual: Appendix I n11n
Again, you replace the numbers in orange with actual values and
see the results in green for both one and two divers.
If the two divers have significantly different SAC rates,

run the spreadsheet for each individual diver, then add
the two single-diver results together.
As you run various scenarios with the MGR Calculator, one thing
is going to become readily apparent: The average recreational div-
er allows nowhere near sufficient Minimum Gas Reserve, especially
on deeper dives.
On a dive to 40 m/130 ft, the typical recreational diver

needs to begin ascending after using less than half a
tank. The good news is he might need to begin ascend-
ing at this point anyway, to avoid decompression.
If diving along a wall or slope, one strategy you may want to con-
sider is remaining at your maximum depth until you hit the MGR
for that depth, then moving to a shallower depth where the MGR
is less. This will go hand-in-hand with what your dive computer
allows for multi-level dives.
n Link to download SAC/MGR spreadsheet package.

On Site Assessment
Pre-Dive Checklist This list is for shore dives; on boats, listen to and follow the crew briefing
Conditions okay for diving?
Before You Leave Home Safest entry/exit point?
Easiest and safest entry/exit technique?
Tasks Note current, waves, etc.
Regulator and BC serviced/inspected in the last year? Restrooms, other facilities?
Dive computer battery changed in the last year? How do you summon EMS?
Camera system, dive light and other batteries charged? Phone number for DAN: (919) 684-9111 (use another number?)
If diving locally, did you check the weather? Nearest dive group or facility you can go to for help?
Any rental gear picked up, tanks filled and analyzed?
All necessary reservations/bookings made? Final Gear Check Before Suiting Up
Tell someone else where you are going and when you should return Scuba unit fully assembled?
Weight pockets installed (or ready to install)?
Packing List Air turned all the way on and pressure checked?
Depending on whether or not you are diving locally, or from a beach or All other equipment present and ready to go?
boat, not all items may be necessary
Mask, fins, wetsuit boots Dive Plan Review
Exposure suit/undergarments Where are you going? Who is primarily in charge of navigation?
Hood and gloves for cold? Planned depth and time?
Weight system or weight belt Maximum depth and time?
Weights? Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR)?
Regulator and BC Is remaining gas half usable or all usable?
Dive computer
Cutting tool Final Equipment and Buddy Check
Emergency Kit Depending on circumstances, this takes place on the surface before
First-aid kit (topside) descending or just before entering
Oxygen? (topside) A Air all the way on?
Audible surface signal B BC functioning and inflated to the right level?
Visible surface signal C Computer activated, functioning and set to right FO2?
Folding snorkel Final visual check and buddy okay
Pocket mask
Other Items Sample Minimum Gas Reserve (MGR)
Minimum Gas Reserve is the amount of gas each diver
Dive tables? must have to be able to share air with another and still Depth Minimum Gas Reserve
Slate? make a slow ascent and safety stop. The values shown
here assume a minute on the bottom to solve problems, 10 m/35 ft 45 bar/700 psi
Sunscreen a 10 m/30 ft per minute ascent and a three-minute safety
Motion-sickness medication stop. They also assume a “stressed diver” breathing rate 20 m/65 ft 60 bar/900 psi
of 30 L/1 ft3 per minute, using the common 11 L/80 ft3
Camera? tank. These values may not be sufficient in every situation. 30 m/100 ft 90 bar/1300 psi
Float/flag? For more precise data, download the NASE SAC and MGR
Calculators from www.ScubaNASE.com/forms/aow.html.
40 m/130 ft 120 bar/1700 psi
© 2012, NASE Worldwide Version 121215
Data Record Data Record
SAC Data SAC Data
■M ■M
■ FT
SAC Run Depth ■ FT
SAC Run Depth
SAC Run Time in Minutes SAC Run Time in Minutes
■ BAR ■ BAR
■ PSI
Starting Pressure ■ PSI
Starting Pressure
■ BAR ■ BAR
■ PSI
Ending Pressure ■ PSI
Ending Pressure
Nav Data Nav Data
■M ■M
■ FT
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© 2012, NASE Worldwide Version 121031 © 2012, NASE Worldwide Version 121031

Advanced Open Water Diving

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Advanced Open Water Diving

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What is the purpose of the NASE Advanced Open Water Diver Manual?

What is the purpose of the NASE Advanced Open Water Diver Manual?

What skills are reviewed in the manual?

What skills are reviewed in the manual?

NASE Snorkeling Manual

NASE Advanced Open

Concept and Development:

n Core Skills Review and Assessment

Throughout this course, you’ll see us use the terms Advanced

significantly more experience, and from building on your base of

What Does This Course Entail?

n Knowledge development takes place through self study, using

n Skill development takes place through a series of instructor-su-

tion, compass navigation and deeper diving. If time allows, the

As with most NASE courses, there is no set number of required

Prior to these dives, your instructor will most likely con-

n NASE standards require instructors to ensure that all students

divers of other agencies? Let’s just say that, while we require

Specifically, we require that our entry-level divers be able to per-

n Many students take the Advanced course as a means to get

someone would come up with a better way to do things. Well,

It’s Not the Advanced Diver Course, It’s the

So why do we call it the Advanced course if it does not make you

What you are about to take is not an “advanced” div-

In an ideal world, no training agency would issue a permanent

n The recommended depth limit for recreational diving is 30

n If newly certified Open Water divers plan to make a dive under

In contrast, the Advanced Open Water Diver course helps pre-

n Advanced Open Water Divers are trained to plan and make

n Because Advanced Open Water students will be exposed to

n While we encourage Open Water course graduates to make

Skills Review and Assessment

This section is divided into six parts:

n Competency and Core Skills Defined

The purpose of this section is two-fold:

n To let you know what to expect (and what will be expected of

Competency and Core Skills Defined

n How does NASE define skill competency?

n In what skills should students entering the NASE Advanced

To get started, we need to begin with some definitions. In this

n How NASE Defines Competency

How NASE Defines Competency

cial, technical and — especially — cave diving. We’re obsessed

We can tell you this, though: If you show up at a dive resort or

It also means that, while your performance does not necessarily

n It would be unrealistic to expect a beginning student to recov-

n Still, students need to meet the stated performance objective.

n Additionally, regardless of training level, the student can’t just

The other condition for competency is without undue stress. In

The NASE Advanced Open Water Diver course has a number of

Core Skills Defined

n Mask removal, replacement and clearing, and no-mask

n Regulator recovery and clearing using both reach and sweep

n Alternate air source use while stationary, ascending and

n All aspects of buoyancy control.

Prior to taking part in any Advanced Open Water Diver course

n If your Advanced Open Water instructor is the same one who

n Similarly, if you recently completed training with another in-

If your instructor deems it necessary to get in the water for a

n Your instructor may conduct a core-skills review and practice