Albao Laboratory 1

ChE 223: Momentum Transfer Laboratory 1.
LABORATORY 1: PRINCIPLES OF FLUID MECHANICS
Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering
Shaun Patrick P. Albao
2019–02539
College of Engineering
Eastern Visayas State University – Main Campus
Date of Performance: April 19, 2021
Date of Submission: April 25, 2021
This report is my own unaided work and was not copied from any other person.
Signed
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Laboratory No. 1.1
A manometer was a good example, as it uses the surface area and weight of a column
of liquid to both measure and indicate pressure. Likewise, the widely used Bourdon gauge was
a mechanical device, which both measures and indicates and is probably the best-known type
of gauge. In the first experiment, the primary objective was to demonstrate the relationship
between the absolute fluid pressure and the density of the manometer fluid with the change in
height of the manometer fluid. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected values for
absolute fluid pressure on each of the manometer fluids. In the end, the results turned out that
the height of all three manometric fluids increased as the absolute fluid pressure was increased.
Laboratory No. 1.2
Hydrostatic pressure was the pressure that was exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a
given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increased in
proportion to depth measured from the surface because of the increasing weight of fluid exerting
downward force from above. In the second laboratory experiment, the primary objective was to
demonstrate the relationship between the density and height of a column of liquid with its
hydrostatic pressure. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected values for the
quantities in the latter. In the end, the results turned out that the total hydrostatic pressure of a
column of multiple fluids was directly proportional to the values of the densities and heights of
each fluid.
Laboratory No. 1.3
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid
occurs simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential
energy. The principle was only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible
processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g., heat radiation) are small and can
be neglected. In this laboratory experiment, the primary objective was to demonstrate the
relationship between the flow rates (volumetric and mass) to the liquid height, drain diameter
and the discharge coefficient. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected values for
the quantities stated. In the end, the results turned out that the volumetric flow rate and mass
flow rate were directly proportional with the height of the liquid, the drain diameter, and the
ii
discharge coefficient. Also, the mass flow rate was directly proportional with density, but the
volumetric flow rate remained constant.
Laboratory No. 1.4

Torricelli's law, also known as Torricelli's theorem, was a theorem in fluid dynamics
relating the speed of fluid flowing from an orifice to the height of fluid above the opening. The
law was discovered (though not in this form) by the Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli, in
1643. It was later shown to be a particular case of Bernoulli's principle. In this laboratory
experiment, the primary objective was to demonstrate the relationship between the time to
empty the tank and the height of the water, the empirical constant, and the drain radius. Using a
virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected values for the height of the water, the empirical
constant, and the drain radius. In the end, the results turned out that the time to empty the tank
increased with water height, and it decreased with the empirical constant and the drain radius.
Laboratory No. 1.5
Buffer tanks were common in industry, under many different names, such as
intermediate storage vessels, holdup tanks, surge drums, accumulators, inventories, mixing
tanks, continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs), and neutralization vessels. We start with a
deﬁnition: A buffer tank was a unit where the holdup (volume) was exploited to provide
smoother operation. In this laboratory experiment, the primary objective was to demonstrate the
relationship between the state of buffer with the available input and the desired consumption.
Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected values for the available input and the
desired consumption. In the end, the results turned out that the state of buffer increased over
time if the available input was greater than desired consumption, decreased over time if desired
consumption was greater than available input, and remained the same if available input is equal
to the desired consumption.
Laboratory No. 1.6

A continuity equation in physics was an equation that describes the transport of some
quantity. It was particularly simple and powerful when applied to a conserved quantity, but it can
be generalized to apply to any extensive quantity. Since mass, energy, momentum, electric
charge, and other natural quantities are conserved under their respective appropriate
conditions, a variety of physical phenomena may be described using continuity equations. In
this laboratory experiment, the primary objective was to demonstrate the relationship between
the velocity of efflux and range to the height of the water, the radius of the tank, the height of the
spigot, and the radius of the spigot. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected
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values for the height of the water, the radius of the tank, the height of the spigot, and the radius
of the spigot. In the end, the results turned out that the velocity of efflux and range was directly
proportional to the height of the water, inversely proportional to radius of the tank and of the
spigot, and also inversely proportional to the height of the spigot.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE……………………………………………………………………………………...i
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY……………………………………………………………………….ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………..iv
LABORATORY NO. 1…………………………………………………………………………..1
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………2
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..2
THEORY…………………………………………………………………………………2
METHODS……………………………………………………………………………….4
EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS……………………………………………………4
PROCEDURE……………………………………………………………………5
RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………….5
OBSERVED DATA……………………………………………………………...6
CALCULATED DATA…………………………………………………………...6
SAMPLE CALCULATION………………………………………………………6
DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………7
CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………………………………………7
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..7
LABORATORY NO. 2…………………………………………………………………………..8
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………9
iv
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..9
THEORY…………………………………………………………………………………9
METHODS……………………………………………………………………………...10
EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS…………………………………………………..10
PROCEDURE………………………………………………………………….11
RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………..11
OBSERVED DATA…………………………………………………………….11
CALCULATED DATA………………………………………………………….15
SAMPLE CALCULATION…………………………………………………….15
DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………..16
CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………….16
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………16
LABORATORY NO.
3………………………………………………………………………….17
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….18
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………18
THEORY………………………………………………………………………………..18
METHODS……………………………………………………………………………...19
PROCEDURE………………………………………………………………….20
OBSERVED DATA…………………………………………………………….20
CALCULATED DATA………………………………………………………….23
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SAMPLE
CALCULATION……………………………………………………..23
DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………..23
CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………….24
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………24
LABORATORY NO.
4………………………………………………………………………….25
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….26
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………26
THEORY………………………………………………………………………………..26
METHODS……………………………………………………………………………...27
PROCEDURE………………………………………………………………….28
OBSERVED DATA…………………………………………………………….28
CALCULATED DATA………………………………………………………….29
SAMPLE
CALCULATION……………………………………………………..29
DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………..29
CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………….30
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………30
LABORATORY NO.
5………………………………………………………………………….31
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….32
vi
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………32
THEORY………………………………………………………………………………..32
METHODS……………………………………………………………………………...33
PROCEDURE………………………………………………………………….34
OBSERVED DATA…………………………………………………………….34
CALCULATED DATA………………………………………………………….35
SAMPLE
CALCULATION……………………………………………………..35
DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………..36
CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………….36
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………36
LABORATORY NO.
6………………………………………………………………………….37
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….38
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………38
THEORY………………………………………………………………………………..38
METHODS……………………………………………………………………………...40
PROCEDURE………………………………………………………………….40
OBSERVED DATA…………………………………………………………….41
vii
CALCULATED DATA………………………………………………………….42
SAMPLE
CALCULATION……………………………………………………..43
DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………..43
CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………………….43
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………43
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………44
APPENDIX A…………………………………………………………………………………...45
APPENDIX B…………………………………………………………………………………...46
APPENDIX C…………………………………………………………………………………...47
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ChE 223: Momentum Transfer Laboratory 1.1
DEMONSTRATION OF MANOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
2019–02539
Signed
ABSTRACT
A manometer was a good example, as it uses the surface area and weight of a
column of liquid to both measure and indicate pressure. Likewise, the widely used
Bourdon gauge was a mechanical device, which both measures and indicates and is
probably the best-known type of gauge. In this experiment, the primary objective was to
demonstrate the relationship between the absolute fluid pressure and the density of the
manometer fluid with the change in height of the manometer fluid. Using a virtual
laboratory tool, the researcher selected values for absolute fluid pressure on each of the
manometer fluids. In the end, the results turned out that the height of all three
manometric fluids increased as the absolute fluid pressure was increased.
INTRODUCTION
Pressure was the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit
area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled gage pressure)
was the pressure relative to the ambient pressure. Various units were used to express
pressure. Some of these were from a unit of force divided by a unit of area; the SI unit
of pressure, the pascal (Pa), for example, was one newton per square meter (N/m 2);
similarly, the pound-force per square inch (psi) was the traditional unit of pressure in the
imperial and U.S. customary systems. It may also be expressed in terms of standard
atmospheric pressure; the atmosphere (atm) was equal to this pressure, and the torr
was defined as 1/760 of this. Manometric units such as the centimeter of water,
millimeter of mercury, and inch of mercury were used to express pressures in terms of
the height of column of a particular fluid in a manometer. In the end, the specific
objective of this experiment was to know the relationship between the absolute fluid
pressure and the density of the manometer fluid with the change in height of the
manometer fluid.
THEORY (WITH NOMENCLATURE)
The conceptual framework for this experiment as shown below explains about
the variables to be examined in this experiment and integrating them together to
establish scientific relationships between those variables under consideration.
2
Absolute fluid pressure
Specific weight of the Change in height of

manometer fluid the manometer fluid
Relationship
between the
variables
A piezometer consists of a vertical tube open to atmospheric pressure at one end. A

force balance determines the height of the fluid:
Pf =Patm + γ f h(1)
where Pf is the absolute pressure of the fluid, Patm is atmospheric pressure, γ f is specific
weight of the fluid, and h the height of fluid in the piezometer. Specific weight is:
γ f =ρf g( 2)
where ρ f is fluid density and g is the gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2.
Unlike the piezometer, a U-tube manometer has two components: the fluid being
measured and the manometer fluid, which is typically a dense, non-volatile liquid like
mercury. A U-tube manometer can measure the pressure of a gas or a liquid, whereas a
piezometer can only measure liquid pressure, because gas would escape the
manometer. For a U-tube manometer with measurements of gas pressure, γ f ≪ γ m:
Pg =γ m h(3)
where γ m is the specific gravity of the manometer fluid. The derivation is in Appendix A.
For an inclined manometer, the fluid height h is:
h=Lsin θ (4)
where L is the length of manometer fluid and θ is the angle of the manometer tube
relative to the horizontal. An inclined-tube manometer is used because it provides more
precise measurements than an otherwise identical U-tube manometer. [ CITATION Mun \l
1033 ]
METHODS
3
Equipment/Apparatus
Piezometer
A piezometer is either a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by

measuring the height to which a column of the liquid rises against gravity, or a device
which measures the pressure of groundwater at a specific point.
U-tube manometer
The vertical U-tube is the simplest type of pressure gage and consists either of a single
U-shaped glass tube having a uniform bore with vertical arms or two separate glass
tubes connected to a cistern.
Inclined-tube manometer
4
An inclined manometer is a slightly curved tube with a liquid inside, typically a form of oil
mixture. The amount of liquid displacement is viewed and measured through the tube's
graduations, producing a pressure value.
Procedure
In this experiment, the researcher selected five values for absolute fluid pressure on
each of the manometer fluids in a virtual laboratory simulator. Afterwards, the observed
heights for each of the manometer fluids were tabulated and analyzed.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Observed Data
Table 1: Absolute fluid pressure vs. Height of manometer fluid
Height of Manometer Fluid (cm)

Pf (kPa)
Water Oil Mercury
102.6 13 15 1
104.5 32 37 2
106.8 56 63 4
108.3 71 81 5
109.9 87 99 6
5
Figure 1: Absolute fluid pressure vs. Height of manometer fluid
120
100 99
87
80 81
71
63 Water
60 Oil
56
Mercury
40
37
32
20
15
13
4 5 6
0 1 2
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
Absolute Fluid Pressure (kPa)
Calculated Data
Table 2: Calculated values for the height of manometer fluid.

Pf (kPa)
Water Oil Mercury
102.6 12.997 15.291 0.959
104.5 32.365 38.076 2.389
106.8 55.810 65.659 4.119
108.3 71.101 83.648 5.247
109.9 87.411 102.836 6.451
Sample Calculation
Pg =Pf −Patm =ρm gh
P f −P atm ( 102.6−101.325 ) kPa 1000 Pa 1 kg 100 cm

h= = × × 2
× =12.997 cm
ρm g kg m 1 kPa 1 Pa ∙ m∙ s 1m
1000 3 9.81 2
m s ( )( )
6
Discussion
As shown in Figure 1, there was a positive trend of the lines where the absolute
fluid pressure and the height of the manometer fluid was in the x and y-axis,
respectively. It implied that the height of all three manometric fluids increased as the
absolute fluid pressure was increased. Also, it was observed that the graphs of each
manometer fluid have different slopes, the steepest was the oil, then to water and
mercury. Hence, it means that the density of the fluid also affected the height of the
manometer fluid wherein the less dense it was, the higher would be its height.
Moreover, the results agree with the theory as shown in the calculated data wherein the
values of the heights were approximately equal to the values obtained in the observed
data. The only experimental limitation experienced by the researcher was that the
experiment conducted was a virtual one only which means that the operations were only
programmed so as to agree with real-life experiments, although they do not really
represent it as it was.
CONCLUSION
Based on the results gathered in the experiment conducted and in the theoretical
calculations, the researcher concluded the following statements:
1. The height of the manometer fluid when subjected to absolute fluid pressure and
atmospheric pressure was directly proportional to the absolute fluid pressure.
2. The height of the manometer fluid when subjected to absolute fluid pressure and
atmospheric pressure was inversely proportional to the density of the manometer
fluid.
3. In order to improve the results, an actual laboratory experiment is encouraged.
REFERENCES
Boulder, U. o. (2017, March 28). Manometer Example [Video]. Retrieved from
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q1opScBlMkA
Munson, B. R., Okiishi, T. H., & Huebsch, W. W. (2009). Fundamentals of Fluid

Mechanics (6 ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
7
Pomona, C. P. (2017, March 28). Force Balance on Inclined Manometer [Video].
Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHGUJTSMjOo&t=468s.
8
DEMONSTRATION FOR HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
2019–02539
Signed
ABSTRACT
Hydrostatic pressure was the pressure that was exerted by a fluid at equilibrium
at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure
increased in proportion to depth measured from the surface because of the increasing
weight of fluid exerting downward force from above. In this laboratory experiment, the
primary objective was to demonstrate the relationship between the density and height of
a column of liquid with its hydrostatic pressure. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the
researcher selected values for the densities and heights of three immiscible fluids in a
column. In the end, the results turned out that the total hydrostatic pressure of a column
of multiple fluids was directly proportional to the values of the densities and heights of
each fluid.
INTRODUCTION
Density is a measure of mass per unit volume. The average density of an object
equals its total mass divided by its total volume. An object made from a comparatively
dense material (such as iron) would have less volume than an object of equal mass
made from some less dense substance (such as water). On this part of the laboratory
report, the specific objective of this experiment was to know the relationship between
the density and height of a column of liquid with its hydrostatic pressure.
The conceptual framework for this experiment as shown below talks about the
variables to be examined in this experiment and integrating them together to establish
scientific relationships between those variables under consideration.
9
Height
Hydrostatic
Density Pressure
Relationships
between
variables
Hydrostatic pressure is calculated by:
P= ρgh(1)
where P is hydrostatic gauge pressure (kPa), ρ is fluid density (kg/m3), g is the

gravitational constant and h is fluid height (m).
In order to calculate the total pressure inside the container, the individual fluid pressure
is added to the pressure acting on the fluid from above:
P1=ρ1 g h1 , P2= ρ2 g h2 , P 3=ρ3 g h3
Pbottom=P1 + P2 + P3 (2)
Plotting hydrostatic pressure versus height for each fluid generates a pressure profile
for the container. [ CITATION Bar14 \l 1033 ]
METHODS
Equipment/Apparatus
10
This Demonstration showed the effects of fluid height and density on hydrostatic
pressure. The user can vary both the absolute fluid height and density of the bottom
fluid (blue). The middle fluid (orange) and top fluid (green) variables were adjusted with
respect to the bottom fluid. This resulted in a total hydrostatic pressure that indicated
the gauge pressure at different heights in the container.
Procedure
In the experiment conducted, the researcher selected values for the densities
and liquid heights of three liquids in a column. Afterwards, each of the values were
increased individually with regards to the sample basis to know its effect on the
magnitude of the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container. The observed data
are then shown in graphs through the virtual lab and the computed values were then
tabulated.
11
Observed Data
Figure 1: Linear plotting for the sample basis.
Figure 2: Linear plotting for sample 2.
12
13
14
15
16
17
Calculated Data
Table 1: Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Density of the Fluid
Density of the Fluid (kg/L)

Sample
Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
Basis
Top 0.9 1.2 0.9 0.9
18
Middle 1.5 1.5 1.9 1.5
Bottom 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.7
Hydrostatic Pressure (kPa) 107.71 116.25 117.52 118.01
Table 2: Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Height of the Fluid
Height of the Fluid (m)

Sample
Basis
Top 2.9 3.2 2.9 2.9
Middle 2.5 2.5 2.9 2.5
Bottom 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.5
Hydrostatic Pressure (kPa) 107.71 110.36 113.60 116.35
Sample Calculation
Pbottom=ρ 1 g h1 + ρ2 g h 2+ ρ3 g h3=g ( ρ1 h1 + ρ2 h2 + ρ3 h3 )
m ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) kg 1000 L 1 Pa ∙ m∙ s 2
(
Pbottom= 9.81
s2 )
( 0.9 2.9 + 1.5 2.5 + 2.2 2.1 )
L
∙m ∙
m3
∙
1kg
Pbottom=1.0771 ×105 Pa=107.71 kPa
Discussion
As shown in the graphs of each sample, as it goes deeper to the bottom of the
tank, the hydrostatic pressure of the column of multiple liquids increased until it reaches
a maximum magnitude at the bottom of the tank. Also, it was observed in each figure
and table in the calculated values that the total hydrostatic pressure increases as the
19
density or the height of each fluid increases. Hence, whether the liquid be at the top,
middle, or bottom of the container, the effects are still the same. Moreover, the results
agree with the theory as shown in the calculated data wherein the values of the
hydrostatic pressures were approximately equal to the values obtained in the observed
represent it as it is.
CONCLUSION
1. The total hydrostatic pressure of a column of multiple fluids is directly

proportional to the densities and heights of each fluid.
References
Barbieri, J. (2014, May 29). Pressure Profile for Column of Multiple Fluids. Retrieved
from Wolfram Demonstrations Project:
http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/PressureProfileForColumnOfMultipleFluids
20
DEMONSTRATION OF TANK DRAINING WITH CONSTANT HEIGHT
2019–02539
Signed
ABSTRACT
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle stated that an increase in the speed of a

fluid occurred simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the
fluid's potential energy. The principle was only applicable for isentropic flows: when the
effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g.,
heat radiation) were small and can be neglected. In this laboratory experiment, the
primary objective was to demonstrate the relationship between the flow rates
(volumetric and mass) and the liquid height, drain diameter and the discharge
coefficient. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected values for the liquid
height, drain diameter and the discharge coefficient. In the end, the results turned out
that the volumetric flow rate and mass flow rate were directly proportional with the
height of the liquid, the drain diameter, and the discharge coefficient. Also, the mass
flow rate was directly proportional with density, but the volumetric flow rate remained
constant.
INTRODUCTION
In physics and engineering, in particular fluid dynamics, the volumetric flow rate
(also known as volume flow rate, rate of fluid flow, or volume velocity) was the volume
of fluid which passes per unit time; usually it was represented by the symbol Q
(sometimes V̇). The SI unit was cubic meters per second (m 3/s). Another unit used was
standard cubic centimeters per minute (SCCM). In hydrometry, it was known as
discharge. In addition, the mass flow rate was the mass of a substance which passes
per unit of time. Its unit was kilogram per second in SI units, and slug per second or
pound per second in US customary units. On this part of the laboratory report, the
specific objective of this experiment was to know the relationship between the flow rates
(volumetric and mass) and the liquid height, drain diameter and the discharge
coefficient.
18
Liquid Drain
height diameter
Flow rates
(volumetric and Discharge
mass) Relationship coefficient
between
variables
This Demonstration depicts the flow from a tank where the liquid is maintained at a
constant height. It shows that the liquid's flow rate is proportional to the square root of
m3
its height. The program calculates the volumetric flow rate, Q ( )
s
, using a slightly
modified Bernoulli equation

2
1 d
Q= c0 π
4 ( ) √2 gh
100
where g is the gravitational constant (9.81 m/s 2), h is the liquid's height in the tank (m),
c 0 is the discharge (orifice) coefficient (dimensionless), and d the drain diameter (cm).
The corresponding mass flow rate (kg/s) is calculated by multiplying the volumetric flow
rate, Q, by the liquid's density, ρ (kg/m3). [ CITATION Str98 \l 1033 ]
METHODS
Equipment/Apparatus
19
This demonstration calculates and displays the volumetric and mass flow rates of
a liquid maintained at a constant height in a tank as a function of the liquid's height h
and density ρ, the drain pipe's diameter d and the discharge (orifice) coefficient c 0. It
also plots the volumetric flow rate curve as a function of the liquid's height for the
chosen drain diameter and discharge coefficient values and displays a schematic
diagram of the system. The discharge (orifice) coefficient c 0 characterizes the
relationship between actual flow and ideal flow through an orifice.
Procedure
In the experiment conducted, the researcher selected values for the liquid height,
drain diameter, and the discharge coefficient. Afterwards, each of the values were
magnitude of the flow rates (volumetric and mass). The computed magnitudes of the
volumetric flow rates and the mass flow rates were then tabulated.

Observed Data
Figure 1: Curve plotting for the sample basis
20
Figure 2: Curve plotting for sample 2
21
22
Calculated Data
Table 1: Computation for the volumetric and mass flow rates.
Sample Basis Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5

Liquid height (m) 5.95 7.26 5.95 5.95 5.95
Drain diameter (cm) 7 7 12 7 7
Liquid density (kg/m3) 1060 1060 1060 1331 1060
Discharge coefficient 0.773 0.773 0.773 0.773 0.856
Volumetric flow rate (m3/s) 0.032142 0.035504 0.094458 0.032142 0.035593

Mass flow rate (kg/s) 34.07056 37.63476 100.1257 42.78106 37.72885
Sample Calculation
2
1 d
Q= c0 π
4 ( ) √2 gh
100
23
2
1 1m m m3
4 (
Q= ( 0.773 ) π 7 cm ∙
100 cm )√ (2 9.81
s2)( 5.95 m ) =0.032142
s
Discussion
As shown in the graphs of each sample, the volumetric flow rate increased with
the height of the liquid, including the mass flow rate. Also, both the volumetric flow rate
and mass flow rate increased with the drain diameter. In addition, with regards to the
density of the liquid, the volumetric flow rate remained the same, but the mass flow rate
increased. Lastly, both the volumetric flow rate and mass flow rate increased discharge
coefficient. Moreover, the results agree with the theory as shown in the calculated data
wherein the values of the volumetric and mass flow rates were approximately equal to
the values obtained in the observed data. The only experimental limitation experienced
by the researcher was that the experiment conducted was a virtual one only which
means that the operations were only programmed so as to agree with real-life
experiments, although they do not really represent it as it is.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The volumetric flow rate and mass flow rate are directly proportional with the
height of the liquid, the drain diameter, and the discharge coefficient.
2. The mass flow rate is directly proportional with density, but the volumetric flow
rate remains constant.
References
Earle, R. L., & Earle, M. D. (1983). Unit Operations in Food Processing. NZIFST, Inc.
Streeter, V. L., Wylie, E. B., & Bedford, K. W. (1998). Fluid Mechanics (9 ed.). Boston:
WCB/McGraw-Hill.
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25
DEMONSTRATION OF LIQUID FLOW IN TANK DRAINING
2019–02539
Signed
ABSTRACT
Torricelli's law, also known as Torricelli's theorem, was a theorem in fluid

dynamics relating the speed of fluid flowing from an orifice to the height of fluid above
the opening. The law was discovered (though not in this form) by the Italian scientist
Evangelista Torricelli, in 1643. It was later shown to be a particular case of Bernoulli's
principle. In this laboratory experiment, the primary objective was to demonstrate the
relationship between the time to empty the tank and the height of the water, the
empirical constant, and the drain radius. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher
selected values for the height of the water, the empirical constant, and the drain radius.
In the end, the results turned out that the time to empty the tank increases with water
height, decreases with the empirical constant and the drain radius.
INTRODUCTION
In physics and engineering, in particular fluid dynamics, the volumetric flow rate
(also known as volume flow rate, rate of fluid flow, or volume velocity) was the volume
of fluid which passes per unit time; usually it was represented by the symbol Q
(sometimes V̇). The SI unit was cubic meters per second (m 3/s). Another unit used was
standard cubic centimeters per minute (SCCM). In hydrometry, it was known as
discharge. In addition, the mass flow rate was the mass of a substance which passed
per unit of time. Its unit was kilogram per second in SI units, and slug per second or
pound per second in US customary units. On this part of the laboratory report, the
specific objective of this experiment was to know the relationship between the time to
empty the tank and the height of the water, the empirical constant, and the drain radius.
26
Water Empirical
height constant
Time to empty Drain radius

the tank Relationship
between variables
Torricelli's law, also known as Torricelli's theorem, is a theorem in fluid dynamics

relating the speed of fluid flowing from an orifice to the height of fluid above the opening.
The law states that the speed v of efflux of a fluid through a sharp-edged hole at the
bottom of a tank filled to a depth h is the same as the speed that a body (in this case a
drop of water) would acquire in falling freely from a height h, i.e., v=√ 2 gh ( 1 ), where g is
the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s 2 near the surface of the Earth). This expression
1
comes from equating the kinetic energy gained, m v 2 (2), with the potential energy lost,
2
mgh, and solving for v. The law was discovered (though not in this form) by the Italian
scientist Evangelista Torricelli, in 1643. It was later shown to be a particular case of
Bernoulli's principle. [ CITATION Wil09 \l 1033 ]
METHODS
Equipment/Apparatus
Stopwatch
27
Virtual Laboratory Demonstration
Procedure
In the experiment conducted, the researcher selected values for the height of the
water, the empirical constant, and the drain radius. Then, a stopwatch was used to
record the time it takes to empty the tank. Afterwards, each of the values were
28
magnitude of the time to empty the tank. The observed and the calculated data were
then tabulated.

Observed Data
Table 1: Recorded time to empty the conical tank.
Sample basis Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
Water height (m) 16.1 18.43 16.1 16.1
Empirical constant 0.72 0.72 0.88 0.72
Drain diameter (m) 3.18 3.18 3.18 4.49
Time to empty (s) 8.18 11.71 6.59 4.36
Calculated Data
Table 2: Computation of the time to empty the tank.
Sample basis Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Water height (m) 16.1 18.43 16.1 16.1
Empirical constant 0.72 0.72 0.88 0.72
Drain diameter (m) 3.18 3.18 3.18 4.49
Time to empty (s) 8.260187 11.5808 6.758335 4.143348
Sample Calculation
For a conical tank, the time it takes to empty the tank was given by the formula
32 h2.5
t=
125 c d 2 √2 g
where h was the water height, c was the empirical constant, d was the drain diameter,
and g was the acceleration due to gravity. [ CITATION Wil09 \l 1033 ] The derivation of the
formula can be found in Appendix B.
29
32 ( 16.1 m )2.5
t= =8.260187 s
m
125 ( 0.72 )( 3.18 m ) 2
√(
2 9.81 2
s )
Discussion
As shown in tables 1 and 2, the time it takes to empty the inverted conical tank
with the drain at its apex increases with water height, decreases with the empirical
constant, and it also decreases with the drain radius. In addition, the results agree with
the theory as shown in the calculated data wherein the values of the heights were
approximately equal to the values obtained in the observed data. The only experimental
limitation experienced by the researcher was that the experiment conducted was a
virtual one only which means that the operations were only programmed so as to agree
with real-life experiments, although they do not really represent it as it was.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The time to empty the tank increases with height of the water.
2. The time to empty the tank decreases with the empirical constant.
3. The time to empty the tank decreases with the drain radius.
References
Wilkerson, S., & Evans, M. (2009, March 23). Torricelli's Law for Tank Draining.
Retrieved from Wolfram Demonstrations Project:
http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TorricellisLawForTankDraining/
30
31
DEMONSTRATION OF TANK EQUILIBRIA AND STATE BUFFER
2019–02539
Signed
ABSTRACT
Buffer tanks were common in industry, under many different names, such as
intermediate storage vessels, holdup tanks, surge drums, accumulators, inventories,
mixing tanks, continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs), and neutralization vessels. We
start with a deﬁnition: A buffer tank was a unit where the holdup (volume) was exploited
to provide smoother operation. In this laboratory experiment, the primary objective was
to demonstrate the relationship between the state of buffer with the available input and
the desired consumption. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected values
for the available input and the desired consumption. In the end, the results turned out
that the state of buffer increased over time if the available input was greater than
desired consumption, decreased over time if desired consumption was greater than
available input, and remained the same if available input is equal to the desired
consumption.
INTRODUCTION
Material quantities, as they pass through processing operations, can be

described by material balances. Such balances were statements on the conservation of
mass. Similarly, energy quantities can be described by energy balances, which were
statements on the conservation of energy. If there was no accumulation, what goes into
a process must come out. This was true for batch operation. It was equally true for
continuous operation over any chosen time interval. On this part of the laboratory report,
the specific objective of this experiment was to know the relationship between the state
of buffer to the available input and the desired consumption.
32
Available input
State of buffer Desired
consumption
Relationship
between
variables
Input−Output + Production−Consumption=Accumulation(1)
The state of the buffer changes according to the proportion of input and output of
the variable into and out of the process. In addition to that, the equilibria can be attained
at different levels. Material quantities, as they pass through processing operations, can
be described by material balances. Such balances are statements on the conservation
of mass. Similarly, energy quantities can be described by energy balances, which are
statements on the conservation of energy. If there is no accumulation, what goes into a
process must come out. This is true for batch operation. It is equally true for continuous
operation over any chosen time interval. [ CITATION Sch11 \l 1033 ]
METHODS
Equipment/Apparatus
Virtual experiment demonstration
33
Procedure
In the experiment conducted, the researcher selected values for the available
input and the desired consumption. Specifically, the values chosen for the desired
consumption were above and below the available input chosen so that comparable
effects may occur. The observed data were then tabulated and computed.
Observed Data
Figure 1: State of buffer for sample 1
34
Figure 2: State of buffer for sample 2.
Figure 3: State of buffer for sample 3.
35
Calculated Data
Table 1: Computed values for the accumulation in the buffer tank

Input 0.576 0.576 0.576
Output 0.712 0.42 0.576
Accumulation -0.136 0.156 0
Sample Calculation
Input−Output + Production−Consumption=Accumulation
0.576−0+0−0.712=−0.136
Discussion
36
As shown in simulation and in Table 1, there existed a negative accumulation
when the net consumption was greater than the available input. In addition, a positive
accumulation was also possible if the available input is greater than the net
consumption. Also, it is observed that the tank is in equilibrium if the available input is
equal to the net consumption. Moreover, the results agree with the theory as shown in
the calculated data wherein the values of the net accumulation were equal to the values
obtained in the observed data. However, the experimental limitation experienced by the
researcher was that the experiment conducted was a virtual one only which means that
the operations were only programmed so as to agree with real-life experiments,
although they do not really represent it as it is.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The state of buffer is increases over time if available input is greater than desired
consumption.
2. The state of buffer is decreases over time if desired consumption is greater than
available input.
3. The state of buffer remains the same if available input is equal to desired
consumption.
Reference
Schreiber, M. (2011, March 7). Tank Equilibria. Retrieved from Wolfram Demonstrations
Project: http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TankEquilibria
37
38
DEMONSTRATION OF TORRICELLI’S THEOREM
2019–02539
Signed
ABSTRACT
A continuity equation in physics was an equation that described the transport of

some quantity. It was particularly simple and powerful when applied to a conserved
quantity, but it could be generalized to apply to any extensive quantity. Since mass,
energy, momentum, electric charge, and other natural quantities were conserved under
their respective appropriate conditions, a variety of physical phenomena may be
described using continuity equations. In this laboratory experiment, the primary
objective was to demonstrate the relationship between the velocity of efflux and range
to the height of the water, the radius of the tank, the height of the spigot, and the radius
of the spigot. Using a virtual laboratory tool, the researcher selected values for the
height of the water, the radius of the tank, the height of the spigot, and the radius of the
spigot. In the end, the results turned out that the velocity of efflux and range is directly
proportional to the height of the water, inversely proportional to radius of the tank and of
the spigot, and also inversely proportional to the height of the spigot.
INTRODUCTION
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a

fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's
potential energy. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of
irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g., heat
radiation) are small and can be neglected. On this part of the laboratory report, the
specific objective of this experiment was to know the relationship between the velocity
of efflux and range of horizontally launched water flow in a projectile motion to the
height of the water, the radius of the tank, the height of the spigot, and the radius of the
spigot.
40
Radius of
the tank
Height of Height of
the water the spigot
Velocity of Relationship Radius of

efflux and between the
variables the spigot
range
Torricelli's theorem states that the velocity of efflux for a non-viscous fluid flowing
from a cylindrical tank is
v=√ 2 gh(1)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s 2) and h is the distance between the
surface of the water and the location of the spigot. However, this does not specify the
exact coefficient because it assumes that the velocity of the water at the surface of the
tank is negligible and that both the tank and the spigot are exposed to atmospheric
pressure. If the velocity of the water at the surface is taken into account, the formula for
the velocity of efflux becomes
2 gh
v=
√ ()
1−
r 4
R
(2)
where it takes into account r, the radius of the spigot, and R, the radius of the cylindrical
tank. This equation can be derived from Bernoulli's equation,
1 1
p1 + ρg y 1+ ρ v 21=p 2+ ρg y 2 + ρ v 22 (3)
2 2
and the continuity equation
A1 v 1= A 2 v 2(4)
41
METHODS
Equipment/Apparatus
Virtual laboratory demonstration
The height of water, radius of the tank, location of the spigot, and the radius of
the spigot can be changed by moving the sliders. The velocity of efflux and the range of
the emptying water change as different parameters of the tank are modified. The 3D
graphics reflect the dimensions of the cylindrical tank and the path of water out of the
spigot.
Procedure
In the experiment conducted, the researcher selected values for the height of the
water, the radius of the tank, the height of the spigot, and lastly, the radius of the spigot.
Afterwards, each of the values were increased individually with regards to the sample
42
basis to know its effect on the velocity of efflux and the range of the emptying water.
The observed data were then shown in graphs through the virtual lab.

Observed Data
Figure 1: Velocity of efflux and range for Figure 2: Velocity of efflux and range for
the sample basis sample 2
Figure 3: Velocity of efflux and range for

sample 3
43
Figure 4: Velocity of efflux and range for
sample 4
Figure 5: Velocity of efflux and range for sample 5
44
Calculated Data
Table 1: Computed values for the velocity of efflux and the range
Sample Basis Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Height of water (m) 6 8 6 6 6
Radius of tank (m) 4.4 4.4 5.6 4.4 4.4
Height of spigot (m) 1.35 1.35 1.35 2.42 1.35
Radius of spigot (m) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.426
Velocity of efflux (m/s) 9.5517 11.4226 9.551636 8.380997 9.552016
Range (m) 5.011042 5.99256 5.011009 5.886862 5.011208
Sample Calculation
√ ( )
2 9.81 ( 6−1.35 ) m
2 gh s2 m
v=
√ 1−
r
R
4
( )
=
1− ( 0.3 m
4.4 m )
2
=9.5517
s
2 hspigot m 2 (1.35 m )
R=v
√ g
=9.5517 ×
s
9.81 2
√
m
s
=5.011042 m
Discussion
As shown in the figures and in Table 1, the velocity of efflux and range increases
with the height of water, slightly decreases with the radius of tank, decreases with the
height of spigot, and it slightly decreases with the radius of spigot. Moreover, the results
agree with the theory as shown in the calculated data wherein the values of the velocity
of efflux and the range were approximately equal to the values obtained in the observed
45
represent it as it is.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The velocity of efflux and range is directly proportional to the height of water.
2. The velocity of efflux and range is inversely proportional to radius of the tank and
of the spigot.
3. The velocity of efflux and range is inversely proportional to the height of the
spigot.
Reference
Lee, E. (2011, March 7). Torricelli's Theorem. Retrieved from Wolfram Demonstrations
Project: http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TorricellisTheorem/
REFERENCES
Barbieri, J. (2014, May 29). Pressure Profile for Column of Multiple Fluids. Retrieved
from Wolfram Demonstrations Project:
http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/PressureProfileForColumnOfMultipleFluids/
Boulder, U. o. (2017, March 28). Manometer Example [Video]. Retrieved from
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q1opScBlMkA
Earle, R. L., & Earle, M. D. (1983). Unit Operations in Food Processing. NZIFST, Inc.
Lee, E. (2011, March 7). Torricelli's Theorem. Retrieved from Wolfram Demonstrations
Project: http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TorricellisTheorem/
Munson, B. R., Okiishi, T. H., & Huebsch, W. W. (2009). Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics (6 ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
Pomona, C. P. (2017, March 28). Force Balance on Inclined Manometer [Video].
Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHGUJTSMjOo&t=468s.
Schreiber, M. (2011, March 7). Tank Equilibria. Retrieved from Wolfram Demonstrations
Project: http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TankEquilibria/
46
Streeter, V. L., Wylie, E. B., & Bedford, K. W. (1998). Fluid Mechanics (9 ed.). Boston:
WCB/McGraw-Hill.
Wilkerson, S., & Evans, M. (2009, March 23). Torricelli's Law for Tank Draining.
Retrieved from Wolfram Demonstrations Project:
http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TorricellisLawForTankDraining/
Appendix A: Derivation of Equations in Laboratory 1.1
A piezometer consists of a vertical tube open to atmospheric pressure at one

end. A force balance determines the height of the fluid:
Pf =Patm + γ f h(1)
where Pf is the absolute pressure of the fluid, Patm is atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa),
γ f is specific weight of the fluid, and h the height of fluid in the piezometer. Specific
weight is:
γ f =ρf g( 2)
where ρ f is fluid density and g is the gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2.
Unlike the piezometer, a U-tube manometer has two components: the fluid being
measured and the manometer fluid, which is typically a dense, non-volatile liquid like
47
mercury. A U-tube manometer can measure the pressure of a gas or a liquid, whereas a
piezometer can only measure liquid pressure, because gas would escape the
manometer. For a U-tube manometer:
Pf + γ f h=P atm + γ m h(3)
where γ m is the specific gravity of the manometer fluid. Gauge pressure is:
Pg =h ( γ m−γ f ) ( 4)
Where Pg is gauge pressure. For measurements of gas pressure, γ f ≪ γ m, so gauge

pressure is
Pg =γ m h
For an inclined manometer, the fluid height h is:
h=Lsin θ
where L is the length of manometer fluid and θ is the angle of the manometer tube
relative to the horizontal. An inclined-tube manometer is used because it provides more
precise measurements than an otherwise identical U-tube manometer.
Appendix B: Derivation of Equations in Laboratory 1.4
The liquid flows out of the bottom of a funnel. By Torricelli's law, the velocity of
the liquid at the outlet is
v=√ 2 gh
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the depth of the liquid. The flow is
then
dV
=−cπ r 20 √ 2 gh
dt
where V is the volume, c is the coefficient of discharge, and r 0 is the radius of the drain.
dV =−cπ r 20 √ 2 gh dt
1
π r 2 dh=−c π r 20 √ 2 g h 2 dt
r 2 2
But according to the geometry of the tank, = or d= h, so
h 5 5
48
2 2
−1
( ) 5
h h 2
dh=−c r 20 √ 2 g dt
3
4 2
h dh=−c r 20 √ 2 g dt
25
3
−4 h 2 dh
dt=
25 c r 20 √ 2 g
t 0 3 h 3
−4 4
∫ dt= 2 ∫ h 2 dh= 2 ∫ h 2 dh
0 25 c r 0 √ 2 g h 25 c r 0 √ 2 g 0
5 5
4 2h 2 8h2
t= × =
25 c r 20 √ 2 g 5 125 c r 20 √ 2 g
d0
But d 0, the diameter of the orifice, is equal to 2 r 0 , or r 0 =
2
5 5
2 2
8h 32h
t= 2
= .
d 125 c d 20 √ 2 g
125 c 0
2 ( ) √2 g
Appendix C: Derivation of Equations in Laboratory 1.6
From the Bernoulli’s equation through assuming the first position at the water
surface level and the second position at the location of the spigot, we have
1 1
p1 + ρg y 1+ ρ v 21=p 2+ ρg y 2 + ρ v 22
2 2
But p1= p2, and from the continuity equation, A1 v 1= A 2 v 2.
v 1 A 2 π r 22 r 2 2 2
r
= = 2=
v2 A 1 π r1 r1 ( )
∨v 1=v 2 2
r1 ( )
49
2 2
1 r 1
ρ g y 1+ ρ v 2 2
2 ( ( ))
r1
=ρ g y 2 + ρ v 22
2
4
1 r
g ( y 1− y 2 ) = v 22 1− 2
2 r1 ( ( ))
2
2 g ( y 1− y 2 )
v 2= 4
r2
1− ()r1
2 g ( y 1− y 2 )
√ () √ ()
2gh
v 2= 4
= 4
r2 r
1− 1−
r1 R
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s 2), h is the distance between the
surface of the water and the location of the spigot, r, the radius of the spigot, and R, the
radius of the cylindrical tank.
50

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ChE 223: Momentum Transfer Laboratory 1.

LABORATORY 1: PRINCIPLES OF FLUID MECHANICS

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

Shaun Patrick P. Albao

Eastern Visayas State University – Main Campus

Date of Performance: April 19, 2021

Date of Submission: April 25, 2021

Laboratory No. 1.1

Laboratory No. 1.2

Laboratory No. 1.3

Laboratory No. 1.4

Laboratory No. 1.6

LABORATORY NO. 1…………………………………………………………………………..1

RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………….5

LABORATORY NO. 2…………………………………………………………………………..8

RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………..11

RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………..20

RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………..28

RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………..34

RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………..41

DEMONSTRATION OF MANOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

Shaun Patrick P. Albao

Eastern Visayas State University – Main Campus

Date of Performance: April 13, 2021

Date of Submission: April 25, 2021

THEORY (WITH NOMENCLATURE)

Specific weight of the Change in height of

A piezometer consists of a vertical tube open to atmospheric pressure at one end. A

A piezometer is either a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Table 1: Absolute fluid pressure vs. Height of manometer fluid

Height of Manometer Fluid (cm)

Absolute Fluid Pressure (kPa)

Table 2: Calculated values for the height of manometer fluid.

Height of Manometer Fluid (cm)

Pg =Pf −Patm =ρm gh

P f −P atm ( 102.6−101.325 ) kPa 1000 Pa 1 kg 100 cm

Munson, B. R., Okiishi, T. H., & Huebsch, W. W. (2009). Fundamentals of Fluid

DEMONSTRATION FOR HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

Shaun Patrick P. Albao

Eastern Visayas State University – Main Campus

Date of Performance: April 14, 2021

Date of Submission: April 25, 2021

THEORY (WITH NOMENCLATURE)

Hydrostatic pressure is calculated by:

where P is hydrostatic gauge pressure (kPa), ρ is fluid density (kg/m3), g is the

P1=ρ1 g h1 , P2= ρ2 g h2 , P 3=ρ3 g h3

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Figure 1: Linear plotting for the sample basis.

Figure 2: Linear plotting for sample 2.

Figure 4: Linear plotting for sample 4.

Table 1: Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Density of the Fluid

Density of the Fluid (kg/L)

Bottom 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.7

Hydrostatic Pressure (kPa) 107.71 116.25 117.52 118.01

Table 2: Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Height of the Fluid

Height of the Fluid (m)

Middle 2.5 2.5 2.9 2.5