Review of Related Literature and Studies

Review of Related Literature

Speaking anxiety

Speech therapist, Margaretha Lanerfeldt (1992), describes speaking anxiety as something

that has a great impact on one’s self-confidence since it often makes one experience failure when

not being able to speak out and show what one knows. It is characterized by irregular heartbeat,

perspiration, stumbling and an inability to act which can block ones capacity to act and speak.

She explains that this issue often turns into a vicious circle because one bad experience from

speaking often becomes a reminder when the next opportunity arises. If a student with speaking

anxiety experience failure he or she will rather remain quiet than take the risk of failing again.

This situation drags them into a silence that becomes more and more difficult to break since it

contributes to a role as “the quiet one” in class. Speaking anxiety creates a low self-confidence

which makes students remain quiet in all situations, even if they have the capacity to express

themselves and knowledge that is worth hearing.

Furthermore, Lightbown and Spada (2003), also discuss speaking anxiety and how it can

affect language learning. They argue that anxiety is something that is more likely to depend on

special situations and circumstances that can make one feel uncomfortable. They claim that one

should distinguish temporary anxiety or tension from anxiety that interferes with a student´s

learning process. Anxiety that interferes with the learning process affects most speaking

activities and is not simply related to specific situations such as oral presentations in front of the

whole class.
 Hence, from the given definition above about speaking anxiety, we can say that speaking

anxiety can be a big problem for second language learners because it may inhibit them to learn

and use the language orally due to internal opposition it can create within their feelings.

Types of anxiety

According to Spielberger et al. (1976), as cited in Woodrow (2006), anxiety can be

classified into three categories. They are trait anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific

anxiety. The stable one is trait anxiety. Trait anxiety can make people feel nervous in a wide

range of situations. People with trait anxiety are predictably and generally anxious with many

things. Eyesenck (cited in MacIntyre et al. 1991) argued that trait anxiety could notoriously

impair a person’s cognitive functioning in term of person’s memory disruption, and it triggers

person to be an “avoidance” personality. The second one is state anxiety. It is understood as a

temporary one and is simply considered as a transient apprehension which is triggered by a

particular provoking-situation.In other words, a person would be likely to experience state

anxiety if he had a fear of particular situation. The third one is situation-specific anxiety. It

reflects a trait that recurs in specific situations. It can be considered that situation-specific

anxiety is similar to trait except that it applies to a single context or situation only. Specifically,

this anxiety is argued as persons’ apprehension that consistently rises over time in dealing with

particular given situation.

On the other hand, Alpert and Habert (1960), as cited in Palwak (2015), divided anxiety

into two categories such as debilitative and facilitative. Debilitative anxiety is a negative feeling

of anxiety wherein the students may have problems with concentration, be unwilling or willing
but do not want to participate in the in-class activity. The second type which is the facilitative

anxiety motivates students to learn more and prepare for the classes or exams. From this we can

say that in terms of using the target language, facilitative anxiety can be beneficial to the learner

while debilitative anxiety can inhibit them from learning as well as it can affect the level of their

performance.

Furthermore, Horwitz et al. (1986) also proposed three types of anxiety that can help to

explain the anxiety experienced by learners in using the target language. These are

communication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation, and test anxiety

The first type is communication apprehension. Learners who are experiencing

communication apprehension while communicating in the target language will apparently feel

uncomfortable to speak in front of others, due to the lack of language skills, especially speaking

and listening skills. Whoever second language learner who experienced a fear of negative

evaluation will tend to consider this kind of strain as a threat to their image among peers.

Students will perceive that committing errors is kind of obstacle to master their target language,

rather than consider it as a part of natural process of foreign language learning.

Furthermore, test anxiety happens when learners will intuitively consider any kind of

foreign language learning process as a part of testing themselves related to their foreign language

proficiency, especially in oral production. As a result, learners, who experience test anxiety

would not perceive the process of language learning as a good chance to improve their

communication skills
 Measuring levels of speaking anxiety

In measuring the levels of speaking anxiety, Debrely (2016), suggested to use a

questionnaire of Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) which consists of 33

items to measure the level of speaking anxiety of learners. Whereas, Horwitz, et al (1986) also

have developed 33 items of the FLCAS questionnaires. The items of questionnaires consist of

some statements aimed to measure the level of anxiety in using language such as ‘do not worry

about making mistakes in the language class’, ‘start to panic when I have to speak without

preparation in the language class’, ‘do not understand why some people get so upset over foreign

language classes ‘get nervous when the language teacher asks questions which I haven’t

prepared in advance’, and many more. Each of the items has a 5-point scale ranging according to

Strongly Agree (scale point 5), Agree (scale point 4), Neutral (scale point 3), Disagree (scale

point 2), and lastly, Strongly Disagree (scale point 1).

Speaking performance

Speaking performance is defined as actual instances of producing oral language in real

time (McNamara, 1996). Speaking performance or oral production is a popular research target

and has been assessed in many fields. In connection, speaking as it is the required language skill

for a second language learner to perform the language orally can be defined as an interactive

process of conducting out meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing

information. According to Brown (2001), speaking is a communication tool to each other where

the speaker can convey ideas, opinions, and feelings through verbal skills to listeners. Speaking

is the important skill for English language students, because oral speaking skill is a big part to do
in a language class (Harmer, 2001). For foreign language students, they need to actively

communicate and bravely express their opinion in communicating with other people. According

to Richards and Renandya (2002), English language speaking is difficult, especially for English

second language learners because effective oral communication requires the ability to use the

language appropriately in social interactions. Speaking is one of the four basic competencies that

the students should gain well and it has an important role in communication.

Types of Test to Assess Speaking Performance

There are three types of test to assess students speaking performance. According to

Nakamura and Valens (2001), these are monologue, dialogue and multilogue.

The first is monologue speaking test wherein students are allowed to talk about anything

of their own choice. This activity focuses on giving students one of their first opportunities to

make a small presentation in English in short time and varied topics. The activities that the

learners must choose are expected to go into more and use more techniques generally associated

with proficient presentation skills.

The second is dialogue speaking test or the interview. This is an open-ended, student

lead-discussion with the teacher. In this activity, they use real conversation wherein

conversation to be used is not rehearsed or written in advanced. Students are told in advance that

they will be required to use the conversation skills they have learned throughout the course to

lead a one-to-one conversation with the teacher. Each individual student is in charge of choosing

the topic and regulating the flow of the conversation. Because of this, issues of background
knowledge, etc. are not considered an issue. The conversation lasts for approximately ten

minutes.

The third is multilogue speaking test or what we can call discussing and debating. The

discussions are characterized as student-generated discussions. In this situation, students are put

into groups, and as a group, students decide on a topic they feel would be of interest for the rest

of the classroom. Next, students prepare two sets of questions. One set is a list often multiple-

choice questions based on the topic their group has chosen. The other is a list of five questions to

guide the group discussions that will follow. After this, students are put into new groups, so one

member from each of the original groups is in each of the newly established groups. Taking

turns, each student is then put in charge of leading their new group in a discussion after the other

members in their discussion group have completed the multiple-choice questionnaire. Each

student is in turn to be the group leader one at a time that will focus on group conversations

based on the topic the original groups chosen.

Related Studies

In the study of Zhang Xianping (2003), on the relationship between language anxiety and

quality of oral performance, the study found out that the higher the anxiety score, the lower the

oral performance of the participants as they feel fear of evaluation and over concern of errors.

The participants were 97 non-English major college students in an ordinary university in China.

The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale was first administered to the participants to

measure their anxiety level and based on the result there were 8 volunteers that was interviewed

in a classroom context and found that there was a reverse relationship between language anxiety

and the quality of oral performance.

anxiety and speaking performance, using Korean participants. The participants of their study

were one hundred and thirty-two Korean college students who enrolled the English conversation

classes. This research used foreign language classroom anxiety scale (FLCAS) by (Horwitz,

Horwitz, & Cope, 1986) as the instrument. The results of their study indicated that learners’

anxiety level was negatively related to their oral performance. The findings suggested that

students’ feeling of stress, anxiety or nervousness may impede their language learning and

performance abilities. He cites that the higher the anxiety, the lower the performance.

Furthermore, Nazir, Bashir, and Raja (2014), also conducted study about second

language speaking-anxiety among ESL intermediate Pakistani learners wherein the participants

of their study were 253 intermediate students of difference sections in the college. The

instrument they used for their study was a foreign language classroom anxiety scale

questionnaire from Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986, and mini version of the questionnaire

containing, 12 items. Based on their analysis the students of Pakistani ESL have anxiety in

communication and receive a negative evaluation of speaking, but half of the students do not

worry about speaking performance if they prepare themselves in advance. Their study also shows

around 72% learners feel fear of making mistakes while speaking. The result of classroom

speaking in the result shows that the participants of this study feel their anxiety in

communicative activities.

There were also interconnected research from Salehi and Marefat (2014), about the

effects of foreign language anxiety on foreign language test performance. The participants of the

study were 200 students of English as a foreign language at Iran Language Institute (ILI), their

participants have difference age and level of English. This research use three instruments, these
are Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale by Horwitz (1986) and Test Anxiety Scale by

Sarason (1975). The results of their study are the first results of relationship between foreign

language anxiety and foreign language test performance and it showed that these two variables

had a negative relationship.

Moreover, Mauludiyah (2014), examines the correlation between students‟ anxiety and

their ability in speaking class. The participants are class of 4th semester students of English

department at IAIN Tulungagung of 2013-2014. This research used foreign language classroom

anxiety scale (FLCAS) by (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986) as the instrument. The hypothesis

testing showed there was no correlation between two variables and in order to be a better

presenter in the oral presentation, learners need to increase the emotional as according to Brown

(2000), and Skehan (1989), emotional of people behavior have positive impact for learners in

performing oral presentation.

Additionally, Farhan Raja (2017), conducted a study about public speaking anxiety and

speaking performance. The study used 50 Computer Science undergraduate students of a

reputable private sector business school in Karachi using convenience sampling technique.

Quantitative research paradigm was the research design used and the data was analyzed using

sample testing for mean, standard deviation and variance, through data analysis tool pack of MS

Excel. The result of the research proves that the fear of public speaking can be overcome by

practicing and rehearsing before the presentation, it is also believed that people who experience

public speaking anxiety can perform as well as those who have a good command over public

speaking.
 Further, Sutarsyah, C. (2017), designed a study of a group of first year students of SMPN

2 Bandar Lampung. In this study, there were 27 students in the class as the research participants.

The research design used to seek the correlation between the speaking anxiety and performance

was ex post facto. Questionnaire and speaking test were used in data collection and were

analyzed using Independent T-Test and Linear Regression to test the hypotheses. The results

showed that the students’ speaking performance significantly differs between the two groups.

Students with lower level of anxiety have higher score in speaking performance than those with

higher level of anxiety. It is clear that learners with lower level of anxiety have better

performance in their speaking .

Meanwhile, Santriza (2018), used a qualitative research design to study a group of

science students of second graders wherein there were 20 students in the class. The

questionnaire that was administered to the participants were adapted from Foreign Language

Classroom Anxiety Scale and Likert scale were categorized into strongly agree (SA), agree (A),

disagree (D), and strongly disagree (SD). The data was analyzed by categorizing students’

respond toward every statement of questionnaire transformed into percentage and then into a

graphic. 72% of the students experienced the anxiety inr4e54455r45r45555 test, 73% of the

students feel anxious in communicative apprehension, and 55% of them were getting anxious in

fear of negative evaluation. The result showed that anxiety influence their achievement in

speaking skill.

In addition, Zeng and Cheng (2018), conducted study in which they examined the

relationships between students’ foreign language classroom anxiety and their College English

Test Band 4 (CET-4) performance. A questionnaire was distributed to 921 Chinese university

students to understand the nature and degree of the examined relationships. Follow-up interviews
with 12 students were used to shed further light on uncovering mechanisms of relationships

found in the survey. Results revealed three factors of anxiety, explaining 43.14% of the total

variance examined in the questionnaire items. Correlation and multiple regression of the anxiety

factors and test scores were then conducted. Results confirmed that anxiety factor was a

significantly negative predictor of language achievement or performance.

Besides the previous mentioned studies, Pamungkas (2018), also conducted a study

about students’ anxiety level and their speaking performance. The participants were 23 students

(5 males and 18 females) enrolled in the academic speaking course at English Department of

Universitas Negeri Surabaya. Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) was used to

measure the anxiety level of the students and the scores derived from FLCAS were correlated to

their final grades. Result of the study revealed that there is negative correlation between

student’s anxiety level and their speaking performance. Due to the final scores of the

participants, it was evident that they overcome their fears in English learning. The anxiety was

present but it was moderate instead it became the force that motivated them to do well.

Moreover, Dr. Meihua Liu (2019), in his study, claimed that teaching can be organized to

help learners reduce anxiety levels and better the use of speaking strategies. The participants

were 1092 first-year undergraduates. The English-speaking Anxiety Scale (ESAS), the Oral

Communication Strategy Inventory (OCSI) and other questionnaires, and English-speaking test

were used in data collection. The results showed that the low-proficient students were

significantly more apprehensive of negative evaluation and speech communication than their

high-proficient counterparts.
 Furthermore, a study conducted by Dr.Soemantri Brojonegero (2020), about speaking

anxiety and speaking ability used the sample consisted of 26 students from X MIA 1 in the first

grade of SMAN 1 Kabupaten Tangerang. The instruments for this study involved questionnaire,

and speaking test. The questionnaire involved whole class session. A set of anxiety questionnaire

an FLCAS questionnaire in the form of Likert scale adapted from Horwitz (1986) was used in

data collection. There were 33 questions about students’ feeling on studying English wherein

they were free to give their opinion. The other instrument was speaking test, it was conducted by

asking students to make a short conversation with their pairs. The result showed that there is a

correlation between students’ anxiety and speaking ability because when the students have high

anxiety in speaking, their speaking were not that clear.

As the most recent on the collected related studies, Hasibuan et. al. (2020), conducted a

study about speaking anxiety and speaking performance through the use of 78 freshmen from

batch 2018-2019 as participants. The data was collected using Personal Report of Public

Speaking Anxiety (PRPSA) questionnaire as well as students’ speaking performance, which was

evaluated by using a speaking rubric. In order to analyze the relationship of the two variables

they used Pearson Product Moment formula. The result showed that there was a significant

correlation between speaking anxiety and speaking performance.

Synthesis

From the above related literature and studies, the concept of speaking anxiety, its

different types, how we can measure its level as well as the concept of speaking performance

and the different types of test to assess it have been discussed. As the literature point out,

speaking anxiety of learners can be visibly reflected on learners when they are performing orally
than using other language skills. This is the reason why recent studies about anxiety is oftenly

linked to speaking performance of learners.

Literature also emphasized that every learners have different situations on how they

handle their speaking anxiety. Some can able to use this as their advantage while others let their

speaking anxiety inhibits on how they orally perform using the target language. For instance,

when the learners are anxious, they tend to be reluctant to speak, even afraid of errors production

and this condition would affect the continuity of their speaking performance.

Moreover, based from the results of related studies, speaking anxiety is clearly has a

strong interconnection to the speaking performance of the learners as this affective factor can be

possibly determine their level of success in performing the use of the target language in oral

communication. Still, an in-depth study of its effect on the speaking performance of learners

without further restrictions or limitations due to time constraints on conducting studies like this

must be given consideration in order to clear this matter regards on how far is unknown in terms

of extremity of speaking anxiety in connection to the speaking performance of second language

learners.
 References

Alpert, R.., & Haber, R.. (1960). Anxiety in academic achievement situations. Journal of

Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 207–215.

Azizifar, A., & Fariadian, E. (2015). The effect of anxiety on Iranian EFL learners speaking

skill. http://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Effect-of-Anxiety-on-Iranian-

EFL-Learners-Speaking-Skill.pdf

Brown, H. (2001). Teaching by principle and interactive approach to language pedagogy.

Longman.

Debreli, E., & Demirkan, S. (2016). Sources and levels of foreign language speaking anxiety of

English as a foreign language university student with regard to language

proficiency and gender. International Journal of English Language Education, 4(1),

49-62.

Eysenck, M. W. (1979). Anxiety, learning, and memory: A reconceptualization. Journal of

research in personality, 13(4), 363-385

Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching. Longman.

Hasibuan, A., & Irzawati, I. (2019). Students’ speaking anxiety on their speaking performance:

A study of EFL learners.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339195030_Students'_Speaking_Anxiety_on_t

heir_Speaking_Performance_A_Study_of_EFL_Learners
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The

Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125-132.

Lanerfeldt, M. (1992) .A part of Rudberg, L. (Red.), Barns tal- och språksvårigheter.

Studentlitteratur.

Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (2003) How languages are learned. Oxford University Press.

McNamara, T. (1996). Measuring second language performance. Longman.

Pamungkas, A. (2018). The effect of English language anxiety on speaking performance. CORE

– Aggregating the world’s open access research

papers. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/230779497.pdf

Richard, J., & Willy, A. (2002). Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current

practice. Cambridge University.

Santriza. (2018). An analysis of students’ anxiety in speaking performance: A study at second

grade At sman 5 banda aceh. Repository of UIN Ar-Raniry. https://repository.ar-

raniry.ac.id/id/eprint/3450/2/Santriza.pdf

Spielberger, C., Anton, W., & Bedell, J. (1976). The nature and treatment of test anxiety. In M.

Zuckerman & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Emotions and anxiety: New concepts, methods,

and applications. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Sutarsyah, C. (2017). An analysis of student’s speaking anxiety and its effect on speaking

performance. University of Lampung | LPPM-UNILA Institutional Repository (LPPM-

UNILA-IR). https://repository.lppm.unila.ac.id/4536/1/ijelta.pdf

Woodrow, L. (2006). Anxiety and speaking English as a second language. Sage Publications.