EarthTrends: Featured Topic

Title: Dirty Water: Pollution Problems Persist

Author(s): Carmen Revenga and Greg Mock
Source: Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Freshwater Systems
Date written: October 2000

The sight and smell of grossly industrialized countries have and new pollutants like
polluted waterways provided greatly reduced the effects of pesticides have combined to
some of the original impetus to these pollutants, with heavily degrade water quality,
the environmental movement consequent improvements in particularly near urban
in the 1970s. Nearly a century water quality. Pollution laws industrial centers and intensive
before that, the dangers of and pollution control agricultural areas.
polluted water to human health technologies have succeeded (Shiklomanov 1997:28;
drove what became known as especially well in cutting UNEP/GEMS 1995:6). An
the “sanitary revolution” in emissions from concentrated estimated 90 percent of
Europe and the United States, “point sources” like factories wastewater in developing
emphasizing clean water and sewage treatment plants. countries is still discharged
supplies and sewer systems in For example, from 1972 to directly to rivers and streams
cities. Today, despite progress 1992 the amount of sewage without any waste processing
in cleaning up waterways in treated at wastewater treatment treatment (WMO 1997:11).
some areas, water pollution plants in the United States
remains a serious global increased by 30 percent, yet the Nutrient Pollution: The
problem, with impacts on the organic pollution (measured as New Danger
health of freshwater the Biological Oxygen
ecosystems and the human Demand) from these plants The level of nutrients such as
communities that rely on them dropped 36 percent (CEQ nitrates and phosphorous in
for water supply. 1995:229). freshwater ecosystems is a
Unfortunately, a new suite problem worldwide
The Changing Pollution of contaminants from intensive (Shiklomanov 1997:34–36). In
Profile agriculture and development most cases, the major cause of
activities in watersheds has these contaminants is the
Water pollution spans a wide kept the cleanup from being increased use of manure and
range of chemical, physical, complete. In general, national manufactured fertilizer in
and microbial factors, but over water clean-up programs have global agriculture. In the
the years the balance of major not been effective in reducing United States, for example,
pollutants has shifted markedly “nonpoint” pollutants such as agriculture is the single greatest
in most industrialized countries nutrients, sediments, and toxics source of pollution degrading
(see Figure 1 for a summary of that come in runoff from the quality of surface waters
major pollution sources and agriculture, urban and like rivers and lakes, with
their effects). One hundred suburban stormwater, mining, croplands alone accounting for
years ago, the main water and oil and gas operations nearly 40 percent of the
contamination problems were (NRC 1992:47; EEA nitrogen pollution and 30
fecal and organic pollution 1999:178). percent of the phosphorous
from untreated human waste Meanwhile, in most (Faeth 2000:6-7). (See Figure
and the byproducts of early developing countries, the 2.)
industries. Through improved problems of traditional Natural waters have very
treatment and disposal, most pollution sources like sewage low concentrations of nitrates

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 2

WIDE RANGE OF POLLUTANTS STILL DEGRADE WORLD'S WATER

Figure 1: Common Water Pollutants and their Effects

POLLUTANT PRIMARY SOURCE EFFECTS

Organic matter Industrial wastewater and Depletes oxygen from the water column as it
domestic sewage. decomposes, stressing or suffocating aquatic life.

Excess nutrients (nitrates, Runoff from agricultural lands and Overstimulates growth of algae (a process called
phosphorous) urban areas. eutrophication), which then decomposes, robbing
water of oxygen, and harming aquatic life. High
levels of nitrates in drinking water lead to illness in
humans.
Heavy metals Industries and mining sites. Persists in freshwater environments, like river
sediments and wetlands for long periods.
Accumulates in the tissues of fish and shellfish.
Toxic to both acquatic organisms and humans who
eat them.
Microbial contaminants (e.g., Domestic sewage, cattle, natural Spreads infectious diseases through contaminated
cryptospori-dium, cholera, and sources. water supplies, causing millions of cases of
other bacteria, amoebae, etc.) diarrheal diseases and intestinal parasites, and
providing one of the principal causes of childhood
mortality in the developing world.

Toxic organic compounds (oil, Wide variety of sources, from Displays a range of toxic effects in aquatic fauna
pesticides, some plastics, industrial sites, to automobiles, to and humans, from mild immune suppression, to
industrial chemicals) farmers, and home gardeners. acute poisoning, or reproductive failure.

Dissolved salts (salinization) Leached from alkaline soils by Leads to salt build-up in soils, which kills crops or
overirrigation, or drawn into cuts yields. Renders freshwater supplies
coastal aquifers from overdrafting undrinkable.
of groundwater.
Acid precipitation or acidic runoff Deposition of sulfate particles, Acidifies lakes and streams, which harms or kills
mostly from coal combustion. aquatic organisms and leaches heavy metals such
Acid runoff from mine tailings and as aluminum from soils into water bodies.
sites.
Silt and suspended particles Soil erosion and construction Reduces water quality for drinking and recreation
activities in watersheds. and degrades aquatic habitats by smothering them
with silt, disrupting spawning, and interfering with
feeding.
Thermal pollution Fragmentation of rivers by dams Affects oxygen levels and decomposition rate of
and reservoirs, slowing water and organic matter in the water column. May shift the
allowing it to warm. Industrial species compostion of a river or lake.
uses such as cooling towers.

Sources: Taylor and Smith 1997; Shiklomanov 1997; UNEP/GEMS 1995.

(a soluble from of nitrogen) the water column of dissolved The relevant water data from
and phosphorous, but nutrient oxygen, kill aquatic organisms, the UN’s Global Environment
levels increase with runoff and degrade water quality. Monitoring System (GEMS),
from farm lands as well as Dissolved nitrates in drinking for example, only cover 1976-
from urban and industrial water can also harm human 1990. Of these globally
wastewater. Dissolved health. monitored watersheds, the
nutrients act as fertilizers, Data on nutrient trends in highest nutrient concentrations
stimulating algal blooms and global waters are spotty and come from sampling stations
the eutrophication of many only give the most generalized in Europe. Nitrate
inland waters. This can rob picture of current conditions. concentrations are higher in

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 3

AGRICULTURE IS PRIMARY SOURCE OF NUTRIENT POLLUTION IN U.S.

WATERS central and western Europe
show the highest levels (EEA
Figure 2: Nitrogen and Phosphorous Discharges to U.S. Surface Waters from
Point and Nonpoint Sources (in thousands of metric tons per year) 1999:174). In general,
phosphorous concentrations
SOURCE NITROGEN PHOSPHOROUS have decreased significantly
Nonpoint sources since 1985, mostly due to
Croplands 3,204 615
improvements in wastewater
Pastures 292 95
treatment and the reduced use
of phosphorous in detergents.
Rangelands 778 242
However, phosphorus levels
Forests 1,035 495
remain a problem in most
Other rural lands 659 170
regions of Europe (EEA
Other nonpoint sources 695 68 1999:174). Despite some
Total nonpoint discharges 6,663 1,658 positive trends, the overall
Total point sources 1,495 330 state of many European rivers
Total discharge (point + nonpoint) 8,158 2,015 with respect to nutrient
Nonpoint as a percentage of total 82% 84% concentrations remains poor
Source: Carpenter et al. 1998. (EEA 1998:194-196).
Figure 3 shows water
watersheds that have been lower fertilizer application quality data for the United
intensively used and modified rates, compared to Europe. States for the 1980s. For the
by human activity, such as the More detailed and recent 1980–89 period, nitrate
Weser, Seine, Rhine, Elbe, and data available in Europe show concentrations remained
Senegal. High levels are also distinct regional trends in the relatively stable, with most
found in such watersheds in concentrations of nitrates and monitoring stations showing
China, South Africa, and the phosphorous in rivers. Nitrate no discernable trend. This
Nile and Mississippi basins loadings are highest in areas probably reflects the fact that
(UNEP/GEMS 1995:33-35). with intensive livestock and nitrogen fertilizer use in the
In South America, nitrate crop production, especially in United States leveled off after
concentrations in the the northern parts of western steady increases in the 1970s.
monitored watersheds are Europe. Nitrate concentrations Fertilizer application rates
relatively low and follow are lowest in Finland, Norway, increased for the period 1974–
human land use. The highest and Sweden. Overall nitrate 1981, and nitrate
nitrate concentrations are concentrations in monitored concentrations increased as
found in the Uruguay European rivers have not well during that period.
watershed, where some of the changed significantly since Average nitrate concentrations
most intensive agriculture on 1980, despite lower nitrogen were greater in agricultural and
the continent is found. Nitrate fertilizer application rates since urban areas than in forested
concentrations are also greater the 1990s (EEA 1998:194–197; areas (Smith et al. 1994:122).
in the Magdalena watershed of EEA 1999:176–177). Trends in phosphorous
Colombia than in the less Similar regional patterns are concentrations in the United
densely populated watersheds also evident in phosphorous States showed greater
of the Amazon basin trends. Rivers in Finland, improvement, with five times
(UNEP/GEMS 1995:33–35). Norway, and Sweden have the more states showing
The nitrate concentrations in lowest phosphorous downward trends than upward
South America correspond to concentrations, whereas areas trends. Decreases were more
from southern England across likely to be found in the East,
Midwest, and the Great Lakes

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 4

regions, while the majority of Groundwater Contamination industry can cause serious
increases occurred in the human health problems
Southeast (Smith et al. Surface waters like streams and (Shiklomanov 1997:42).
1994:124). lakes are not the only water Global data on the quality
The decreased sources that suffer from of groundwater resources are
concentrations of phosphorous pollution. Groundwater lacking. Even where available,
in streams and rivers in the aquifers, which are critical data usually are not
United States is attributable to sources of both drinking water comparable because of the
reduced phosphorous in and irrigation water, are also different measures and
laundry detergents and affected. The major causes of standards used, which vary by
improved controls in groundwater pollution are country (Shiklomanov 1997:42;
wastewater treatment plants. leaching of pollutants from Scheidleder et al. 1999:11; S.
The increased number of agriculture, industry, and Foster, personal
sewage treatment plants has untreated sewage, as well as communication, 2000).
also reduced the amount of saltwater intrusion caused by However, there is evidence
nitrogen in the form of overpumping. that groundwater
ammonium, which is toxic to Once pollutants enter a contamination from fertilizers,
fish. However, the sewage groundwater aquifer, the pesticides, industrial effluents,
treatment process converts environmental damage can be sewage, and hydrocarbons is
ammonium to nitrates that are severe and long lasting, partly occurring in many parts of the
still released into waterways. because of the very long time world.
Thus, the greater number of needed to flush pollutants out As with surface waters,
sewage treatment facilities has of the aquifer (UNEP nitrate pollution is one of
not necessarily decreased the 1996:14). Because groundwater groundwater’s most serious
total amount of nitrogen is primarily used for drinking threats. In general, the risk of
flowing into waterways water, pollution from untreated nitrate pollution for
(Mueller and Helsel 1996). sewage, intensive agriculture, groundwater supplies is directly
solid waste disposal, and related to the amount of
fertilizers or other nitrogen
NITRATE CONCENTRATION STABILIZE IN THE 1980s
Figure 3: Trends in U.S. Stream Water Quality, 1980-89
inputs to the land, as well as
the permeability of the soil.
Stations
For example, half the
with Stations Stations groundwater samples in a
Upward with Down- with No heavily fertilized region of
Number of Trend in ward Trend Concen- northern China contain nitrate
Water Quality Sampling Concen- in Concen- tration
Indicator Stations tration tration Trend levels above the safe limit for
Dissolved Solids 340 28 46 266 drinking water (Zhang et al.
Nitrate 344 22 27 295 1996:224). In the United
Total Phosphorous 410 19 92 299
States, where groundwater
supplies drinking water for
Suspended Sediments 324 5 37 282
more than half the population,
Dissolved Oxygen 424 38 26 360
a preliminary analysis of nitrate
Fecal Coliform 313 10 40 263
contamination found that high
Source: Data are from the USGS National Stream Quality Accounting Network nitrate concentrations are
(NASQAN), quoted in CEQ 1995. widespread in shallow
groundwater aquifers in
Note: Although data on stream water quality are continuously monitored, these agricultural areas (USGS
are the latest aggregated figures published for all monitoring stations.
1999:41). Groundwater

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 5

pollution in Europe is similarly degraded in almost all regions pollution. In addition, the
widespread (Scheidleder et with intensive agriculture and massive loss of wetlands at a
al.1999). rapid urbanization. global level has greatly
Unfortunately, little impaired the capacity of
Conclusion information is available to freshwater systems to filter and
evaluate the extent to which purify water. Groundwater
Surface water quality has chemical contamination has quality suffers from many of
improved in most developed impaired the health of the same pollution problems as
countries during the past 20 freshwater ecosystems. surface waters and faces the
years, but nitrate and pesticide However, incidents of algal additional challenge of being
contamination remain blooms and eutrophication are very difficult to restore once
persistent problems. Data on widespread in freshwater the underlying aquifer is
water quality in other regions systems all over the world—an contaminated.
of the world are sparse, but indicator that these systems are
water quality appears to be profoundly affected by water

REFERENCES

Carpenter, S., N. Caraco, D. Correll, R. Howarth, A. Sharpley, and V. Smith. 1998. Nonpoint Pollution
of Surface Waters with Phosphorous and Nitrogen, Issues in Ecology. Washington, DC: Ecological Society
of America.

CEQ (Council on Environmental Quality). 1995. Enviromental Quality — Twenty-Fifth Anniversary

Report. Washington, DC: The Council for Environmental Quality.

EEA (European Environment Agency). 1999. Environment in the European Union at the Turn of the
Century. Environmental Assessment Report No. 2. Copenhagen, Denmark: European
Environment Agency.

EEA (European Environment Agency). 1998. Europe’s Environment: The Second Assessment.
Copenhagen, Denmark: European Environment Agency.

Faeth, P. 2000. Fertile Ground: Nutrient Trading’s Potential to Cost-Effectively Improve Water Quality.
Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

Foster, S. British Geological Survey. 2000. Personal Communication. 5 July.

Mueller, D.K. and D.R. Helsel. 1996. Nutrients in the Nation’s Waters—Too Much of a Good Thing?
USGS Circular 1136. Reston, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey.

NRC (National Research Council). 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press.

Scheidleder, J. Grath, G. Winkler, U. Stärk, C. Koreimann, and C. Gmeiner. 1999. Groundwater

Quality and Quantity in Europe. Environmental Assessment Report No. 3. S. Nixon, ed.

©EarthTrends 2001 World Resources Institute. All rights reserved. Fair use is permitted on a limited scale and for educational purposes.
 6

Copenhagen, Denmark: European Environment Agency, European Topic Centre on Inland

Waters.

Shiklomanov, I.A. 1997. Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World: Assessment of
Water Resources and Water Availability in the World. Stockholm, Sweden: World Meteorological
Organization and Stockholm Environment Institute.

Smith, R.A., R.B. Alexander, and K.J. Lanfear. 1994. Stream Water Quality in the Coterminous United
States—Status and Trends of Selected Indicators During the 1980s. USGS Water Supply Paper 2400.
Reston, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey.
Taylor, R. and I. Smith. 1997. State of New Zealand’s Environment 1997. Wellington, New Zealand: The
Ministry for the Environment. Available on-line at:
http://www.mfe.govt.nz/about/publications/ser/front.pdf.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 1996. Groundwater: A Threatened Resource. UNEP
Environment Library No. 15. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP.

UNEP/GEMS (United Nations Environment Program Global Environment Monitoring

System/Water). 1995. Water Quality of World River Basins. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP.

USGS (U.S. Geological Survey). 1999. The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters — Nutrients and Pesticides.
USGS Circular 1225. Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey.

WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 1997. Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources
of the World. Stockholm, Sweden: WMO and Stockholm Environment Institute.

Zhang, W.L., Z.X. Tian, N. Zhang, and X.Q. Li. 1996. “Nitrate Pollution of Groundwater in
Northern China.” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 59: 223-31.

©EarthTrends 2001 World Resources Institute. All rights reserved. Fair use is permitted on a limited scale and for educational purposes.