Polar Coordinates

October 12, 2012

Contents

1 Introduction to polar coordinates 2

1.1 Where do polar coordinates come from? (some history) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Conversion between Cartesian and polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Problem set 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Converting equations between coordinate systems 8

2.1 Convert from polar form to rectangular form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Convert from rectangular form to polar form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Problem set 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Graphing polar coordinates 12

3.1 Problem set 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4 Applications of polar coordinates 19

A Solutions to problem sets 21

A.1 Problem set 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A.2 Problem set 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
A.3 Problem set 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
A.4 Polar Graph Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Bibliography 34

1
Chapter 1

Introduction to polar coordinates

The familiar rectangular or Cartesian coordinates (x, y) are one way of designating a point
on the plane. Polar coordinates are a different method of doing the same thing. Polar co-
ordinates designate a point P as a measured distance r from a fixed point called the pole
at a direction θ from a fixed line called the polar axis which passes through the pole. The
angle, θ, can be measured in either degrees or radians and so we will use both. A point in
the plane given in polar coordinates would be represented as (r, θ) which indicates that this
point is θ radians or degrees from the polar axis at a distance of r from the pole.

Polar coordinates are somewhat different than rectangular coordinates in that a single point
in the plane can have morethan one polarcoordinate designation. For example, the point
 π −7π 9π
6, is the same point as 6, and 6, due to co-terminal angles. The distance,
4 4 4
r, can be given or calculated as a negative value in polar coordinates which is interpreted as
a change of direction. In order to represent this change in direction the 
value of θ must have
π
180 degrees or π added or subtracted from it and thus, the point 6, is also represented
  4
5π
by −6, . Any point P on the plane can be represented by an infinite number of polar
4
coordinates given as (r, θ ± 2nπ) and (−r, θ ± (2n + 1)π), with n = 0, 1, 2, ....1 These are the
conversion statements when θ is given in radians, but since we shall also use degree measure
those are given as (r, θ ± (2n) · 180◦ ) and (−r, θ ± (2n + 1) · 180◦ )

1.1 Where do polar coordinates come from? (some

history)
Polar coordinates have been around since the time of Isaac Newton. Newton (1642 - 1727)2
is credited with being able to locate any point on the plane using polar coordinates.3 Newton
was interested in finding tangents to curves in Cartesian coordinates, but also other types of
1
Tripathi, 2005, p. 2
2
Washington, 2010, p. 268
3
Coolidge, 1952, p. 81

2
curves in other coordinate systems. In doing this he presented expressions similar to those
we currently use to convert between rectangular and polar coordinates.4 Although Newton
may have been the first to write these expressions, it appears that he did not develop the use
of polar coordinates any farther. This was left to James Bernoulli (1654 - 1705)5 to explore
polar coordinates as a method of locating points in the plane and so Bernoulli is generally
credited as the discoverer of polar coordinates.6 The other historical mathematician involved
in polar coordinates is Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783)7 who is credited with the notation for
polar coordinates that is still used today. Euler’s work made polar coordinates a part of
analytic geometry.8

1.2 Conversion between Cartesian and polar coordi-

nates
If we consider the Cartesian plane and any point given as (x, y), we can convert it to polar
coordinates using basic trigonometry. If we consider the following two diagrams they show
the same point represented two different ways. The point (x, y) is the same point as (r, θ).

Diagram A Diagram B

In order to convert from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates we consider the ba-
sic trigonometric relationships that exist in Diagram A. The coordinates, x and y, are the
measured distances along the x and y axes. To convert these to polar coordinates
p we use
Pythagorean theorem. In this case r2 = x2 + y 2 and so the value of r = ± x2 + y 2 . Since
r can be either positive or negative, this is the correct conversion although in general we
4
Boyer, 1949, p. 73
5
Washington, 2010, p. 599
6
Coolidge, 1952, p. 82
7
Washington, 2010, p. 344
8
Boyer, 1949, p. 77

3
consider r ≥ 0. To determine the value of θ from Diagram A we recall that since this isa
y y
right triangle imposed on a coordinate system we can find tan θ = , and so θ = tan−1 .
x x ◦
Diagram A is of a first quadrant angle so we would expect to find values of θ less than 90
π
or . If our angle is in a different quadrant then the value of the angle must be adjusted to
2
the correct quadrant. If you are familiar with the CAST rule and reference angles you can
apply it here to to make the quadrant adjustment. If you are not familiar with this we first
determine a reference angle, called α, from the absolute value of the inverse tangent function.
Note that this calculation will always result in a positive angle α. The value of α is then
added or subtracted from the angular value along the x-axis of the quadrant in which the an-
gle is located to find the angle in the desired quadrant. Thus, in quadrant II, subtract α from
180◦ or π, in quadrant III, add α to 180◦ or π and in quadrant IV, subtract α from 360◦ or 2π.

To convert from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates we consider Diagram B. Since

(r, θ) is the same point as (x, y), the same right triangle still exists. To find the sides of the
triangle, x and y, we use basic right triangle trigonometry and rearrange the ratios of sides
y x
that represent the cosine and sine ratios. So, given that sin θ = and cos θ = we have
r r
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. If r is given as a negative value we include that negative in the
calculations to ensure that we find the correct values for x and y.

Example 1 Convert the point (−3, −7) to polar coordinates with 0 ≤ θ < 360◦ .
 
−1  −7 
p  
2
r = (−3) + (−7) 2 α = tan  
√ −3
r = √9 + 49 α = 66.8◦
r = 58 adjust for quadrant by adding 180◦ since
(−3, −7) is in Q III
θ = 246.8◦
√
Thus (−3, −7) is equivalent to ( 58, 246.8◦ )

Example 2 Convert the point (−5, 12) to polar coordinates with 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
 
−1  12 
p  
2
r = (−5) + (12) 2 α = tan  
√ −5
r = √25 + 144 α = 1.176
r = 169 adjust for quadrant by subtracting α from
π as (−5, 12) is in Q II
r = 13 θ = 1.966

Thus (−5, 12) is equivalent to (13, 1.966)

4
Example 3 Convert the point (3, −8) into two polar coordinates. State these coordinates
with θ in degrees and with θ in radians.
First determine the pair of polar coordinates where θ is expressed in degrees.
 
2 2 2 −1 −8
r = (3) + (−8) θ = tan
3
2 ◦
r = 9 + 64 θ = −69.4
π
r2 =√73 find the radian measure by multiplying by 180 ◦

r = 73 θ = −69.4◦ × 180π
◦ = −1.211
√ √
Thus (3, −8) is equivalent to ( 73, −69.4◦ ) as well as ( 73, −1.211)

You will notice in Example 3 that the value of θ has been left as a negative value. If a do-
main is given for the angle then this dictates what the polar coordinates first angle will
be. If a domain is not given, then θ can assume either positive or negative values. The
solution given is actually only one of infinitely many solutions
√ for this ◦conversion. These
73, −69.4 ± (2n) · 180◦ or


solutions would fall into two distinct patterns given by
√
− 73, −69.4◦ ± (2n + 1) · 180◦ . If a radian measured angle had been requested then


√
√

those solutions would be 73, −1.211 ± 2nπ or − 73, −1.211 ± (2n + 1)π . These
four statements give all possible polar coordinates for the single Cartesian coordinate
(3, −8).

Example 4 Determine the Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates of the point (3, 196◦ ).
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
◦
x = 3 cos 196 y = 3 sin 196◦
x = −2.88 y = −0.83
So (3, 196◦ ) = (−2.88, −0.83) in Cartesian coordinates.

If you consider the polar coordinates given, we have a point in the third quadrant.
This indicates that the x and y values both have to be negative, which is what has
occurred. This is a check method for the calculations.
 
5π
Example 5 Determine the Cartesian coordinates of the point −4,
3
x = r cos θ   y = r sin θ  
5π 5π
x = −4 cos y = −4 sin
3 3
x = −2 y = 3.46
 
5π
So −4, = (−2, 3.46) in Cartesian coordinates.
3
The negative value given for r indicates that even though the value of θ given is in
quadrant four, our solution will be in quadrant two. This is the change in direction
that is indicated by the negative value of r.

5
  
5π
Example 6 Given polar coordinates of −4, determine two other equivalent pairs
3
of polar coordinates, one pair with a positive r value and one pair with a negative r
value.
   
5π 11π
−4, = −4, by adding 2π to θ
 3  3

5π 2π
−4, = 4, by subtracting π from θ
3 3

Example 6 demonstrates that the same point can have both positive and negative r
values in polar coordinates. In general, if we are changing polar coordinates to other
polar coordinates and r retains the same sign, we add or subtract 360◦ or 2π to the
value of θ. If r changes sign we add or subtract 180◦ or π from the original value of θ.
You can check that your solutions work by confirming that the values for x and y in
Cartesian coordinates are all the same for each of the points determined. The check is
given below.
     
5π 11π 2π
−4, −4, 4,
3   3   3  
5π 11π 2π
x = −4 cos x = −4 cos x = 4 cos
3 3 3
x = −2   x = −2   x = −2  
5π 11π 2π
y = −4 sin y = −4 sin y = 4 sin
3 3 3
y = 3.46 y = 3.46 y = 3.46

1.3 Problem set 1

For the following problems express r as an exact value, θ in degrees to one decimal place and
θ in radians to three decimal places. Express x and y coordinates to two decimal places.
1. Convert the following rectangular coordinates into polar coordinates with r ≥ 0 and
0 ≤ θ < 360◦ .

a) (−3, 5)
b) (−2, −11)
c) (5, 2)
d) (8, −15)

2. Convert the following rectangular coordinates into polar coordinates with r ≥ 0 and
0 ≤ θ < 2π.

a) (5, 13)
b) (−7, 21)

6
 c) (−13, −10)
d) (4, −9)

3. Convert the following rectangular coordinates into at least two different equivalent
polar coordinates.

a) (7, 12)
b) (12, −8)
c) (−9, −13)
d) (−12, 15)

4. Convert the following polar coordinates into Cartesian coordinates.

a) (4, 218◦ )
b) (−3, 117◦ )
√
 
3π
c) 35,
5
√
 
3π
d) − 63,
7
5. Given the following polar coordinates, find two other pairs of equivalent polar coordi-
nates, one with a positive r value and one with a negative r value.

a) (−3, 306◦ )
b) (8, 118◦ )
 
13π
c) 7,
8
 
5π
d) −5,
9
6. Given the following pieces of information, determine the missing pieces as indicated.
Express r as a positive value to two decimal places.
√
a) Given r = 35, y = 4.81, determine the values of x and θ in Quadrant II with θ in
degrees.
b) Given x = 7.19, θ = 192.3◦ , determine the values of r and y.
√
c) Given r = 51, x = 6.73, determine the values of y and θ in Quadrant IV with θ
in radians.
π
d) Given y = 3.95, θ = , determine the values of r and x.
12

7
Chapter 2

Converting equations between

coordinate systems

2.1 Convert from polar form to rectangular form

Since we now know what polar coordinates are, we can now convert equations between the
two coordinate systems. The reason we do this is to recognize that the use of one system
or the other may be more useful when graphing these equations. In order to do this we use
the following statements from polar coordinates and trigonometry and use algebra to simplify.
y x
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ r 2 = x2 + y 2 sin θ = cos θ =
r r

Example 1 Convert the equation r = 2 to rectangular form.

r=2
r2 = 4
x2 + y 2 = 4 by substitution.

You should be able to recognize this as the equation of a circle with radius 2. In polar
coordinates, the function r = a with a ∈ N is always a circle of radius a.

Example 2 Convert the equation r = 2 cos θ to rectangular form.

r= 2 cos θ x
x Substitute cos θ = r
r=2
r Multiply both sides by the denominator to
clear the fraction
r2 = 2x
Substitute the rectangular form
2 2
x + y = 2x
x2 − 2x + y 2 = 0

8
 Example 3 Convert the equation r = 1 + sin θ to rectangular form.

1 + sin θ = r
Use a trigonometric substitution
y
1 + =r
r Multiply by the denominator to clear the
fraction
r + y = r2
p Substitute the rectangular forms
2 2
x2 y2
+ + y=x + y
p Isolate the radical
x2 + y 2 = x2 + y 2 − y
Square both sides of the equation to clear
the radical and gather like terms
x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 2x2 y + y 4 − 2y 3 − x2 = 0
Example 4 Convert the equation r = 2 + 3 sin θ to rectangular form.

2 + 3 sin θ = r
3y
2+ =r
r
2r + 3y = r2
p
2 x2 + y 2 + 3y = x2 + y 2
p
2 x2 + y 2 = x2 + y 2 − 3y
x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 6x2 y − 6y 3 + y 4 − 4x2 + 5y 2 = 0

Example 3 and Example 4 both demonstrate that a function can be given as an explicit
equation and can converted to an implicit equation.

2.2 Convert from rectangular form to polar form

Using the same conversion factors as in the previous section, we can also convert equations
that are given in rectangular form to polar form. This is particularly useful in graphing as
polar form is generally a simpler form and thus easier to graph.
Example 1 Convert y = x2 to polar form and simplify where possible.

y = x2
r sin θ = (r cos θ)2
r sin θ = r2 cos2 θ
sin θ = r cos2 θ
sin θ sin θ 1
r = = tan θ sec θ Recall cos θ
= tan θ and cos θ
= sec θ
cos2 θ

9
Example 2 Convert the equation x2 +y 2 = 16 to polar form and simplify where possible.

x2 + y 2 = 16
r2 cos2 θ + r2 sin2 θ = 16
r2 cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 16

r2 = 16 Recall that sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

r = ±4

Example 3 Convert x2 + 6x + y 2 = 4 to polar form and determine the exact value of r

at θ = π3 .

x2 + 6x + y 2 = 4
r2 cos2 θ + 6r cos θ + r2 sin2 θ = 4
r2 cos2 θ + sin2 θ + 6r cos θ = 4


π
r2 + 6r cos θ = 4 Evaluate at θ =
3
r2 + 6r cos π3 = 4

r2 + 6r 21 = 4

r2 + 3r − 4 = 0 Which is a factor able quadratic

thus (r + 4)(r − 1) = 0
and r = −4 or r = 1.

Example 4 Convert x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 2x2 y − x2 + y 4 − 2y 3 = 0 to polar form and solve for

r in terms of θ.

x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 2x2 y − x2 + y 4 − 2y 3 = 0
r4 cos4 θ + 2r4 cos2 θ sin2 θ − 2r3 cos2 θ sin θ − r2 cos2 θ + r4 sin4 θ − 2r3 sin3 θ = 0
r4 (cos4 θ + 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ) − 2r3 sin θ(cos2 θ + sin2 θ) − r2 cos2 θ = 0
Recall that (cos4 θ + 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ) = (cos2 θ + sin2 θ)2 = 1
r4 − 2r3 sin θ − r2 cos2 θ = 0
r2 (r2 − 2r sin θ − cos2 θ) = 0
Solving the two remaining quadratics for r:

10
 r2 = 0 or 0 = r2 − 2r sin θ − cos2 θ
p
2 sin θ ± 4 sin2 θ − 4(1)(− cos2 θ)
r=0 r=
√ 2
2 sin θ ± 4
r=
2
r = sin θ ± 1

When r is equal to zero, this is the pole. When r is equal to two different statements, as
above, we shall see in the next chapter that this traces out the same curve but that the
starting position is offset by 180◦ from one curve to the other.

2.3 Problem set 2

Convert the following polar form equations to rectangular form. Ensure that your answers
do not contain radical symbols.

1. r = 4 cos θ

2. r = 2 sin θ

3. r = 1 + 2 cos θ
2
4. r =
1 + cos θ
5
5. r =
1 − 2 sin θ

Convert the following equations to polar form.

6. x2 − y 2 = 20

7. x2 + 2xy + y 2 = 0

8. 2x2 + y 2 = 9

9. 3x2 + 3y 2 − 6xy = 12
π
10. Determine the exact value of r at θ = for your answer in question 6.
6
π
11. Determine the exact value of r at θ = for your answer in question 8.
4
12. Convert x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 2x3 − 2xy 2 + y 4 − y 2 = 0 to polar form and solve for r.

13. Convert x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 4x2 y − x2 + y 4 − 4y 3 + 3y 2 = 0 to polar form and solve for r.

11
Chapter 3

Graphing polar coordinates

This is what polar graph paper looks

like. Instead of graphing on the rect-
angular or Cartesian plane, we are
graphing on circles of various radii.
The lines through the circles are at
π
multiples of 45◦ or . The graphs
4
drawn in this chapter will use radian
measures, although the same graphs
could be produced using degrees.

The method to graph polar equations is very similar to that used to graph algebraic equa-
tions. We start by creating a table of values and then plot the calculated points on to the
polar graph to determine the curve. We need to recall that r is the distance along the line
at the designated angle and that if the value of r is negative we go the opposite direction
(add π to the angle) and plot the distance r along the line of the new angle. As a general
rule it is a good idea to plot the points first and then connect them with a smooth curve in
the order they were plotted. If you are not getting a smooth curve you may have missed a
point or connected a point out of order.

Example 1 Graph r = 2 using polar coordinates.

This statement indicates that the value of r is unchanging, while at the same time
making no mention of θ. This indicates that for all values of θ, r = 2. Without too
much difficulty we should be able to realize this is a circle of radius 2 with the center
at the pole. The graph then is just exactly that and there is no need to use a table of
values here.

12
Example 2 Graph r = 2 cos θ using polar coordinates.

First develop a table of values.

π π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5pi 4π 3π 5π 7π 11π
θ 0 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
π 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
2π
r 2 1.73 1.414 1 0 -1 -1.414 -1.73 -2 -1.73 -1.414 -1 0 1 1.414 1.73 2

Now that we have these coordinates we plot them. The first piece we draw will be
between θ = 0 to θ = π6 and then we will graph out the rest of the diagram using
points in the table of values that are multiples of π6 .

Figure 2a Figure 2b

13
 Figure 2c Figure 2d
Note that for Figure 2d the value of r in the table of values is negative, so we have taken
the angle of 2π
3
and added π to it and plotted the distance r along the angle 5π 3
. The
same process is used to plot the values for the next two figures to complete the diagram.

Figure 2e Figure 2f
If we were to continue plotting the points in the table of values we would end up
repeating the same points. This is because while the angles are not repeated, the
values of r are mirrored around θ = π. That is, the values of r are the same as you
move out from this angle on either side. The result of the mirrored values is that the
curve is complete at θ = π and so we do not need to plot past this point.

14
Example 3 Graph r = sin θ + 1 using polar coordinates.

θ 0 π6 π
3
π
2
2π
3
5π
6
π 7π
6
4π
3
3π
2
5π
3
11π
6
2π
r 1 1.5 1.866 2 1.866 1.5 1 0.5 0.134 0 0.134 0.5 1
There are no repeat values of r and no negative values of r, so for this curve we just
plot the given points. We will do four separate graphs with end values of θ = π2 , π, 3π
2
and 2π until we have graphed the entire curve.

Figure 3a Figure 3b

Figure 3c Figure 3d
This particular shape is called a cardioid as it resembles a heart.

15
Example 4 Graph r = 2 sin (3θ) using polar coordinates.

π π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5π 4π 3π 5π 7π 11π
θ 0 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
π 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
2π
r 0 2 1.414 0 -2 0 1.414 2 0 -2 -1.414 0 2 0 -1.414 -2 0
The repeating values for r indicate that this graph will draw over itself similar to that
in Example 2. Here it is particularly important to pay attention when graphing the
negative values of r and connecting the points in the order in which they occur. The
graphs, shown below, illustrate the development of the sketch of the function in four
steps using end values of θ = π4 , π2 , 3π
4
and π.

Figure 4a Figure 4b

Figure 4c Figure 4d
This graph is called a 3-petaled rose.

16
Example 5 Graph r = 1 + 2 cos θ using polar coordinates.

π π π 2π 5π 7π 4π 3π 5π 11π
θ 0 6 3 2 3 6
π 6 3 2 3 6
2π
r 3 2.732 2 1 0 -0.732 -1 -0.732 0 1 2 2.732 3

To graph this shape we use end values of θ = π2 , π, 3π

2
and 2π

Figure 5a Figure 5b

Figure 5c Figure 5d

This particular shape is called a limaçon.

17
These particular curves are some of the common graphs that occur when sketching polar
curves. There are many other curves which can also be drawn and some of these are given
in the exercises below.

3.1 Problem set 3

Plot the following polar curves using polar coordinates. Polar graph paper is supplied in the
appendix.

1. r = 2 sin θ

2. r = 1 − 2 cos θ

3. r = sin θ − 1 Compare this with the solution from Example 3

4. r = 3 cos 4θ
3
5. r = √
cos2 θ + 1

6. r = sin2 θ

7. r = cos θ tan θ − 2

8. r = cos θ sin θ

18
Chapter 4

Applications of polar coordinates

Probably the most commonly asked question in any math class is “Where will I use this in
real life?” or something similar to this. Polar coordinates are no different. Aside from higher
level math courses such as calculus where are polar coordinates likely to be encountered?
Interestingly, we have probably all experienced uses of polar coordinates without recognizing
it as such. Below are several examples of where polar coordinates are used.
Example 1
If you consider the North Pole as the pole in polar coordinates, with the polar axis
being the longitudinal line through Greenwich, England, then the concentric circles of
latitude are a polar graph. Thus, the earth can be mapped using polar coordinates.1
Latitude and longitude measures give a location from the equator and the pole and
together identify a specific spot on the planet.
Example 2
The language of polar coordinates, that of a directed distance from a fixed point and a
fixed line is the language of vectors. Vectors of course are very useful in many physics
applications, including navigation. Thus, if you have ever been on a boat or a plane,
the navigators are using polar coordinates.
Vectors also appear in many applications involving forces acting on a body. The
calculations used to find the resultant of these forces generally involves converting
the given vector (polar coordinates) into Cartesian coordinates and using the laws of
physics to calculate the resultant force - which is itself another vector, usually expressed
in polar coordinates.
Example 3
In Chapter 3 we graphed curves in polar form. If these had been in rectangular form,
they would have been much more complex to graph in Cartesian coordinates. For
example, the equation x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 2x2 y − x2 + y 4 − 2y 3 = 0 converts to sin θ ± 1 = r
in polar form. Both of these functions of r were graphed in Chapter 3, one in the
examples and one in the exercises. Due to the exponents in rectangular form even
trying to calculate a single point would be cumbersome, whereas in polar form it is
quite straight forward.
1
Glazer & McConnell, 2002, p. 72

19
 Example 4
Machinists use polar coordinates on mechanical drawings in a machine shop. Using
the origin as the HOME position for CNC machining and with blueprints specifying a
certain number of equally spaced holes on a specific radius, polar coordinates allows
the machinist to calculate the degrees of separation and drill the holes accurately.2
The circular pattern in this example is exactly what polar coordinates are best suited
for, as Cartesian coordinates would be very cumbersome and difficult to work with in
this situation.

Example 5
Complex numbers are a mathematical construct that can be expressed in polar coor-
dinates. Complex numbers have the form x + yi in the complex plane. The polar form
of a complex number is given by r(cos θ + i sin θ) where r and θ are determined by
2 2 2 −1 y
r = x + y and θ = tan exactly as we have done here. The polar form of a
x
complex number can also be expressed as r∠θ without the i in which case it is similar
to the polar coordinates that we have already found. Thus, you need to be alert to
whether or not you are dealing with complex numbers or strictly polar coordinates.
The polar form of a complex number is actually quite useful for doing calculations with
complex numbers as the polar form simplifies multiplication and division of complex
numbers.

These are but a few of the applications where polar coordinates are used. While it is possi-
ble to create problems based on these applications even these few require more theoretical
explanation in order to understand the problems and so no problems have been presented
here for applications.

2
Spielbauer, 2009

20
Appendix A

Solutions to problem sets

A.1 Problem set 1

1. a) (−3, 5)  
p −1
 5 
r= (−3)2 + (5)2 α = tan  
 −3 
√
r= 9 + 25 α = 59.0◦
√
r= 34 adjust for quadrant by subtracting α from 180◦
θ = 121.0◦
Since the calculation process is the same for questions one and two, only the
answers are provided and not the worked solutions.

b) (−2, −11)
√ √
125, 259.7◦ = 5 5, 259.7◦ remember to always reduce radicals if possible

c) (5, 2)
√
29, 21.8◦

d) (8, −15)
(17, 298.1◦ )

2. a) (5, 13)
√

194, 1.204

b) (−7, 21)
√
√

490, 1.893 = 7 10, 1.893

21
 c) (−13, −10)
√

269, 3.797

d) (4, −9)
√

97, 5.131

3. The general solutions for all polar coordinates with a positive r value. Make sure that
your solutions fit these general solutions. If you have found solutions with negative
values of r, make the adjustments according to those found in example 6 in Chapter 1.

a) (7, 12)
√ √
193, 59.7◦ ± (2n) · 180◦ or



193, 1.043 ± (2nπ) , n = 0, 1, 2, ...

b) (12, −8)
√ √
4 13, 326.3◦ ± (2n) · 180◦ or 4 13, 5.695 ± (2nπ)



n = 0, 1, 2, ...

c) (−9, −13)
√ √
5 10, 235.3◦ ± (2n) · 180◦ or 5 10, 4.107 ± (2nπ)



n = 0, 1, 2, ...

d) (−12, 15)
√ √
3 41, 128.7◦ ± (2n) · 180◦ or 3 41, 2.246 ± (2nπ)



n = 0, 1, 2, ...

4. Only the complete solution is provided for the first question since the calculations are
similar for all four.

a) (4, 218◦ )
x = 4 cos 218◦ = −3.15
y = 4 sin 218◦ = −2.46
So (4, 218◦ ) = (−3.15, −2.46) in Cartesian coordinates.

b) (−3, 117◦ )
(1.36, −2.67)
√
 
3π
c) 35,
5
(−1.83, 5.63)
√
 
3π
d) − 63,
7
(−1.77, −7.74)

22
5. This is similar to Example 6 in chapter one and only the general solutions are provided
here. Note that if a question started with angles in degrees only the general solutions
with degrees are given, and likewise, if a question was given with angles in radians, only
the general solutions in terms of radians are provided. Make sure that your solutions
work in the general solutions.

a) (−3, 306◦ )
(−3, 306◦ ± (2n) · 180◦ ) and (3, 306◦ ± (2n + 1) · 180◦ ) , n = 0, 1, 2, ...

b) (8, 118◦ )
(8, 118◦ ± (2n) · 180◦ ) and (−8, 118◦ ± (2n + 1) · 180◦ ) , n = 0, 1, 2, ...
 
13π
c) 7,
 8   
13π 13π
7, ± 2nπ and −7, ± (2n + 1)π , n = 0, 1, 2, ...
8 8
 
5π
d) −5,
 9   
5π 5π
−5, ± 2nπ and 5, ± (2n + 1)π , n = 0, 1, 2, ...
9 9
√
6. a) Given r = 35, y = 4.81, detemine the values of x and θ in Quadrant II with θ in
degrees.
y
2 2 2 −1
r =x +y α = tan  
 
x 
−1  4.81 
 
35 = x2 + 4.812 α = tan 
−3.44 
x2 = 11.8639 α = 54.4◦
∴ x = −3.44 since x is negative in quadrant II and θ = 180◦ − 54.4◦ = 125.6◦

b) Given x = 7.19, θ = 192.3◦ , determine the values of r and y.

x
r= y = r sin θ
cos θ

7.19
r= y = 7.36 sin 192.3◦
cos 192.3◦
r = −7.36 y = −1.57
∴ r = 7.36 and y = −1.57

23
 √
c) Given r = 51, x = 6.73 determine the values of y and θ in Quadrant IV with θ in
radians. y
2 2 2 −1
r =x +y α = tan  
 
x 
−1  −2.39 
 
51 = 6.732 + y 2 α = tan 
6.73 
y 2 = 5.7071 α = 0.341
∴ y = −2.39 and θ = 2π − 0.341 = 5.942
π
d) Given y = 3.95, θ = determine the values of r and x.
12
y
r= x = r cos θ
sin θ

3.95 π
r= π x = 15.26 cos 12
sin 12
r = 15.26 x = 14.74

A.2 Problem set 2

1. r = 4 cos θ
4x
r=
r
2
r = 4x
x2 + y 2 = 4x
x2 + y 2 − 4x = 0

2. r = 2 sin θ
2y
r=
r
r2 = 2y
x2 + y 2 = 2y
x2 + y 2 − 2y = 0

24
3. r = 1 + 2 cos θ
2x
r =1+ r

r2 = r + 2x
r2 − 2x = r
p
x2 + y 2 − 2x = x2 + y 2
x4 + x2 y 2 − 2x3 + x2 y 2 − 2xy 2 − 2x3 − 2xy 2 + 4x2 = x2 + y 2
x4 − 4x3 + 2x2 y 2 + 3x2 − 4xy 2 − y 2 + y 4 = 0
2
4. r =
1 + cos θ
r(1 + cos θ) = 2
r 1 + xr = 2

r+x=2
p
x2 + y 2 + x = 2
p
x2 + y 2 = 2 − x
x2 + y 2 = 4 − 4x + x2
y 2 + 4x − 4 = 0
5
5. r =
1 − 2 sin θ
r(1 − 2 sin θ) = 5
r 1 − 2y


r
=5
r − 2y = 5
r = 5 + 2y
p
x2 + y 2 = 5 + 2y
x2 + y 2 = 25 + 20y + 4y 2
x2 − 3y 2 − 20y − 25 = 0

6. x2 − y 2 = 20
r2 cos2 θ − r2 sin2 θ = 20
r2 cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 20

r2 (cos 2θ) = 20 recall that cos2 θ − sin2 θ = cos 2θ

25
 7. x2 + 2xy + y 2 = 0
r2 cos2 θ + 2r cos θr sin θ + r2 sin2 θ = 0
r2 cos2 θ + 2 cos θ sin θ + sin2 θ = 0

r2 (cos θ + sin θ)2 = 0

8. 2x2 + y 2 = 9
2r2 cos2 θ + r2 sin2 θ = 9
r2 2 cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 9

r2 cos2 θ + cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 9

r2 (cos2 θ + 1) = 9

9. 3x2 + 3y 2 − 6xy = 12
x2 + y 2 − 2xy = 4
r2 cos2 θ + r2 sin2 θ − 2r cos θr sin θ = 4
r2 cos2 θ − 2 cos θ sin θ + sin2 θ = 4

r2 (cos θ − sin θ)2 = 4

π
10. r2 (cos 2θ) = 20 evaluate at
6
  π 
r2 cos 2 × = 20
  π 6
2
r cos = 20
3
1
r2 × = 20
2
2
r = 40
√ √
r = ± 40 = ±2 10
π
11. r2 (cos2 θ + 1) = 9 evaluate at
4
2 π
   
2
r cos +1 =9
4 !
  2
1
r2 √ +1 =9
2
 
1
r2 +1 =9
2
2
r2 = 9 ×
3
r2 = 6
√
r=± 6

26
12. x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 2x3 − 2xy 2 + y 4 − y 2 = 0
r4 cos4 θ + 2r2 cos2 θ r2 sin2 θ − 2r3 cos3 θ − 2r cos θr2 sin2 θ + r4 sin4 θ − r2 sin2 θ = 0
r4 cos4 θ + 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ − 2r3 cos θ cos2 θ + sin2 θ − r2 sin2 θ = 0




2
r4 cos2 θ + sin2 θ − 2r3 cos θ − r2 sin2 θ = 0
r4 − 2r3 cos θ − r2 sin2 θ = 0
r2 r2 − 2r cos θ − sin2 θ = 0

Thus r2 = 0 in which case r = 0, or r2 − 2r cos θ − sin2 θ = 0 which is a solvable

quadratic. Using the second equation and the quadratic formula we can solve for r.

p
2 cos θ ±4 cos2 θ − 4(1)(− sin2 θ
r=
√ 2
2 cos θ ± 4 cos2 θ + 4 sin2 θ
r=
√ 2
2 cos θ ± 4
r= = cos θ ± 1
2

13. x4 + 2x2 y 2 − 4x2 y − x2 + y 4 − 4y 3 + 3y 2 = 0

r4 cos4 θ+2r4 cos2 θ sin2 θ−4r3 cos2 θ sin θ−r2 cos2 θ+r4 sin4 θ−4r3 sin3 θ+3r2 sin2 θ = 0
r4 cos4 θ + 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ −4r3 sin θ cos2 θ + sin2 θ −r2 cos2 θ − 3 sin2 θ = 0





2
r4 cos2 θ + sin2 θ − 4r3 sin θ − r2 cos2 θ − sin2 θ − 2 sin2 θ = 0

r4 − 4r3 sin θ − r2 1 − 4 sin2 θ = 0 recall that cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ

r2 r2 − 4r sin θ − 1 + 4 sin2 θ = 0

Thus r2 = 0 in which case r = 0 or r2 − 4r sin θ − 1 + 4 sin2 θ = 0 which we can solve

using the quadratic formula.

p
4 sin θ ±16 sin2 θ − 4(1)(4 sin2 θ − 1)
r=
p 2
4 sin θ ± 16 sin θ − 16 sin2 θ + 4
2
r=
√ 2
4 sin θ ± 4
r= = 2 sin θ ± 1
2

27
A.3 Problem set 3
1. r = 2 sin θ

2. r = 1 − 2 cos θ

28
3. r = sin θ − 1

4. r = 3 cos 4θ

29
 3
5. r = √
cos2 θ + 1

6. r = sin2 θ

30
7. r = cos θ tan θ − 2

8. r = cos θ sin θ

31
A.4 Polar Graph Paper
Below are some extra copies of polar graph paper to be used in the graphing problems.

32
33
Bibliography

[1] Boyer, C. B. (1949) Newton as an originator of polar coordinates. The American

Mathematical Monthly Vol. 56, No. 2, 73-78, Retrieved May 4, 2012 from http:
//www.jstor.org/stable/2306162
This source provides historical information on polar coordinates and some of the original
users of polar coordinates.
[2] Coolidge, J. L. (1952) Origin of Polar Coordinates. The American Mathematical Monthly
Vol. 59, No. 2, 78-85, Retrieved May 4, 2012 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2307104
This source provides historical information on polar coordinates and discusses polar
coordinates not only in the plane but also briefly in three dimensions.
[3] Elliott, H.A., Fryer, K.D., Gardner, J.C, Hill. Norman J. (1980) Calculus, Complex
Numbers and Polar Coordinates, Toronto, ON: Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada
Ltd.
This source provides information about the graphs of polar curves.
[4] Glazer, Evan and McConnell, John W. (2002) Real-life Math; everyday use of mathe-
matical concepts, Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
This source provides information about use and applications of polar coordinates.
[5] Spielbauer, G. (2009) Polar Coordinates. ATEA Journal, 37(1), 23.
This source provides an example of polar coordinates being used by machinists.
[6] Tripathi, Mukut Mani (2005) Coordinate Geometry: polar coordinates approach, Har-
row, UK: Alpha Science International Ltd.
This source considers coordinate geometry using polar coordinates instead of rectangu-
lar.
[7] Washington, Allyn J. (2010) Basic Technical Mathematics with Calculus: SI Version.
(9th ed.) Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada
This source provides an introduction to polar coordinates, how to convert between
rectangular and polar coordinates and how to graph using polar coordinates.
[8] Wikipedia entry, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/polar_coordinate_system.
This source provides a brief history of polar coordinates, an overview of conversions
between polar and rectangular coordinates and references and links to other sources.

34