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Sociology – The Discipline

CSE –MAINS Syllabus:
 Modernity and social changes in Europe and Emergence of sociology.
 Sociology and common sense.
 Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences.

Sociology is THE SYSTEMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR, SOCIAL

GROUPS, AND SOCIETY. Sociology is a discipline that examines how humans interact with each
other and how human behaviour, values, & Norms is shaped by STRUCTURAL AND INSTITUTIONAL
FORCES and look at how we help create those social structures and institutions. ANCIENT PEOPLES tried
to figure out how social life works. They asked questions about WHY WAR EXISTS, WHY SOME PEOPLE
BECOME MORE POWERFUL THAN OTHERS, AND WHY SOME ARE RICH BUT OTHERS ARE POOR.
HOWEVER, they often based their answers on superstition, myth, or even the positions of the stars,
(Tradition) and THEY DID NOT TEST THEIR ASSUMPTIONS.

SCIENCE, in contrast, requires theories that can be tested by research. Measured by this standard, sociology
emerged about the middle of the 1800s, when social observers began to use scientific methods to test their
ideas. The result was the uncovering of many secrets that had been concealed in nature. With traditional
answers failing, the logical step was to apply the scientific method to questions about social life. The result was the
birth of sociology
Sociology has a Long Past But Only a Short History
During the ancient age Social Thought was there. Though sociology came to be established as a separate
discipline in the 19th century due to the efforts of the French philosopher Auguste Comte, it is wrong to suppose
that there existed no social thought before him.
Sociology which is known as the science of society is one of the youngest as well as one of the oldest of the social
sciences. IT IS ONE OF THE YOUNGEST SCIENCES because; only recently it came to be established as a
distinct branch of knowledge with its own distinct set of concepts and its own methods of inquiry.
SOCIOLOGY IS ALSO ONE OF THE OLDEST OF THE SCIENCES. Since the dawn of civilisation society
has been the subject for speculation and inquiry along with other phenomena which have agitated the restless
and inquisitive mind of man. Even centuries ago men were thinking about society and how it should be organised,
and held views on man and his destiny, the rise and fall of peoples and civilizations. Though they were thinking in
sociological terms they were called philosophers, historians, thinkers, law-givers or seers. For thousands of
years men have reflected upon societies in which they lived. In the writings of philosophers, thinkers and law-givers
of various countries of various epochs we find ideas that are sociological. For instance, in the writings of Plato,
Aristotle, Manu, Kautilya, Confucius, Cicero and others we find major attempts to deal methodically with the
nature of society, law, religion, philosophy etc: Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Kautilya Arthashastra,
the Smriti of Manu, Cicero's "On Justice" are some of the ancient sources of social thought.

DURING THE MIDDLE AGES and early modem times the teachings of the church dominated the human mind
and hence most part of the human thinking remained as metaphysical speculation far away from the scientific
inquiry. INTELLECTUALS BECAME MORE ACTIVE SINCE THE 16TH CENTURY ONWARDS. Their
quest for an understanding human society, its nature, socio-political system and its problems now received new
impetus. The literary works of some prominent intellectuals of this period clearly reveals this urge to understand and
interpret man's socio-political system. Machiavelli's "The Prince", Thomas Hobbe’s 'Leviathan" Rousseau's

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"Social Contract\ Montesquieu’s "The Spirit of Laws", Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations", serve as examples of
such literary works. Thinkers like Sir Thomas More in his "Utopia", H.G.Wells in his "A Modern Utopia" - had
made attempts to project a picture of an ideal society free from all shortcomings.

However, it was only in the 19th century, with The MODERNITY AND SOCIAL CHANGES IN
EUROPE that systematic attempts were made by Auguste Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, Weber and
others to study society and to establish a science of society called "sociology".

:Understanding Modernity And Modernization:

Modernity is associated with the sweeping changes that took place in the society-particularly social, economic and
cultural changes. Modernity involves values and norms that are universal in nature. This is the outcome of the
Process of Modernization. It represents substantial break with traditional society.

Modernity and Modernization represents substantial breaks with traditional society. Modernization is an idea before
it is a process. As it is an idea, there is no agreement among social scientists on its meaning and interpretation. The
concept of modernization emerged as an explanation of how Western countries/ societies developed through
enlightenment, industrialisation and capitalism.
According to this approach, modernization depends primarily on introduction of technology and the
knowledge required making use of it. Besides, several social and political prerequisites have been identified to
make modernization possible. Some of these prerequisites are:
 Inventions and Discoveries & Innovation.
 Industrialization and urbanization.
 Capitalism
 Free Market
 Optimism
 The search for absolute knowledge in science, technology, society and politics.
 The idea that gaining knowledge of the true self was the only foundation for all other knowledge.
 Rationality.
 Increased levels of education.
 Development of mass media.
 Accessible transport and communication.
 Democratic political institutions.
 More urban and mobile population.
 Nuclear family in place of extended family.
 Complex division of labour.
 Declining public influence of religion, and;
 Developed markets for exchange of goods and services in place of traditional ways of meeting such needs.

Modernization is, thus, supposed to be the result of the presence of these prerequisites in the social system.

MODERNITY AND SOCIAL CHANGES IN EUROPE

The Emergence of Sociology as a scientific Discipline is traced to the period of European History
characterised by tremendous Social, Political, Economic and Cultural changes. These changes were
result of Modernity embodied in French revolution and Industrial Revolution influenced by
Commercial Revolution and Scientific Revolution. Modernity received ideological content from these

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revolutions. These revolutions came up with IDEOLOGY OF PROFITEERING, MASS PRODUCTION-NEW

MARKETS, DESIRE FOR BUILDING CAPITAL EMPIRES IN OTHER COUNTRIES AND
INDUSTRIALISM-DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY, RATIONALITY, CAPITALISM AND
PROGRESS. This period of Modernity and change in European society is known as ENLIGHTENMENT
PERIOD. It embodies the spirit of new awakening in the French philosophers of the Eighteenth century.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD

The roots of the ideas developed by the early sociologists are grounded in the social conditions that prevailed
in Europe. The emergence of sociology as a scientific discipline can be traced to that period of European
history, which saw such tremendous social, political and economic changes as embodied in the French
Revolution and the Industrial Revolution.

The Enlightenment Period marked a radical change from the traditional thinking of feudal Europe. It
introduced the new way of thinking and looking at reality. Individuals started questioning each and every
aspect of life and nothing was considered sacrosanct - from the church to the state to the authority of the
monarch and so on.

The roots of the ideas, such as THE BELIEF THAT BOTH NATURE AND SOCIETY CAN BE
STUDIED SCIENTIFICALLY, THAT HUMAN BEINGS ARE ESSENTIALLY RATIONAL AND THAT
A SOCIETY BUILT ON RATIONAL PRINCIPLES WILL MAKE HUMAN BEINGS REALIZE THEIR
INFINITE POTENTIALS, CAN BE TRACED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND
COMMERCE IN EUROPE. THE NEW OUTLOOK DEVELOPED AS A RESULT OF THE
COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION AND THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND CRYSTALLIZED
DURING THE FRENCH AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS GAVE BIRTH TO SOCIOLOGY
AS A DISCIPLINE.

OLD EUROPE was traditional. Land was central to its economic system. There were owners of land, the feudal
lords and the peasants who worked on the lands. The classes were distinct and clearly demarcated. Religion
formed the corner stone of society. The religious heads decided what was moral, what was not. Family and
kinship were central to the lives of the people. Monarchy was firmly rooted in society. The king was believed
to be divinely ordained to rule over his people. THE NEW EUROPE ushered in by the two Revolutions,
the French and the industrial, challenged each and every central feature of old Europe. Classes
THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION AND MODERNITY &SOCIAL CHANGE IN EUROPE
The “Commercial Revolution” refers to a series of events between 1450 to approximately 1800. These
events signaled to a shift from the largely subsistence and stagnant economy of medieval Europe to a
more dynamic and worldwide system. The Commercial Revolution in this sense, signified the expansion of
trade and commerce that took place from the fifteenth century onwards. It was of such a large scale and
organised manner that we call it a Revolution. This expansion was as a result of the initiative taken by certain
European countries to develop and consolidate their economic and political power. These countries were
Portugal, Spain, Holland and England.

Europe’s trade with the Oriental or Eastern countries like India and China was transacted by land routes. The
northern Italian cities of Venice and Genoa were the major centers of trade. The result of the Italian monopoly
was that the prices of goods like spices and silks imported from the East were extremely high. Portugal and
Spain therefore, wanted to discover a route to the Orient that would be independent of Italian control.

THUS BEGAN A SHIFT FROM LAND ROUTES TO SEA-ROUTES. The Portuguese were the
pioneers in adventurous navigation and exploration, you probably know of the historic voyage of Vasco da
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Gama who, in 1498 landed on the Indian coast after having sailed around the southern tip of Africa.
Christopher Columbus, an Italian under the patronage of the Spanish King and Queen, set sail for India.
However, he landed on the shores of North America. This accidental discovery of America was to prove very
beneficial to Spain. It laid the foundations of what was to become a Spanish empire in America. Britain,
France and Holland soon followed Spain and Portugal. The parts of India and Africa, Malacca, the Spice
Islands, West Indies and South America came under the economic control of Spain, Portugal, England,
France and Holland. Commerce expanded into a world enterprise. The monopoly of the Italian cities was
destroyed. EUROPEAN MARKETS WERE FLOODED WITH NEW COMMODITIES; SPICES AND
TEXTILES FROM THE EAST, TOBACCO FROM N. AMERICA, COCOA, CHOCOLATE AND
QUININE FROM S. AMERICA, IVORY AND, ABOVE ALL, HUMAN SLAVES FROM AFRICA. With
the discovery of the Americas, the range of trade widened. Formerly, the items sought for were spices and cloth,
later, gold and silver were added to the list. As the Commercial Revolution progressed, the position of Portugal
and Spain declined. England, Holland and France came to dominate Europe and the world.
EXPANSION OF BANKING: One of the important features of the Commercial Revolution was the growth of
banking. Credit facilities were expanded, making it easy for merchants all over Europe to do business. The
“cheque” was invented in the eighteenth century. Paper money came to replace gold and silver coins.
GROWTH OF COMPANIES: As trade and commerce expanded, new kinds of business organizations
had to be devised to cope with this growth. “Regulated companies” arose in the 16th century. These were
associations of merchants who bonded together to cooperate for a common venture. “Joint-stock” companies
emerged in the 17th century. In this set-up, shares of capital were distributed to a large number of investors.
Some of these were also “chartered companies”, their governments gave them a charter or a contract which
guaranteed them a monopoly of the trade in a particular region. Examples of these companies include the
British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company.

RISE OF A NEW CLASS: As hinted at earlier in this section, one of the most distinctive characteristics of this
period was the rise of the middle class to economic power. By the end of the 17th century, the middle class
had become an influential group in nearly every western European country. It included merchants, bankers,
ship-owners and investors. Their power, at this stage, was mainly economic. But later in the unit, we shall see
how they became politically powerful in the 19th century.

STRENGTHENING OF MONARCHY: This period saw the strengthening of monarchy, THE DECLINE OF
THE CHURCH AND THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS. It marked the beginning of the process of
“Europeanisation”, which was to reach a peak with colonialism.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND MODERNITY &SOCIAL CHANGE IN EUROPE

Europe produced a “scientific revolution” in the Renaissance period of fourteenth to sixteenth century A.D. The
impact of the scientific revolution was crucial not just in changing material life, but also people’s ideas about
Nature and Society.

Science does not develop independent of society, rather, it develops in response to human needs e.g.
various vaccines were not developed just out of the blue, but out of the necessity to cure diseases.

APART FROM INFLUENCING THE PHYSICAL OR MATERIAL LIFE OF SOCIETY, SCIENCE IS

INTIMATELY CONNECTED WITH IDEAS. The general intellectual atmosphere existing in society
influences the development of science. Similarly, NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN SCIENCE CAN CHANGE
THE ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS IN OTHER AREAS AS WELL. It is important to keep this fact in
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mind. The emergence of sociology in Europe owes a great deal to the ideas and discoveries contributed
by science.
Science in the Medieval Period & The Renaissance period:

MEDIEVAL SOCIETY was characterized by the feudal system. The Church was the epicenter of power
authority and learning. Learning was mostly of the religious variety. Nothing could challenge the ‘dogmas’ or
rigid beliefs of the Church. New, daring ideas could not flower in such an atmosphere. Thus the development
of science was restricted mainly to improvements in techniques of production.
THE ‘RENAISSANCE’ PERIOD saw the beginning of the ‘Scientific Revolution’. It marked an area of
description and criticism in the field of science. IT WAS A CLEAR BREAK FROM THE PAST, A
CHALLENGE TO OLD AUTHORITY. Art, literature and science all flourished. A scientific approach to
Nature and the human body became prevalent. We can see this in the paintings of that period, which explored
the smallest details of Nature and the human body. In the field of Medicine, dissection the human body
became acceptable. Doctors and physiologists directly observed how the human body was constructed. The
fields of anatomy, physiology and pathology thus benefited greatly. In the field of chemistry, a general
theory of chemistry was developed. Chemical processes like oxidation, reduction, distillation, amalgamation
etc. were studied. In the field of navigation and astronomy, Vasco da Gama reached the Indian shores in
1498. Columbus discovered America in 1492. Remember, this was the era of expansion of trade and the
beginnings of colonialism. A strong interest in astronomy, important for successful navigation also grew. The
first major break from the entire system of ancient thought came with the work of the Dutchman,
Nicholas Copernicus. It was generally believed that the earth was fixed or stationary and the sun and other
heavenly bodies moved around it. (This is known as a ‘geocentric’ theory.) Copernicus however thought
otherwise. With the help of detailed explanations, he demonstrated that the earth moved around a fixed sun.
(This is a ‘heliocentric’ theory.) The work of Copernicus is considered revolutionary because it
drastically altered patterns of thought about the universe. Human being was not at the center of the universe,
but a small part of a vast system.

In a nutshell, science in the Renaissance period was marked by a new attitude towards man and nature. Natural
objects became the subject of close observation and experiment. The Copernican revolution shattered the
very foundations on which the old world rested.
Other Post-Renaissance Developments: The work of physicists and mathematicians like Galileo Galilei (1564-
1642), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) and subsequently, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) revolutionized science.
It brought to the forefront THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD. Old ideas were challenged and alternatives
were suggested. If these alternative ideas could be proved and repeatedly verified and checked out, they were
accepted. If not, new solutions were sought. SCIENTIFIC METHODS THUS CAME TO BE REGARDED
AS THE MOST ACCURATE, THE MOST OBJECTIVE. (The use of the ‘scientific method’ to study
society wlas recommended by pioneer sociologists.)

DISSECTION OF THE HUMAN BODY HELPED PEOPLE GAIN A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF

ITS WORKING. Circulation of blood was discovered by William Harvey (1578-1657). This led to a lot of
rethinking. The human organism came to be viewed in terms of interrelated parts and interconnected
systems. This had its impact on social thought of Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, to name a few. The British
naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) published the Origin of Species in 1859. It was based on the
observations made whilst traveling for five years all over the world. Darwin put forward the theory that various
living organisms compete for the limited resources the earth has to offer. Thus “survival of the fittest” is the
natural law. Some species evolve or develop certain traits, which make their survival possible, other species die
out. Darwin studied ‘human evolution’, tracing it in his work, Descent of Man (1863). He traced the origins of