Effective Stress Regime Around A Jacked Steel Pile During

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Effective stress regime around a jacked steel pile during

installation ageing and load testing in chalk
R.M. Buckley, R.J. Jardine, S. Kontoe, and B.M. Lehane
Abstract: This paper reports experiments with 102 mm diameter closed-ended instrumented Imperial College piles (ICPs) jacked
into low- to medium-density chalk at a well-characterized UK test site. The “ICP” instruments allowed the effective stress regime
surrounding the pile shaft to be tracked during pile installation, equalization periods of up to 2.5 months, and load testing under
static tension and one-way axial cyclic loading. Installation resistances are shown to be dominated by the pile tip loads. Low
installation shaft stresses and radial effective stresses were measured that correlated with local cone penetration test (CPT)
tip resistances. Marked shaft total stress reductions and steep stress gradients are demonstrated in the vicinity of the pile
tip. The local interface shaft effective stress paths developed during static and cyclic loading displayed trends that resemble
those seen in comparable tests in sands. Shaft failure followed the Coulomb law and constrained interface dilation was
apparent as the pile experienced drained loading to failure, although with a lesser degree of radial expansion than with
sands. Radial effective stresses were also found to fall with time after installation, leading to reductions in shaft capacity
as proven by subsequent static tension testing. The jacked, closed-ended, piles’ ageing trends contrast sharply with those
found with open piles driven at the same site, indicating that ageing is affected by pile tip geometry and (or) installation
method.
Key words: chalk, piles, shaft capacity, time effects, effective stresses.
For personal use only.
Résumé : Cet article rapporte des expériences avec des pieux de l’Imperial College (ICPs) de 102 mm de diamètre, instrumentés,
enfoncés dans de la craie de densité faible à moyenne sur un site d’essai britannique bien caractérisé. Les instruments « ICP » ont
permis de suivre le régime de contrainte effectif entourant l’arbre de pieux pendant l’installation des pieux, des périodes
d’égalisation jusqu’à 2,5 mois et des essais de charge sous tension statique et une charge cyclique axiale unidirectionnelle. Les
résistances d’installation se sont avérées être dominées par les charges d’extrémité du pieu. Les faibles contraintes de l’arbre
d’installation et les contraintes effectives radiales ont été mesurées en corrélation avec les résistances d’éxtremité de l’essai de
pénétration au cône (CPT) local. Les réductions de contraintes totales de l’arbre marqué et les gradients de contrainte abrupts
sont démontrés à proximité de l’extrémité du pieu. Les trajectoires de contraintes efficaces de l’arbre d’interface local dévelop-
pées au cours du chargement statique et cyclique ont affiché des tendances qui ressemblent à celles observées dans des essais
comparables dans les sables. La défaillance de l’arbre suivait la loi de Coulomb et une dilatation de l’interface contrainte
était apparente lorsque le pieu subissait une charge drainée jusqu’à la défaillance, bien qu’avec un degré moindre
d’expansion radiale qu’avec les sables. Les contraintes effectives radiales ont également diminué avec le temps après
l’installation, ce qui a entraîné des réductions de la capacité de l’arbre, comme le prouvent les essais de tension statique
subséquents. Les tendances de vieillissement des pieux, fermés, à pinces, contrastent fortement avec celles observées avec
les pieux ouverts conduits au même site, ce qui indique que le vieillissement est affecté par la géométrie de l’extrémité des
pieux et (ou) la méthode d’installation. [Traduit par la Rédaction]
Mots-clés : craie, pieux, capacité de l’arbre, effets du temps, contraintes effectives.
Introduction to percussive pile driving (Hobbs and Atkinson 1993; Lord et al.
2002), high-amplitude laboratory cyclic simple shear testing
Extensive deposits of chalk exist across Northern Europe, the
(Carrington et al. 2011) or cyclic cone penetration tests (CPTs)
North and Baltic Seas, where thicknesses can exceed 1200 m
(Diambra et al. 2014). Chalk’s sensitivity, which relates to its
(Clayton et al. 2002). Chalk, a variable calcium carbonate soft rock
lightly cemented structure and crushable calcium carbonate par-
that frequently includes hard siliceous “flint” nodules (Clayton ticles, is thought to be responsible for the remarkably low ulti-
1986) is classified by its fabric grade and intact dry density. Intact mate unit shaft resistances, indicated for driven piles by the
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests on saturated sam- sparse data set of published loading tests.
ples give ranges from approximately 1.25 to greater than 12.5 MPa The design guidance of Lord et al. (1994, 2002) indicates ulti-
(Bowden et al. 2002) and cone tip resistances, qc from 4 to greater mate shaft resistances of 20 and 120 kPa for preformed piles
than 50 MPa (Power 1982). High-porosity chalk is known to de- driven in low- to medium- and high-density chalk, respectively.
grade rapidly through a puttification mechanism when subjected The latter appear very low given the chalk’s UCS and qc ranges.
Received 7 March 2017. Accepted 5 December 2017.

R.M. Buckley, R.J. Jardine, and S. Kontoe. Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK.
B.M. Lehane.* School of Civil Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
Corresponding author: R.M. Buckley (email: roisin.buckley13@imperial.ac.uk).
*B.M. Lehane currently serves as an Editorial Board Member; peer review and editorial decisions regarding this manuscript were handled by K. Gavin.
Copyright remains with the author(s) or their institution(s). Permission for reuse (free in most cases) can be obtained from RightsLink.
Can. Geotech. J. 00: 1–15 (0000) dx.doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0145 Published at www.nrcresearchpress.com/cgj on xx xxx xxxx.
2 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 00, 0000
The need to optimize designs for multiple offshore high-value Fig. 1. Site plan (a) showing site (b) ICP jacked instrumented pile
tests and driven piles reported by Buckley et al. (2018).
wind-farm applications prompted a joint industry project (JIP) to

investigate, for tubular steel piles driven in low- to medium-
density chalks, (i) the fundamental, effective stress, mecha-
nisms behind the low shaft resistance mobilized during
installation, (ii) any potential changes in pile capacity with time,
and (iii) the effect of axial cyclic loading on aged pile capacity.
Full-scale dynamic, static, and cyclic field testing conducted in
water depths of up to 42 m as part of the Wikinger German Baltic
Sea offshore wind project form another part of the research that is
described by Barbosa et al. (2015) and Jardine (2018). Six 1.37 m
diameter steel tubular piles were driven and tested at three loca-
tions, where chalk is overlain by variable thicknesses of glacial
deposits. Both low driving resistances and strong beneficial age-
ing trends were demonstrated that led to long-term shaft resis-
tances far higher than currently recommended design values.
Buckley et al. (2018) report another JIP element that investigated
systematically the effects of ageing and cyclic loading on multiple
139 mm outside diameter (OD) open steel tubes driven in low- to
medium-density chalk at an onshore site near St. Nicholas at
Wade, Kent, SE England, finding (i) low local installation shaft
resistances that were comparable to those observed at Wikinger
and depended strongly on the relative depth (h) of the pile tip;
(ii) average tension shaft capacities increasing markedly, over
time, following a hyperbolic trend, to reach after 8 months values
5.3 times the (compressive) end of driving (EoD) resistances and
4.3 times the construction industry research and information as-
sociation (CIRIA) 20 kPa value; and (iii) a remoulded and reconsol-
idated annulus of chalk surrounding the pile shaft with void
ratios falling around 23% below the undisturbed values. Re-

consolidation of chalk putty and subsequent increases in radial
effective stresses were thought to have contributed to the piles’
ageing behaviour, potentially along with redox reactions and re-
cementing in the chalk. One-way axial cycling, imposed at around
250 days after driving, led to responses that ranged from stable to
unstable, depending on the loading parameters. While the aged
and previously untested piles’ capacities were not sensitive to
one-way axial cycling for the considered loading levels and num-
ber of cycles, significant permanent displacements could develop
under relatively modest cyclic loading levels. High-level, two-way testing studies have taken place, as well as programmes of (static
cycling could also prove more damaging. and cyclic) lateral tests followed by axial cyclic loading (SETech
The above driven pile tests represent a systematic investigation 2007; Fugro 2012a, 2012b; Dührkop et al. 2015; Ciavaglia et al.
into ageing and cyclic loading in chalk. However, the piles did not 2017). Figure 1 shows the overall layout including the current
carry local instrumentation that could track the fundamental pro- Imperial College test area. Buckley et al. (2018) outline the site
cesses that govern their installation, ageing, and static and cyclic characterization, which included multiple CPTs with pore pres-
loading responses. A separate programme of highly instrumented sure measurement (PCPT) and laboratory testing. The laboratory
Imperial College pile (ICP) tests was carried out to explore these tests were conducted on samples taken from the adjacent earlier
aspects at the same test site, leading to the observations set out in JIP site (Fig. 1). Further PCPT and seismic CPT (SCPT) have been
this paper regarding the shaft effective stress regime during in- performed recently to aid the ICP experiments’ interpretation.
stallation, long-term equalization, and load testing. The overburden and weathered chalk has been removed at the
The 102 mm OD steel ICP piles’ are, as described by Bond et al. quarry, leaving chalk from the Margate White Chalk subgroup.
(1991), equipped to measure local radial and shear stresses on their Intact dry density (IDD) ranges from 1.38 to 1.54 Mg/m3, indicative
shafts as well as pore pressures, shaft axial loads, and tempera- of a low-density chalk (Bowden et al. 2002), although a layer with
tures. ICP experiments have advanced fundamental understand- IDD up to 1.64 Mg/m3 was encountered between 2.9 and 3.3 m
ing of displacement pile behaviour in sands and clays (Bond 1989; below ground level (mbgl). The water table is reported 11.6 mbgl
Lehane 1992; Chow 1997) that led to improved, physically reason- below the current quarry base, but the degree of saturation re-
able driven pile design methods (Lehane et al. 1993, 2005; Jardine mains between 90% and 100% up to ground level. Chalk specimens
et al. 2005). However, the valuable insights could only be gained crushed from quarry samples indicate predominantly silt sized
by accepting jacked installation and a closed-ended configuration grains, see Fig. 2 after Bialowas et al. (2016) and Chan (2017). The
that may not always be representative of industrial piling. It has median grain size, D50, for crushed chalk samples tends to vary
not been possible, to date, to devise local stress sensors that can with the method of sample preparation and grinding (Bundy
function as reliably on driven open pipe piles. 2013). Intact chalk is known to be markedly brittle (Jardine et al.
1984); Lord et al. (2002) indicate that c can range from 100 kPa
Site conditions to >2 MPa with 36° < ␸ < 42°. For remoulded chalk, c falls be-
The tests were conducted in a chalk quarry close to St. Nicholas tween 0 and 10 kPa with 29° < ␸ < 34°. Consolidated drained
at Wade, approximately 15 km west of Margate in the UK county of triaxial tests on intact quarry samples showed best fit c = 387 kPa
Kent (UK Grid: TR 25419 66879), where earlier sampling and in situ and ␸ = 41°. Remoulded samples tested under undrained triaxial
Published by NRC Research Press

Buckley et al. 3
Fig. 2. Particle-size distribution of samples of crushed chalk from site.

Bialowas et al. (2016) SNW
Fig. 3. Cone penetration tests used in analysis of jacked pile test results.
compression showed peak ␸ angles around 37.5°, assuming zero test site, indicated ␦r angles of between 26° and 31.5° (depending
cohesion. Ring shear interface tests by the authors in the Bishop on normal effective stress level) using stainless steel interfaces
apparatus (Bishop et al. 1971), using mild steel interfaces to repre- prepared with roughness, Ra of 1.22 ␮m, similar to those of indus-
sent field pile roughness (average roughness, Ra ≈ 10–15 ␮m) val- trial CPT friction sleeves.
ues, indicate residual ␦r angles between 30° and 31°, similar to Details of the CPT qc and sleeve friction, fs measured close to the
those reported by Le et al. (2014) and Ziogos et al. (2017). Bishop jacked ICP piles are shown in Fig. 3, over the limited depths of
ring shear tests carried out by Chan (2017), on samples from the penetration, along with Ghv values from cross hole seismic sur-

veys, seismic CPT Gvh measurements, and the site profile from Fig. 4. ICP configuration used during tests in chalk (a) ICP01
borehole logs. Also shown in this figure are the PCPT penetration (b) ICP02.
pore pressures measured at both the tip (u1) and shoulder (u2)
positions. PCPT qc ranges from 10 to 20 MPa while sleeve friction,
fs, lies between 100 and 500 kPa. The penetration pore pressures
are remarkably high across the site, reaching 7.8 MPa within the
depth of interest at the u1 position and 4.9 MPa at the u2 position.
Cone resistance varied laterally, with local spikes up to 60 MPa
that reflect thin flint bands. Dissipation tests with 43.8 mm diam-
eter (D) piezocones showed 50% dissipation after 4 to 13 s at the u2
position, indicating horizontal consolidation coefficients, ch,piezo
of ≈1 × 10−3 m2/s, assuming high rigidity indices in the surround-
ing intact chalk and applying the approach of Teh and Houlsby
(1991). The degree of pore pressure dissipation during CPT pene-
tration can be assessed using a normalized velocity V (Finnie and
Randolph 1994) defined as
vD
(1) V⫽
ch
where the standard tip velocity, v, is 20 mm/s. The critical values of

V depend on which method is used to define ch, as the normally
consolidated values seen in oedometer tests (ch,NC) fall well below
ch,piezo, which in turn falls below those applicable in lightly over-
consolidated states (ch,OC). Centrifuge tests indicate a transition to
fully undrained conditions at V values of between 10 and 100 when
chNC is substituted (Finnie and Randolph 1994; Randolph 2004;
Cassidy 2012; Suzuki 2014). If ch,piezo is considered ≈5 ch,NC (Fahey
and Lee Goh 1995) for the chalk tests, the transition range reduces
to between 2 and 20. The CPT penetration corresponds to a nor-
malized velocity, V ≈ 0.8, indicating that partially drained condi-
tions apply. Assuming the cone end bearing failure mechanism
extends approximately 2D below its tip leads to similar conclu-
sions; the dissipation tests also indicate 40% ± 15% pore pressure
dissipation in the 3.6 s required for the pile tip to pass through its
earlier failure zone.
Imperial College pile (ICP)

The closed ended 102 mm diameter ICPs’ main shaft sections
are tubular with a 9.5 mm wall thickness. With the exception of
their stainless steel surface stress transducer (SST) sections, the
piles are made from molybdenum steel and had typical average
roughness, Ra, of ≈5 ␮m at the time of installation. High axial
loads were expected in chalk and the dual instrument clusters
adopted were identical to the higher capacity cells employed by
Chow (1997). They are distinguished in Fig. 4 by their “leading” conducted at Imperial College and Cambridge Insitu Ltd. after
and “following” positions, as defined by their ratios of height repair work conducted during and shortly after the test pro-
above the pile tip, h, normalized by the pile radius, R. Each in- gramme.
cludes an axial load cell (ALC), two pore pressure transducers, and Bond et al. (1991) recognized the SSTs’ asymmetric design makes
an SST, which measures radial total stress, ␴r, and shear stress, ␶rz, them susceptible to bending under high axial load. This was not
on the pile surface, as well as temperature. The instruments’ de- unduly significant at the initial clay and loose sand test sites,
sign, development, and calibration procedures are described by where end bearing and overall axial loads were relatively low.
Bond et al. (1991). The ALCs, which are insensitive to radial stress However, Chow (1997) found that installation and compression
and have a nominal capacity of 405 kN at 0.2% axial strain, were load testing led to far greater tip and overall axial loads in dense
calibrated against known forces in the laboratory. The pore pres- marine sand that caused the SSTs to deflect and under-register
sure transducers, housed in holders integrated with the ALCs, both ␴r and ␶rz. High end bearing loads were anticipated for, and
were saturated with silicone oil in the laboratory and transported experienced in, the chalk tests that would lead to stress under-
sealed prior to installation on site. The SSTs were calibrated in a registration when the pile was penetrating downwards, but have
jig that could apply radial and shear stresses directly and assess no effect when the pile head load was zero, negative, and rela-
the cells’ cross sensitivities related to the effects of (i) axial load on tively low, as in tension tests. Instrument malfunctions can occur
the radial and shear strain gauge output, (ii) shear stress on the during field testing. However, the ICP configuration includes re-
radial strain gauge output, (iii) radial stress on the shear strain dundancy that allows cross checking and error identification. Lo-
gauge output, and (iv) the effect of temperature changes on all the cal ␶rz can be related to average shear stresses interpolated
gauges. The radial total stress measurements are accurate to typ- between the ALCs and ␴r can be checked for consistency with
ically ±3 kPa and the shear stress measurements to typically laboratory interface shear tests. The dual radial sensor circuits
±1.5 kPa. Calibrations were conducted at University of Western and pore pressure transducers available in each cluster provide
Australia prior to their return to the UK. Further calibrations were back-up that proved useful in the chalk experiments.

Buckley et al. 5
Table 1. Summary of 102 mm diameter ICP test programme.

Parameter Test ICP01 Test ICP02

End condition Flat base Conical tip
Number of installation jacking cycles 51 56
Average dimensionless velocity 0.46 0.33
Final penetration (mbgl) 4.09 4.33
Length of embedment (m) 2.49 2.73
L/D 24.4 26.8
Installation date 27 October 2015 21 November 2015
First tension test date 19 November 2015 09 February 2016
Ageing period (days) 23 80
Testing programme surement errors. Axial load was measured by an annular load cell
As summarized in Table 1, the testing programme began in and was applied by both electric and manual hydraulic pumps
October 2015 and was completed in February 2016. The piles were through a hollow ram. Displacement was measured using three
assembled on site using threaded casings, sealed with “O” rings, to LVDTs spaced circumferentially around the pile, supported on
give total lengths of between 4.1 and 4.3 m. To avoid overloading retort stands placed around 1 m from the pile axis. Loads were
the ALCs under the high end bearing loads anticipated, the piles applied in increments of ≈10% of the failure load and held for
were installed from a free depth, 1.6 m below current ground 10 min creep periods. The test failure criterion was set as either
level, through 150 mm diameter PVC liners placed in a backfilled (i) a displacement of 10% of the pile diameter, (ii) a semi-logarithmic
trial pit. This resulted in embedded lengths of between 2.5 and creep rate, ks, of 0.2 mm/log cycle of time or (iii) a load equal to the
2.7 m (L/D = 24.5–26.5). The pile end conditions differed between safe limit of the testing system. Following each tension failure,
tests; ICP01 was installed with a flat closed-end and ICP02 utilized the piles were unloaded to a small tensile load to retain system
a 60° conical tip to aid penetration if flint nodules were encoun- stability and 20 to 21 relatively high-level one-way tension cycles
tered, resulting in h/R values that differ slightly between tests were applied. The cycles were load controlled at 0.016 Hz follow-
(Fig. 4). The leading ALCs were located above the pile tips and ing the square wave pattern illustrated in Fig. 6, which also de-
recorded the base loads plus minor contributions from the short fines the loading parameters. All instruments were logged every
(≈87 and 150 mm) lengths of shaft below the base ALCs. 1 to 2 s.
Testing procedures Results and interpretation

Pile installation Installation resistance
The piles were installed by jacking against a 30 t CPT truck The total axial forces, Q tot, measured during penetration
equipped with a 270 kN hydraulic ram. Installation took place strokes are shown in Fig. 7, along with the forces measured at the
under displacement control, at jacking rates that varied unavoid- pile base, Q b, the average shaft stresses (␶avg, calculated as Q tot less
ably, but averaged at 4.8 and 3.4 mm/s for ICP01 and ICP02, respec- Q b over the total shaft area), and the envelope of qc measure-
tively, with 50 mm strokes separated by 60–90 s zero-load pauses. ments. The lowermost load cell (ALC1) measurements include con-
The latter were chosen to ensure a similar degree of cyclic loading tributions from short lower sections of shaft, for which the Q b
to that experienced by open piles driven by the authors at the traces have been corrected by assuming that PCPT sleeve friction
same site, which had penetrated by around 50 mm per blow. values (measured at h/R ≈ 5.5) apply near the base. This assumption
Installation force was measured by a load cell at the pile head or is considered reasonable as similar shear stresses (up to 280 kPa)
by the CPT truck’s systems. All instruments were logged at 1–2 s were applied along these shaft lengths during static tension test-
intervals during installation. The process was not fully continu- ing, as discussed later.
ous. Apart from the intervals imposed between strokes, adding Axial loads up to 270 kN developed during installation pushes,
extra casing lengths led to total installation times of 80–124 min comparable to those in Chow’s (1997) dense sand tests at Dunkirk.
per pile, while only 4–15 min were required for the driven piles The base resistance Q b comprised ≈80% of the head load, Q tot, as in
reported in Buckley et al. (2018). The ICPs inevitably experienced Chow’s tests and with other piles jacked into weathered chalk
greater excess pore pressure dissipation during installation. (Hodges and Pink 1971). Lower tip resistance contributions de-
velop in clays, where Q b typically comprises <20% of the total
Equalization and long-term monitoring
(Lehane 1992; Lehane and Jardine 1992; Chow 1997). As mentioned
The instruments were monitored over the weeks following in-
earlier, PCPT tests identified laterally discontinuous, thin, high
stallation with readings every 5 min over ageing periods of 23 and
resistance flint bands. Figure 7 shows that ␶avg was highest in a
80 days that represent the longest duration ICP tests to date. The
layer between 2 and 2.3 m, but fell in both tests to approximately
instruments were powered continuously over the relatively cold
and wet 2015–2016 winter, apart from four unintended short sup- 50 kPa as the tips penetrated to greater depths. While the overall
ply breaks. Instrument drifts (change in voltage output under zero average shaft resistance of 50 kPa exceeds the CIRIA driven pile
load) were anticipated and the results were corrected by compar- static capacity recommendation of Lord et al. (2002), the average
ing instrument “zero values” established before and after each shear stresses recorded over the main shaft lengths, between ALC1
experiment, assuming constant drift rates between installation and the pile top, were on average 11 kPa, falling well below both
and extraction. the average calculated over the whole pile length (seen on Fig. 7)
and the CIRIA guideline value. Small residual ALC1 loads (typi-
Load testing cally <3 kN) remained after unloading at the end of each jacking
The two ICPs were subjected to tension testing after their age- push, whose distributions with depth mirrored the profiles of ␶avg.
ing monitoring periods using the equipment shown in Fig. 5, We also recall from Buckley et al. (2018) that open-ended driven
designed and built at Imperial College, that transferred reaction piles developed average shaft resistances of 16 kPa on installation
loads to railway sleeper mat foundations. Tension loading avoided at the same site, 20% below the CIRIA recommended value and the
high axial loads that might overload the ALCs or cause SST mea- ICP test mean of 50 kPa.

Fig. 5. Schematic of test rig (not to scale): (a) side view and (b) elevation (after Buckley et al. 2018).
Fig. 6. Load controlled cyclic loading pattern and cyclic loading for undrained conditions. Strong gradients of pore pressure with
conventions. distance from the pile base are indicated in Fig. 8, to which the
piles’ partially drained tip conditions contributed. Effectively
drained conditions applied over most of the shaft above the tip,
due to the reduced total stresses (as described later) and additional
dissipation of pore pressures over the time taken for the upper
shaft sections to reach any given chalk horizon. Partially drained
pore pressure distributions were also assessed by Buckley et al.
(2018) along the shafts of tubular piles driven at the same site,
although their degrees of dissipation would have been lower, as
the driven piles had larger diameters and shorter total installation
times.
Base resistance measurements

The closed-ended ICP end bearing load profiles shown in Fig. 7
have similar forms to the qc profiles with the exception of the
higher pile tip resistance band encountered between 1.9 and
2.3 m. Given their geometric similarities, it is reasonable to expect
the closed-end bearing pressures, qb, corrected for the shaft con-
tribution as described arlier, to correlate with the net cone tip
Penetration pore pressures resistance, qt, where qt = qc + u2 (1 – a) and a is the cone area ratio.
Pore pressure measurements were taken high above the water For deep penetration qb = ␣qt (Baligh 1985; Randolph et al. 1994)
table, where the ambient pore-water pressures are likely to de- where ␣ depends on penetration rate and pile-end geometry. Jack-
pend on infiltration rates and permeability gradients. Negative ing under partially drained or drained conditions is known to
pressures could be expected under dry conditions, but small pos- increase tip resistance (Chung et al. 2006), while positive rate
itive values appeared to operate over the 2015–2016 winter. The
effects apply under undrained conditions. The variable installa-
penetration pore pressures are shown in Fig. 8, along with the
tion rates and geometries of the jacked piles results in ␣ values
measurements made during PCPT penetration, plotted in this in-
between 1.0 and 1.6. Figure 9 shows the variation of ␣ with nondi-
stance against h/R where h is the distance from the pile or PCPT tip
and R is the pile or PCPT radius. Low, typically <10 kPa, penetra- mensional velocity V (defined in eq. (1) and applying over an in-
tion pore pressures were measured by the pile sensors located stallation push for the pile) for the pile and PCPT, indicating the
between 0.25 and 1.76 m behind the pile tip, while values exceed- general trend for qb/qt to reduce with V and the limits for instal-
ing 4 MPa were measured at the PCPT u2 position ≈38 mm from lation under drained or partially drained conditions. The relative
the cone tip reaching as high as 7.8 MPa at the tip (u1). The piles scatter in this plot is probably attributable to the correction of the
were installed under displacement control at variable jacking base measurements with the sleeve friction values described
rates, which are equivalent to normalized velocities V of between above. The parameter ␣ can be seen to reduce with increasing V
0.33 and 0.46, well below the minimum of 2 to 20 proposed earlier tending towards an ␣ value of 1 at Vpile = Vcpt. Installation end

Buckley et al. 7
Fig. 7. Force at pile head during installation (Q tot), force at pile base (Q b), average shear stress over pile length (␶avg), and envelope of qc
measurements.
Fig. 8. Variation in excess pore-water pressure with normalized Fig. 9. Variation in alpha value with normalized velocity for jacked
distance from tip during PCPT and jacked pile penetration. Note pile and PCPT.
initial pre-installation pore pressures are small or negative.
etration (Yang et al. 2010). The average vertical stress, ␴z (= ␴1)

should then equal qt (or qb) beneath the tip, with ␴1 = qt = ␴z + u1,
where u1 is the average pore pressure over the cone tip. Applying
the argument presented by Jardine et al. (2013) for sand, the max-

imum moving radial effective stresses, ␴rm applying immediately
below the pile tip during rapid penetration can be calculated from
the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion for triaxial compression;

␴rm = tan2[45° – (␸ /2)] ␴z – 2c tan[45° – (␸ /2)] where peak ␸ = 41°
for intact chalk, and ␴z beneath the tip = qt – u1. The mean u1 pore

bearing appears to be controlled by pile tip qt and the degree of pressures, shown in Fig. 8, give u1 ≈ 0.4qt, leading to ␴rm ≈ 0.13qt –

local drainage. 2c tan[45° – (41°/2)] beneath the pile tip during steady penetra-
tion. Taking c = 387 kPa gives 900 < ␴rm
< 2150 kPa on the pile axis
Shaft effective stresses close to pile tips at the tip (h = 0). Moving to slightly higher locations, the CPT
It has been argued that closed-ended piles develop triaxial com- sleeve resistance values, fs indicate “moving” effective stresses

pression failure zones immediately beneath their tips during pen- almost an order of magnitude lower, calculated from ␴rm = fs/tan␦

Fig. 10. Profiles of SST measurements at leading instrument during pauses in jacking: (a) stationary local radial effective stresses and
(b) stationary local shear stresses.
Fig. 11. Relationship between cone resistance and stationary radial tests; the following instrument data are discussed later. The sta-
effective stress at leading instrument. tionary stresses are free of the bending effects mentioned previ-
ously. Because the pile was installed under partially drained

conditions and the stresses equalized rapidly after each stroke, ␴rs
can be considered equivalent to the equilibrium values applying

shortly after installation to the same tip depth. The ␴rs values were
similarly low in both tests, varying from ≈20 to 60 kPa, far below
the values discussed above for the pile tip region. When the piles
were stationary, the measured SSTs manifested low negative ␶rz
values, reflecting the shafts’ tendency to resist locked-in toe forces
when the head load was removed.

The leading SSTs profiles of ␴rs correlate directly with the CPT
qt–depth trends (see Fig. 11), as has been noted previously for sands
(Lehane 1992; Chow 1997) and incorporated into CPT pile design

methods (Jardine et al. 2005; Lehane et al. 2005). The ␴rs –qt trends
for ICP01, which had a flat bottomed end, exhibit a higher degree
of scatter than those for ICP02, which utilized a conical tip. The

average qt/␴rs ratio is approximately 405 at the leading instru-
ment. The stationary radial stresses applying further along the

shaft are shown in Fig. 12a, where ␴rs is normalized by qt and
plotted against h/R for the last 500 mm of penetration in each test.
Also shown in this plot are trends observed in loose silica sand at
Labenne (Lehane 1992; Lehane et al. 1993), dense Dunkirk sand
by applying the measured interface shear angle, ␦cpt
= 30.5°, giving (Chow 1997), and uncemented calcareous sand (Lehane et al. 2012).

100 < ␴rm
< 350 kPa at h/R = 5.5. The value of ␦cpt = 30.5° was chosen The ␴rs /qt ratios can be seen to fall well below the measurements
based on the results of interface ring shear tests on stainless steel made at Labenne and Dunkirk and closer to the calcareous sand

interfaces with similar roughness to the CPT cone sleeves at a trend. Only slight reductions in normalized ␴rs /qt were observed
confining stress of 200 kPa, compatible with the mean fs value between the leading instrument (h/R = 8–8.4) and the following
cluster (h/R = 31.9–32.4), suggesting that the extreme stress reduc-
(Chan 2017). The near pile tip values of ␴rm discussed above are
compared below to the local radial effective and shear stresses tion that takes place between the pile tip and the shaft develops
measured at the SST locations measured higher up the pile shaft. over a short h/R range.
Further evidence is presented in Fig. 12b by adding to the sta-
Local shaft effective stresses tionary SST measurements (i) “moving” radial effective stresses

Figure 10 shows the stationary radial effective ␴rs and stationary inferred from PCPT fs traces and (ii) profiles of ␶rz found from
␶rz stresses measured at the leading instrument during both ICP back-analysis of dynamic tests on piles driven at the site (Buckley

Buckley et al. 9
Fig. 12. (a) Normalized stationary radial effective stresses along pile Fig. 13. Typical short term changes in local radial effective stress,
shaft during installation compared to historical measurements and local shear stress, and pore-water pressure.
(b) normalized stationary and moving radial effective stresses from

SST measurements, CPT fs readings, and back-analysis of dynamic
test data on driven piles. [Colour online.]
Fig. 14. Variation of local effective shaft radial stresses with time
over entire equalization period.
discrete pore pressure peaks were observed that correlated with

recorded rainfall events (Met-Office 2016). Residual ALC1 loads of
between 11.8 and 16.7 kN were measured at the ends of installation
for ICP01 and ICP02, respectively, which reduced to 3.7 and 2 kN at
the end of the equalization. The SST ␶rz values were negative at the
end of jacking and reduced towards zero over the monitoring
et al. 2018). The three sources of evidence all point to low local periods.
shear resistances over the majority of the shaft and markedly
higher resistances closer to the pile tip. Ciavaglia et al. (2017) Static load testing
report a similar trend from their analysis of strain gauge measure- The two piles were subjected to stage-loaded tension testing
ments on open piles driven at the same site; shaft resistances four after ageing and full re-consolidation of any chalk putty to a lower
to six times higher applied on the lower half of their 762 mm water content (see Buckley et al. 2018), giving the net load–
diameter piles that were driven to 4 m embedment. displacement curves presented in Fig. 15, where the net load is the
tension load less the pile self-weight. The final static holding pe-
Long-term equalization riods in both tests were ≥30 min. Pile ICP01 underwent minor
Continuous monitoring tracked the variations between instal- axial realignment at low loads and showed a slightly softer initial
lation and final load testing in local shaft effective stresses. The response than ICP02. The piles’ failures were identified from their
trends for pore pressure, radial effective stress and shear stress displacement creep trends under constant load. In both cases, the
over the first 10 min after the final jack push are shown in Fig. 13, piles failed when the displacement exceeded creep rates of

while the long-term ␴rs trends are plotted against logarithm of 0.2 mm / log cycle of time, reaching their peak loads after pile
time on Fig. 14. Only small excess pore pressures were seen that head displacements of 1.43 and 2.58 mm.
dissipated quickly and remained relatively stable at <4 kPa. The axial loads measured along the pile length at failure, shown
The ICP01 pile’s radial effective shaft stresses fell by 11%–26% in Fig. 16, indicate failure loads of ≈9 ± 1 kN at the ALC1 position.
over its 23 days ageing period, while ICP02’s fell by 29%–34% over Given that drained conditions applied, and so no reverse end
80 days. Radial total stress reductions dominated, although some bearing could develop, the ALC1 loads imply local shear stresses of

Fig. 15. Net pile head load versus displacement during static tension and one-way cyclic loading on ICP01 and ICP02.
Fig. 16. Variation in axial load and average shear stress along pile length at point of tension failure.
between 200 and 280 kPa along the final section of the shaft veloped far higher long-term shaft resistances of 87 kPa (Buckley
positioned below this load cell, similar to the PCPT sleeve friction et al. 2018).
measurements described previously. These values far exceed the The ICP tests provided a unique opportunity to observe how the
CIRIA 20 kPa recommendation. However, the ALC measurements local effective stresses respond during load testing. The effective
indicate significantly lower average stresses applied further along stress paths measured at the instrument clusters during one-way
the pile shaft, leading to an average of 22 kPa, which is similar to static loading are presented on Fig. 17, where the ␶rz axis is nega-
both the shaft stresses seen during installation and the current tive under tension loading. The radial effective stresses increased
CIRIA recommendation for ultimate shaft resistance of 20 kPa. during loading, as seen previously in sands and interpreted as
We note again that open-ended driven piles at the same site de- constrained dilation at the interface (Lehane et al. 1993; Chow

Buckley et al. 11
Fig. 17. Effective stress paths during static tension loading at (a) ing the perfectly rough limiting value. The SST sensors indicated

leading SST1 and (b) following SST2. ⌬␴rd
from ≈11 to 14 kPa, in three cases and 96 kPa in one isolated

case. Locally instrumented triaxial tests on intact and reconsoli-
dated chalk by Jardine et al. (1984) and Doughty et al. (2018)
showed that the behaviour is likely to be principally elastic in
most of the soil mass over the implied strain range. The undis-
turbed in situ seismic Ghh values shown in Fig. 3 range from ≈400
to 1200 MPa. However, locally lower G values may apply close to
the shaft due to installation effects and re-consolidation. Multi-
stage resonant column tests on samples taken from the site car-
ried out by Fugro (2012a) indicated Gvh of 250–300 MPa at the
appropriate mean effective stress level for remoulded chalk. Sub-
stituting G ranges of 250–1200 kPa into eq. (3) allows us to estimate
⌬r for these tests as falling mostly between 0.23 and 2.04 ␮m, with
one isolated high value of 9.8 ␮m. The resulting ⌬r values fall well
below the piles’ surface average peak-to-trough roughness value.
Change in static capacity with time

The trends with time in static shaft capacity can be gauged most
easily by comparing (i) the shaft shear stresses mobilized at ten-
sion failure ␶s,(t) with (ii) the average (positive compressive) shear
stress ␶s,EoJ measured during the final jacking stroke (Fig. 7). The
installation stresses are higher and, neglecting any influences of
displacement rate and variation in capacity with loading direc-
tion, shaft capacity reduced over time by 20% for ICP01 and 18% for
ICP02. These losses are compatible with, although less marked
than, the local radial effective stress trends presented in Fig. 14.
The jacked, closed-ended, piles’ ageing behaviours contrast
strongly with those seen in parallel tests at the same site on open
ended driven piles reported by Buckley et al. (2018), whose hyper-
bolic trend curve indicated set-up factors of 3.27 and 4.48 over 23
and 80 days, respectively, building to 5.3 after 250 days (see
Fig. 18), similar to the trend reported by Ciavaglia et al. (2017) for
762 mm diameter piles installed at the same site. For the driven
piles, the average tensile shaft capacity along the pile length, ␶s,(t),
from the static tension test is compared with the end of driving
compressive shaft capacity from the dynamic test, ␶s,EOD, assum-
ing that tensile and compressive shaft capacity are similar, even if
1997). The shear and effective stresses mobilized at failure, ␶f and not exactly equal. While dynamic pile tests are subjected to more

␴rf , respectively, show peak stress ratios ␦f 共⫽ tan⫺1共␶f /␴rf

兲兲 close to uncertainty than static tension load tests, the trend shown in

the ␦cv angles seen in interface ring shear tests on samples from Fig. 18 indicates that the static tensile shaft resistance more than
the site. It appears that ultimate shaft shear stress can be de- doubled between the 10 and 106 test ages, consistent with the
scribed by a Coulomb expression, similar to that proposed for indicated overall capacity trend increase. The set-down shown by
sands (Lehane et al. 1993) where the jacked piles also contrasts sharply with the marked set-up
seen in the Wikinger full-scale offshore tests described by Barbosa
(2) ␶f ⫽ 共␴rc

⫹ ⌬␴rd 兲 tan␦cv et al. (2015) and Jardine (2018).
The different behaviours of driven open-ended and slowly

and ␴rc
is the equalized radial effective stress, ⌬␴rd is the change in jacked closed-ended piles requires further investigation. Buckley
radial effective stress during loading due to constrained dilation et al. (2018) propose a mechanism involving consolidation of the
in the interface or any new shear band that forms and ␦cv
is the chalk putty annulus formed around the open pile and long-term
constant volume interface friction angle. Boulon and Foray (1986) radial stress growth post driving to explain the driven piles’
strong set-up, while noting that redox reactions between the pile
showed that with sands, the magnitude of ⌬␴rd can be estimated
by a simple cavity expansion expression shaft and re-cementing of the puttified chalk could also be influ-
ential. The lack of set-up shown by the (mainly oxidizable molyb-
2G⌬r denum steel) jacked piles indicates that physiochemical effects
(3) ⌬␴rd ⫽
R and re-cementing cannot be the dominant ageing mechanism.
The two types of piles were installed into chalk of the same grade
The G value in eq. (3) should ideally be measured in the Ghh and density and allowed to equalize over similar time periods
direction and may need to account for fabric, void ratio, strain prior to failing under the same testing procedure, so the different
level, and stiffness nonlinearity. The ⌬r term may be taken as ageing trends must originate in either (i) the ICP’s closed ends and
2Ra for sands in cases where the interface’s relative roughness, (or) (ii) the piles’ modes and rates of installation. The driven piles
RR (= Ra/D50) is less than the critical value, which for a perfectly penetrated one to two orders of magnitude more rapidly than the
rough response is approximately 0.1 (Kishida and Uesugi 1987; ICPs. Also, no evidence was seen on extraction of the ICPs of any
Lings and Dietz 2005). Figure 2 indicates that the chalk’s D50 is previously puttified zone, as was found adhering to the driven
between ≈3.0 and 6.0 ␮m, giving RR ≈ 0.8 to 1.7, and so far exceed- piles.

Fig. 18. Comparison of set-up factors observed following equalization periods for driven piles from Buckley et al. (2018) (and jacked piles as
part of this study).
Cyclic loading Fig. 19. Evolution of permanent pile head displacement with
Limited packages of one-way axial cyclic loading were applied number of cycles.
after the ICP piles’ first time static tests. In both cases, 10 cycles
were imposed with Q cyc/Q t ≈ 0.3 and Q mean/Q t ≈ 0.4 where Q t is the
earlier static tension failure load. The levels were increased to
Q cyc/Q t of ≈0.4 and Q mean/Q t of 0.45 for ICP01 and 0.5 for ICP02 for
a second set of 10 cycles. Jardine and Standing (2012) and Rimoy
et al. (2013) applied working definitions in their interpretation of
open-ended tube piles driven in dense sand at Dunkirk. Stable
cyclic loading was characterized as showing low and stabilizing
accumulated displacements, with no failure observed after
>1000 cycles. Unstable cycling was defined by significant displace-
ment accumulation and failure within 100 cycles. Metastable
intermediate behaviour was recognised in cases where displace-
ments accumulated, without stabilizing, leading to failure or deg-
radation in operational capacity between 100 and 1000 cycles.
Figure 19 shows the evolution of accumulated permanent
displacement, sacc under cycling, indicating either metastable or
unstable responses in terms of these cyclic definitions, consider-
ing cases where the maximum shaft loads (Q cyc + Q mean)
amounted to 0.7–0.9 times Q t.
Following the end of cycling, ICP02 was unloaded and subjected
to a static tension test to failure that, as shown in Fig. 15, indicated
a 13% capacity loss. A further 4% loss of capacity would have been
required to reach failure in this Q max/Q t ≈ 0.82 test, which might
have been achieved within tens of cycles if the experiments had
continued. Overall, the piles did not appear to be unduly sensitive reductions of up to 29% for ICP02, while ICP02 indicated a 5%
to high-level, one-way cycling, as was seen in the cyclic tests on reduction at the leading instrument and an increase of 27% at the
driven piles reported by Buckley et al. (2018), who warn that the following instrument, as indicated by points B and C on Fig. 20.
effects of high-level, two-way axial cycling are likely to be more Very little change in pore pressure was observed during cycling at
severe. the rate applied (one cycle per minute) and the substantially
The SST instruments also revealed the local shaft stress re- drained response observed is compatible with the consolidation
sponse to cyclic loading. As demonstrated in Fig. 20, cycling in- analyses discussed previously.
voked a similar shear and radial effective stress response to that
under static loading. The effective stress path gradients led to ␴r Summary and conclusions
rising as ␶rz was applied in each cycle and also drifting as cycling The mechanical behaviour of piles driven in chalk is poorly
continued. Comparison of the ␴r measurements made on unload- understood, leading to considerable uncertainty in foundation
ing after (i) static testing and (ii) cyclic testing indicated overall ␴r design, especially for large offshore wind farms. A field pro-

Buckley et al. 13
Fig. 20. Effective stress paths during one-way cyclic loading at (a) leading SST1 during ICP01, (b) following SST2 during ICP01, (c) leading SST1
during ICP02, and (d) following SST2 during ICP02.
gramme in low- to medium-density chalk with highly instru- 3. Large excess pore-water pressures are interpreted as having
mented jacked field model pile tests has allowed new insights into developed under the pile tip during penetration that dissi-
aspects of displacement pile behaviour in these problematic geo- pated rapidly as the tip advanced.
materials. The main conclusions are 4. Low stationary radial effective stresses developed during in-
1. Base resistance varied directly with local cone resistance and stallation that correlated directly with net cone resistance,
depended on drainage conditions. showing ratios to qt comparable to those in calcareous sands.
2. Shaft resistances are low during installation, with the jacked 5. Strong total radial reductions in shaft radial effective stresses,

piles’ average values exceeding those back-analysed from ␴rm , develop immediately after the pile tip passes any given
open ended piles driven at the same site. horizon, with more gentle additional degradation applying


further along the shaft. Still more reductions in ␴rm with rel- Chan, L.D. 2017. Laboratory investigation of chalk-steel interface shearing. M.Sc.
thesis, Imperial College London, UK.
ative tip depth (h/R) apply to driven piles.

Chow, F.C. 1997. Investigations into displacement pile behaviour for offshore
6. The effective stress paths recorded during static and cyclic foundations. Ph.D. thesis, Imperial College London, London, UK.
loading tests show that shaft failure is controlled by a Cou- Chung, S.F., Randolph, M.F., and Schneider, J.A. 2006. Effect of penetration rate
lomb law, with an interface shear angle similar to that mobi- on penetrometer resistance in clay. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenviron-
lized in laboratory interface ring shear tests. The radial mental Engineering, 132(9): 1188–1196. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:
9(1188).
effective stresses rise under static loading until interface dila- Ciavaglia, F., Carey, J., and Diambra, A. 2017. Time-dependent uplift capacity of
tion reaches its limit. The degree of radial expansion experi- driven piles in low to medium density chalk. Géotechnique Letters, 7: 90–96.
enced at the interface appears to be far smaller than with doi:10.1680/jgele.16.00162.
sands, due to the higher ratio between the pile roughness and Clayton, C.J. 1986. The chemical environment of flint formation in Upper Creta-
ceous chalks. In Proceedings of the 4th International Flint Symposium, The
the silt sized crushed chalk grain size. Scientific Study of Flint and Chert, Brighton, U.K., pp. 43–54.
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radial stresses reducing with time after installation, falling by ings, 1st International Workshop on Characterisation and Engineering Prop-
11% to 34% after 23 and 80 days, respectively. Tension load tests erties of Natural Soils, Singapore, pp. 1403–1434.
Diambra, A., Ciavaglia, F., Harman, A., Dimelow, C., Carey, J., and Nash, D.F.T.
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which developed far higher capacities than are recommended by Fahey, M., and Lee Goh, A. 1995. A comparison of pressuremeter and piezocone
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the 4th International Symposium on the Pressuremeter and its New Ave-
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failure of shallow foundations on calcareous sediments. In Proceedings of the
Acknowledgements International Conference on Behavior of Offshore Structures, Boston, Mass.,
pp. 217–230.
This study is part of a joint industry project led by Pedro Barbosa Fugro. 2012a. Laboratory testing report: Pile test site, chalk specific testing.
that is funded by Innovate UK (formerly the Technology Strategy St. Nicholas at Wade, UK. Fugro. Report D34001-2.
Board), Iberdrola/Scottish Power Renewables, and supported by Fugro. 2012b. Onshore geotechnical report: field data St. Nicholas at Wade UK.
the Geotechnical Consulting Group, London, represented by Felix Fugro. Report D34001-1.
Hobbs, N.B., and Atkinson, M.S. 1993. Compression and tension tests on an
Schroeder. The authors acknowledge the help of Jit Kheng Lim open-ended tube pile in chalk. Ground Engineering, 26(3): 31–34.
and Tom Pine from The University of Western Australia and Emil Hodges, W.G.H., and Pink, S. 1971. The use of penetrometer soundings in the
Ushev and Tingfa Liu of Imperial College who helped to conduct estimation of pile bearing capacity and settlement for driven piles in highly
the pile tests. The authors also acknowledge the support of weathered chalk in Portsmouth areas as an alternative to site investigation
by borehole sampling and laboratory testing. In Proceedings of the Roscoe
Lankelma Ltd., Iden, East Sussex, UK, in carrying out this work. Memorial Symposium: Stress Strain Behaviour of Soils, Cambridge Univer-
sity, pp. 769–774.
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wc water content
testing for marine energy foundations. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers - Geotechnical Engineering, 170(3): 285–298. doi:10.1680/jgeen.16.
␣ parameter to describe relationship between qb and qt
00112. ␦ interface friction angle

␦CPT interface angle applying on PCPT shaft

␦cv constant volume interface friction angle
List of symbols ␦f interface friction angle at failure
␦r residual angle
a cone area ration

c cohesion intercept ␴1 principal effective stress
ch coefficient of horizontal consolidation ␴r radial total stress
ch,NC coefficient of horizontal consolidation under normally con- ␴r radial effective stress

solidated conditions ␴rc radial effective stress after equalization

ch,OC coefficient of horizontal consolidation under overconsoli- ⌬␴rd dilative component during loading

dated conditions ␴rf radial effective stress at failure

ch,piezo operational coefficient of horizontal consolidation during ␴rm maximum penetration radial effective stress

PCPT dissipation tests ␴rs stationary radial effective stress
D diameter of pile or penetrometer ␴z vertical stress beneath pile tip
D50 mean particle size ␴z vertical effective stress beneath the tip
fs PCPT sleeve friction ␶avg average installation compressive shaft resistance
G shear modulus ␶f local shear stress at failure
Ghh shear modulus propagating horizontally and polarized hori- ␶rz local shear stress
zontally ␶s,EoD average shear stress along pile length at end of driving
Ghv shear modulus measured during cross hole seismic tests ␶s,Eoj average shear stress along pile length at end of jacking
Gvh shear modulus measured during seismic CPT ␶s,(t) shaft shear stresses mobilized at tension failure
h distance from pile tip ␸ effective angle of shearing resistance
ks displacement creep rate
L pile length

Effective Stress Regime Around A Jacked Steel Pile During

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Pagination not final (cite DOI) / Pagination provisoire (citer le DOI)

Effective stress regime around a jacked steel pile during

Mots-clés : craie, pieux, capacité de l’arbre, effets du temps, contraintes effectives.

Received 7 March 2017. Accepted 5 December 2017.

wind-farm applications prompted a joint industry project (JIP) to

ratios falling around 23% below the undisturbed values. Re-

Published by NRC Research Press

Fig. 2. Particle-size distribution of samples of crushed chalk from site.

Bialowas et al. (2016) SNW

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where the standard tip velocity, v, is 20 mm/s. The critical values of

Imperial College pile (ICP)

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Table 1. Summary of 102 mm diameter ICP test programme.

Parameter Test ICP01 Test ICP02

Testing procedures Results and interpretation

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Base resistance measurements

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etration (Yang et al. 2010). The average vertical stress, ␴z (= ␴1)

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Published by NRC Research Press

(b) normalized stationary and moving radial effective stresses from

discrete pore pressure peaks were observed that correlated with

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Published by NRC Research Press

from ≈11 to 14 kPa, in three cases and 96 kPa in one isolated

Change in static capacity with time

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Published by NRC Research Press

Published by NRC Research Press

ative tip depth (h/R) apply to driven piles.

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a cone area ration

Published by NRC Research Press

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