NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY AND THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF LABOR'

HOWARD M. VOLLMER AND DONALD L. MILLS

ABSTRACT
There are some indications that the development of nuclear technology is associated with rudi-
mentary professionalization of labor, including the development of specialized techniques with under-
lying theoretical formulations, a career pattern supported by an association of colleagues, and a
community-recognized status. With nuclear technology, moreover, the importance of public health and
safety considerations is recognized as related to the professionalization process.

Accurate description of the changing sionalization of labor," apply to the re-

characterof labor in relation to technologi- sponse of labor to new technologies other
cal innovations has been a continuous con- than automation?
cern of industrial sociologists. For example, In this paper the authors will discuss
Nelson N. Foote has contended that the consequences of nuclear technology for
nature of our current industrial society American labor. By "nuclear technology"
may be more meaningfully described in we mean the application of nuclear fission
terms of more dynamic social processes and nuclear radiation phenomena to in-
such as "the professionalizationof labor."2 dustrial processes. Access to information
He claims that manual laboring occupa- on this subject has been provided by a
tions are in a process of status change, series of studies conducted by Stanford
that is, they are increasingly assuming the Research Institute for the Office of In-
technological, organizational, and ideologi- dustrial Relations of the United States
cal aspects of professionalization.These as- Atomic Energy Commission. Information
pects were described, respectively, as (1) gained in these studies has provided sup-
"a specialized technique supported by a port for Foote's thesis. Furthermore, our
body of theory," (2) "a career supported attention was drawn to certain health and
by an association of colleagues," and (3) safety considerations associated with nu-
"a status supported by community recog- clear technology which might further sup-
nition." port the "professionalization of labor"
Although his illustrations were largely thesis.
based upon automation of the automobile
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY AND MANPOWER
industry in Detroit, Foote suggested that
the "professionalizationof labor" is a con- There are two general aspects of nuclear
cept describing a general trend in Ameri- technology that have considerable impact
can society associated with the growth of upon Americanindustry: (1) reactor tech-
new technologies. The key question re- nology, in which nuclear reactors are being
mains, then: Does the concept, "profes- designed for electric power generation,
process heat, and various research uses in
'-Adapted from a paper originally read at the industry; and (2) radioisotope technology,
Annual Meetings of the American Sociological in which radioisotopes are being used in-
Association, New York, 1960. The authors appre- creasingly for radiographic inspection, ra-
ciate comments on this paper provided by Otto N.
Larsen, R. R. Tarrice, H. V. Kincaid, and David
diation gauging, tracing, and other indus-
Bushnell. trial application. At present, more than
2Nelson N. Foote, "The Professionalization of
1,500 industrial organizations located
Labor in Detroit," American Journal of Sociol- throughout the nation have been licensed
ogy, LIII (January, 1953), 371-80. to use radioisotopes, and 146 nuclear re-
690

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 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY AND PROFESSIONALIZATION OF LABOR 691

actors are being operated, built, or planned actor operators, turbine operators, gen-
for non-military uses in the United States.3 erator operators, or maintenance personnel
The number of workers involved in these for mechanical maintenance (including
and related aspects of nuclear technology general mechanics, welders, machinists,
has been increasing in recent years. In pipefitters, plumbers, and related trades),
1956 there were about 83,000 persons em- electrical maintenance, instrumentation,
ployed in installations owned directly by and chemical analysis. Use of radioisotopes
the United States Atomic Energy Commis- in industry involves production workers
sion and operated by private contractors; (using radiation gauges or tracer tech-
over 40,000 of these were manual or hourly niques), radiographicequipment operators,
rated employees.4In 1961 there were about radiological well-logging equipment opera-
130,000 employees in 158 AEC contractor- tors, maintenance repairmen of radiologi-
operated installations, 53,000 of which were cal equipment, industrial laboratory tech-
manual workerswho worked with, or in the nicians (using radiological techniques),
vicinity of, radiation sources. Approxi- personnel who manufacture radiological
mately 25,000 of these manual workers are equipment, and persons in related occupa-
in skilled crafts or trades. In addition, at tions. In addition, the new occupation of
least 22,000 employees are now employed radiation monitoring has developed in re-
in other contexts affected by nuclear tech- sponse to the potential hazards of use of
nology, such as the construction of nuclear radiation in industry.
facilities, industrial laboratories using ra- Therefore, it would seem that the im-
diation sources (not under contract to the pact of nuclear technology upon American
AEC), nuclear instrument manufacturing, labor is worthy of notice, both in terms of
radioactive waste disposal, and uranium numbers of personnel and in terms of the
mining.5 General Electric Company is an variety of occupations involved.
example of an industrial organization that
employs more than 1,800 persons who SPECIALIZED TECHNIQUES
work directly with radiation sources and That nuclear technology requires the de-
more than 6,400 persons who work in the velopment of specialized techniques sup-
vicinity of these sources.6 ported by a body of general theory for
Manual or hourly rated job classifica- operating and maintenance personnel has
tions in nuclear power plants typically re- been recognized by various authorities in
quire operating personnel to serve as re- the field.7 These needs for specialized and
3 Atomic Industrial Forum, The Atomic Indus-
7 See, e.g., John I. Saks, "Labor Implications
try: 1958 (New York: Atomic Industrial Forum,
of Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy," Monthly
1959), p. 12; and United States Atomic Energy Labor Review, LXXX (1957), 927-28; F. W.
Commission, Major Activities in the Atomic En- Erhard, "Industrial Training Aspects of the Peace-
ergy Programs, January-December 1960 (Wash-
ful Uses of Atomic Energy," Proceedings of the
ington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1961), International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of
p. 437. Atomic Energy (New York: United Nations,
'James J. Bambrick, Jr., and Albert A. Blum, 1956), XIII, 66; K. K. Campbell, "Maintenance
Labor Relations in the Atomic Energy Field Work in the Field of Nuclear Energy," Proceed-
("Studies in Personnel Policy," No. 158 [New ings-1953 Conference on Nuclear Engineering
York: National Industrial Conference Board, (Berkeley: University of California Bookstore,
1957]), pp. 22-25. 1953), p. G-12; D. Cochran, "Engineering Prob-
lems in Nuclear Power Plant Development,"
6 Major Activities in the Atomic Energy Pro-
grams, p. 109. United States Congress Joint Committee on
Atomic Energy, Report on Atomic Power and
' W. A. McAdams, "Radiation
Protection in the Private Enterprise (82d Cong., 2d sess. [Washing-
Industrial Use of Radiation" (paper read at the ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952]), p.
Second United Nations International Conference 306; and D. 0. Woodbury, Atoms for Peace (New
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, 1958). York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1955), p. 246.

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692 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
more intensive training of workers for ap- additional training in special aspects of
plications of nuclear energy have affected radioactivity associated with radiography,
the content of industrial training programs. radiation gauges, and radioactive tracer
For example, special training programs for techniques.9A basic course of this type is
journeymen reactor operators, welders, and also being given in adult-education pro-
instrument repairmen at Shippingport grams in several states and has been dis-
Atomic Power Station, Pennsylvania, re- tributed by the Atomic Energy Commis-
quire 72 to 133 hours of formal classroom sion to approximately 250 industrial com-
training (excluding on-the-job training) in panies for integration into company train-
both theoretical and practical aspects of ing programs.
nuclear power-plant work. Based upon an Contractors of the Atomic Energy Com-
analysis of training needs and training pro- mission give their operating and mainte-
grams, a Stanford Research Institute re- nance personnel at installations like those
port has suggested that at least thirty-two at Hanford, Washington, or Oak Ridge,
hours of training in basic theory be given Tennessee, from seventeen to thirty-three
to workers in preparation for employment hours of formal training in radiation the-
in a nuclear power plant. The suggested ory, followed by much more on-the-job
course outline provides for training in prin- training. Thus operators and mechanics
ciples of atomic structure, radiation, nu- who are not themselves nuclear specialists
clear fission and fusion, nuclear fuels, nu- are gaining an elementary knowledge of
clear reactor types and power generation nuclear theory.
systems, reactor control and instrumenta- Not all management officials in indus-
tion, and related safety principles and trial plants affected by nuclear technology
practices.8 Courses of this type are now are convinced that training workers in the
being given in adult-educationprogramsin fundamentalsof nuclear theory is necessary
California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, New or desirable. It has been possible, as in
York, Pennsylvania, and other states. the case of reactor operators at the Han-
In connection with radioisotope utiliza- ford facility, for workersduring World War
tion, various training courses have also II to perform prescribed operations with
recognized the need for formal training in a minimum of knowledge about the funda-
basic nuclear theory. For example, courses mental principles that underlie their
conducted by Industrial Nucleonics Cor- work.10Some managers still maintain that
poration, Columbus, Ohio; by the Budd "a little knowledge is a dangerous thing,"
Nuclear Systems Division, Philadelphia; inclining workers to assume responsibil-
and by the Picker Laboratories, Cleveland ities that should be retained by physical
(major manufacturers of radiographic scientists or engineers. In most experimen-
equipment); include instruction in nuclear tal prototype reactor facilities, college-
theory and fundamentals.Based upon anal- trained engineers are present and exercise
ysis of such courses, a study for the Atomic technical supervisory responsibilities on all
Energy Commission has also suggested shifts. However, as power-reactorfacilities
thirty-two hours of training in basic theory and various uses of radioactive materials
for radioisotope workers. This course out- become more commonplace in industrial
line provides for training in principles of
9H. M. Vollmer, L. J. Towle, and B. J. May-
atomic structure and radiation, similar to nard, Development of a Training Program for
the content outlined in the previously men- Radioisotope Workers in Industry (Washington,
tioned nuclear power-plant course, and D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1961), pp. 29-
8 H. M. Vollmer, Development of Training Pro- 31.
grams for Operating and Maintenance Personnel 10Military security regulations during World
in Nuclear Power Generating Systems (Washing- War II required that workers at Hanford know
ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1961), as little as possible about the principles of their
p. 36. work.

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 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY AND PROFESSIONALIZATION OF LABOR 693

operations, the assignment of professional sense nuclear technology, like automation,

engineers to continual surveillance of these requires operating and maintenance per-
operations becomes increasingly difficult, sonnel who are more like technicians and
especially in more isolated locations, where less like manual workers. Their acquisi-
nuclear power plants or other nuclear tion of abilities to perform specialized tech-
facilities are often located. As a result, niques supported by theory (nuclear the-
journeymen operators and workers in the ory in this case) fulfils Foote's first cri-
vicinity of radioactive materials are neces- terion for professionalization.
sarily assuming more responsibility for
their own safety and public safety. Because CAREER ORIENTATIONS
radioactive materials are inherently un- Several items of informationmay be pre-
stable and potentially dangerous despite sented that support Foote's second criterion
physical and procedural safeguards, the for the professionalization of labor-
personnel responsible for handling or namely, workers are oriented toward a
working around these materials must un- career in their work, sustained by an asso-
derstand something about the underlying ciation of colleagues. Trade unions are now
"why's" of safety procedures in order to acting to facilitate and support the career
take appropriate action in emergencies. stability of their membership in relation
Furthermore,contrary to the initial opin- to nuclear technology. As early as 1954,
ion of some skeptics, ordinary journey- the late Martin P. Durkin initiated an
men workers in skilled operating and atomic energy conference with a keynote
maintenance crafts have demonstrated speech on the "Challenge of the Atomic
their ability to assimilate considerable in- Age" before representatives of the United
formation about fundamental principles of Association of Plumbers and Pipefitters.'2
nuclear energy. A Stanford Research In- Shortly thereafter a skills-improvement
stitute study of trial presentations of the course in "Nuclear Energy and Its Appli-
suggested nuclear power-plant course in cations to the Pipe Trades Industry" was
two adult-education programs has indi- established by the United Association.13As
cated that journeymen workers learned as mentioned earlier, the International Union
much or slightly more about principles of of Operating Engineers, through its West-
atomic structure and radiation during the ern Conference of Stationary Engineers,
course than managerial and "white-collar" has trained its own cadre of instructors
participants in the course. A further study and now has several hundred members en-
indicated that journeymen operating en- rolled in training classes on nuclear tech-
gineers, selected by West Coast locals of nology in various western states. The
the International Union of Operating En- Operating Engineers are now planning to
gineers, are capable of effectively assimilat- expand this programon a nationwide basis.
ing such course materials for the purpose The InternationalBrotherhoodof Electrical
of teaching them to other membersof their Workers is developing a similar training
trade. program for its members.
Such developments as these seem to sup- One of the union organizations that has
port the view of most authorities, in other taken a very strong interest in nuclear
countries as well as in the United States, technology has been the International
that nuclear technology, automation, and Brotherhoodof Boilermakers.A represent-
similar advanced technologies require in- 12 Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress
creased emphasis upon theoretical knowl- of the United States, Employee Radiation Haz-
edge relative to manual skills.11 In this ards and Workmen's Compensation (Washington,
:' International Labour Conference, Report of D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1959), p. 376.
the Director General, Part I: Automation and 3 American Chemical Society, "Atoms and La-
Other Technological Developments (Geneva: In- bor," Chemical and Engineering News, XXXIV
ternational Labour Office, 1957), pp. 47-48. (February 20, 1956), 31.3.

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694 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
ative of this union began in 1950 to sur- technicians has been expressed in several
vey available information and to report ways. For example, officialsof public spon-
the expected effects of nuclear technology sored technical and industrial training cen-
upon the boilermaker's trade. A desire to ters and public junior colleges have recently
avoid the kind of technological unemploy- shown increasing desire to include nuclear-
ment and disruption of career patterns technology subjects in their apprentice
that had previously affected the Boiler- and journeymen training programs. Basic
makers in connection with dieselization of courses in nuclear power-plantapplications,
railroads has caused them to assess very radioisotope utilization, and radiation safe-
carefully the career opportunities of their ty have been given in California and in
membershipin nuclear work. Consequently, several other states, as was mentioned pre-
this union has developed special training viously. State supervisorsof industrial and
programs to upgrade the skills of present vocational education have requested that
journeymen as well as to prepare appren- these courses be developed and tried out in
tices for nuclear assignments.14 preparation for use in the near future in
Thus it is not only the fact that nuclear similar training programs throughout the
technology requires more training in fun- United States.
damental theory, but also that this train- At present, reactor operators in private
ing, in many cases, is being assumed by industrial plants must be licensed by the
workmen'sassociations of colleagues (trade Atomic Energy Commission,after taking a
unions) that is indicative of rudimentary qualifying examination prepared by AEC
professionalization of labor. representatives. Licensing procedures for
It might also be added that unions have those who use radioisotopesin industry dif-
taken other steps to facilitate career stabil- fer somewhat from procedures for those
ity of their membership in nuclear work. who operate reactors. Ordinarily,an organ-
This has been exemplified by many union ization may be licensed to use specific
leaders' attitudes, particularly on the na- radioisotopes for specific purposes; but in
tional or international level, toward special the application for the license, the individu-
hazard pay for workers employed in the als who will "use or directly supervise use
vicinity of radiation sources. Although of by-product material," along with their
these officials are usually quite concerned experience and training, must be listed in
with the establishment of adequate struc- the application.
tural and procedural safeguards for their Among the responsibilitiesof the Atomic
members'health and safety, they have gen- Energy Commission is the special regula-
erally refrained from pressing for special tion of manpower management and labor
hazard pay, lest this demand result in auto- relations in industries using nuclear energy,
mated control systems and consequent especially in installations operated by pri-
technologicalunemployment.Thus manage- vate contractors for the Atomic Energy
ment and union officials usually have Commission. This includes regulation of
agreed that hazard pay is warranted only wages, hours of work, and general working
where job classifications explicitly specify conditions, as well as the prompt settlement
special radiation hazards in the work sit- of labor disputes to assure employmentcon-
uation.15 tinuity.16 One effect of such government
COMMUNITY-RECOGNIZED STATUS
responsibility in labor relations is to weak-
en the dependence of employees upon their
Community and societal recognition of relationship with their employers in the
nuclear work and the status of nuclear
"6Oscar S. Smith, "Obligations of Government
14 Employee Radiation Hazards and Workmen's as Owner, Financer, and Consumer in Relation to
Compensation, p. 366. Collective Bargaining," Labor Law Journal (No-
15
Bambrick and Blum, op. cit., p. 18. vember, 1956), pp. 684-85.

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 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY AND PROFESSIONALIZATION OF LABOR 695

niuclearplants subject to this regulation. effects of the more advanced phases of

Also, because employers in AEC contractor automation upon labor have been some-
installations do not own their facilities, and
what less dramatic than many authorities
may be removed at any time that the AEC on this subject originally expected. For ex-
decides to close an installation or to changeample, he has pointed out that increased
its management, the presumed continuity automaticity apparently results in un-
of operations typical of private industrial changed or reduced skill requirements for
establishments is lacking, or at least weak- most operating and maintenance personnel,
ened, in these nuclear plants. Moreover, except for electronics maintenance special-
where an employer operates an AEC instal- ists. At the same time, he has indicated that
lation in connection with defense contracts, there is evidence of need for more "over-all
he is also subject to influence by the Army,machine repairmen"who are familiar with
the Navy, or the Air Force in his dealings all the control technologies involved in an
with his employees. Such intervention and automated system. Yet Bright has main-
control of employer-employee relations on tained that there is no evidence that the
the part of public bodies thus serves to fur-
over-all effect of automation can be expect-
ther public recognition of nuclear work. ed to increase the proportion of the indus-
trial work force in more skilled specialist
It is reasonable to suspect that this situ-
ation contributes especially to the profes- or maintenancejobs.17
sionalizationof labor, in that it makes labor In two nuclear power plants studied by
more independent of employers and more the authors (the station in operation at
dependent upon associations of colleagues Shippingport, Pennsylvania, and the sta-
(i.e., the trade unions with jurisdiction ortion planned for Indian Point, New York)
interest in nuclear work) for the improve- more skilled operating and maintenance
ment of working conditions and career con- personnel are needed than would be re-
tinuity. Any substantial change in working quired in a conventional electric power
conditions, therefore, is not a matter that generation plant, even after the initial
can easily be settled between the repre- start-up of the plant. Moreover, from 6 to
sentatives of a local union and plant man- 8 per cent of the employees in nuclear
agement-it is a matter of industry-wide power plants are radiation-protectionspe-
concern affecting community interests rep- cialists-an occupation that does not occur
resented by the Atomic Energy Commis- in non-nuclear work. Between 1 and 2 per
sion. This has been a principal factor in cent of the employees of AEC contractors
the establishment of the Atomic Energy operating nuclear installations are radia-
Technical Committee of the AFL-CIO. tion-protection specialists.18
The development of the occupation of
HEALTH AND SAFETY radiation-protection specialists indicates
So far in this paper, the thesis has been the extreme importance of radiation pro-
presented that nuclear technology contrib- tection in nuclear facilities. Nuclear radia-
utes to the professionalizationof American tion, in the form of alpha and beta parti-
labor in ways somewhat similar to those of cles and gamma rays, presents a unique
automation. It should be pointed out, how- health hazard, in that these forms of radi-
ever, that nuclear technology may make an ation are ordinarily undetectible by the hu-
even greater contribution than automation man senses, exposureeffects are cumulative,
to the professionalization of labor, insofar and damage to the human system may not
as nuclear technology attaches special im- '" James R. Bright, Automation and Manage-
portance to public health and safety. ment (Boston: Graduate School of Business Ad-
After intensive study of thirteen auto- ministration, Harvard University, 1956), pp. 160-
mated plants in a variety of industries, 62, 176-93.
James R. Bright has concluded that the John I. Saks, op. cit., p. 923.
18

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696 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
result in a health impairment until many nology are perhaps felt by much of the
years after the exposure has taken place. public to be a dimly understood but pres-
For these reasons, the Atomic Energy Act ent danger; consequently, there is an ele-
of 1954 and other federal and state regula- ment of awe involved. Such apprehension
tions, as well as administrative regulations has, to some extent at least, surroundedthe
of the Atomic Energy Commission,the Na- advent of many major technological inno-
tional Committee on Radiation Protection vations (e.g., steam, electricity) with an
and Measurement, the United States Pub- aura of mystery which has served at times
lic Health Service, and other concerned to set certain workers (e.g., the railroad
government agencies, have specified physi- engineer, the airline pilot) apart, as occu-
cal and personnel safeguards for workers pying statuses in our society worthy of spe-
in nuclear facilities and residents in sur- cial prestige, inasmuch as they are consid-
rounding communities. ered to have the direct safety of many peo-
Although elaborate physical safeguards ple in their hands. But with nuclear tech-
are built into nuclear plants and radiation- nology the actual complexity and perceived
safety specialists are given responsibility importance of such industrial applications
for full-time surveillance of compliance have perhaps made an even larger contribu-
with safety regulations, the basic responsi- tion to the process of professionalization,
bility for radiation safety rests on the nu- because the work has been surrounded by
clear worker. Similar training requirements a supporting halo of secrecy and a lack of
are placed upon those who handle radioiso- general public understanding of the proc-
topes in their work. As in the case of nu- esses. It is no accident that the expression
clear reactors, radioisotopes in industrial "professional secrets" is to be found in
applicationsconstitute a source of radiation everyday speech; for surely this factor is
hazard not only to employees but also to an important ingredient in the process of
their families and other members of the the professionalizationof labor taking place
surrounding community. Thus nuclear in research and manufacturing involving
workers appear to have a responsibility for nuclear energy.
public safety that is greater than the re-
STANFORD RESEARCH INSTITUTE
sponsibility for safety ordinarily placed MENLO PARK, CALIFORNIA
upon workers in non-nuclearplants. AND
In a sense, hazards from nuclear tech- UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA, CALGARY

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