1 

CHAPTER C4

2  LIVE LOADS

3  C4.3 UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS

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4  C4.3.1 Required Live Loads

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5  A selected list of loads for occupancies and uses more commonly encountered is given in

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6  Section 4.3.1, and the Authority Having Jurisdiction should approve on occupancies not

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7  mentioned. Tables C4.3-1 and C4.3-2 are offered as a guide in the exercise of such authority.

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9  Table C4.3-1. Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads.
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Occupancy or Use Live Load, psf Occupancy or Use Live Load, psf (kN/m2)
(kN/m2)
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Air conditioning (machine 200 (9.58)a Laboratories, scientific 100 (4.79)

space)
Amusement park structure 100 (4.79)a Laundries 150 (7.18)a
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Attic, nonresidential Manufacturing, ice 300 (14.36)

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Nonstorage 25 (1.20) Morgue 125 (6.00)

Storage 80 (3.83) a
Printing plants
Bakery 150 (7.18) Composing rooms 100 (4.79)
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Boathouse, floors 100 (4.79) a

Linotype rooms 100 (4.79)
Boiler room, framed 300 (14.36) a
Paper storage e

Broadcasting studio 100 (4.79) Press rooms 150 (7.18)a

f
Ceiling, accessible furred 10 (0.48)b Railroad tracks
Cold storage RinksRamps
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No overhead system 250 (11.97) c

Ice skating Seaplane (see 250 (11.97)
Hangars)
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Overhead system Storage, hay or grain 300 (14.36)a 60 (2.87)

Restrooms
Floor 150 (7.18) TheatersRinks
Roof 250 (11.97) Dressing rooms Ice skating 40 (1.92) 250 (11.97)

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 Computer equipment 150 (7.18)a Gridiron floor or fly gallery 100 (4.79)
Roller skating
Courtrooms 50–100 (2.40– Grating Storage, hay or 60 (2.87)300a (14.36)
4.79) grain
Dormitories Well beams Theaters 250 psf (3.65 kN/m) per pair60
Nonpartitioned 80 (3.83) Header beams Dressing 1,000 psf (14.60 kN/m)40 (1.92)
rooms
Partitioned 40 (1.92) Pin rail Gridiron 250 psf (3.65 kN/m)
floor or fly gallery:

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Elevator machine room and 150 (7.18)a Projection room Grating 100 (4.79) 60 (2.87)

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control room

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Fan room 150 (7.18)a Transformer rooms Well 250 lb / ft (
200 (9.58)a
beams
3.65 kN / m ) per pair

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Foundries 600 (28.73)a Vaults, in offices Header 1,000 lb / ft (

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250 (11.97)a
beams
14.60 kN / m )
Fuel rooms, framed 400 (19.15) Pin rail 250 lb / ft ( 3.65 kN / m )
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Greenhouses 150 (7.18) Projection room 100 (4.79)
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Hangars, including seaplane 150 (7.18) d
Toilet rooms 60 (2.87)
ramps
Incinerator charging floor 100 (4.79) Transformer rooms 200a (9.58)
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Kitchens, other than 150 (7.18) a

Vaults, in offices 250a (11.97)
domestic
a
Use weight of actual equipment or stored material when greater. Note that fixed service
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2  equipment is treated as a dead load instead of live load.
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3  b
Accessible ceilings normally are not designed to support persons. The value in this table is
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4  intended to account for occasional light storage or suspension of items. If it may be necessary to
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5  support the weight of maintenance personnel, this shall be provided for.

6  c
Plus 150 psf (7.18 kN/m2) for trucks.
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7  d
Use American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials lane loads. Also
8  subject to not less than 100% maximum axle load.
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9  e
Paper storage: 50 psf (2.40 kN/m2) of clear story height.

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 1  f
As required by railroad company.Live load for railroad tracks and other rail transit fixed
2  structures should be based on the requirements of the transit operating company or regulatory
3  authority.

4 

5  Table C4.3-2. Typical Live Load Statistics.

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Occupancy or Use Survey Load Transient Load Temporal Mean Maximum Load, psf

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Constants (kN/m2)a

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ms σs a mt a σt a τ s b ve c Td

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psf psf psf psf years per years
(kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) year

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Office buildings: 10.9 5.9 (0.28) 8.0 (0.38) 8.2 (0.39) 8 1 50 55 (2.63)
offices (0.52)
Residential
Renter occupied 6.0 (0.29) 2.6 (0.12) 6.0 (0.29) 6.6 (0.32) 2 1 50 36 (1.72)
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Owner occupied 6.0 (0.29) 2.6 (0.12) 6.0 (0.29) 6.6 (0.32) 10 1 50 38 (1.82)
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Hotels: guest rooms 4.5 (0.22) 1.2 (0.06) 6.0 (0.29) 5.8 (0.28) 5 20 50 46 (2.2)
Schools: 12.0 2.7 (0.13) 6.9 (0.33) 3.4 (0.16) 1 1 100 34 (1.63)
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classrooms (0.57)
6  a
For 200 ft2 (18.58 m2) area, except 1,000 ft2 (92.9 m2) for schools.
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7  b
Duration of average sustained load occupancy.
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8  c
Mean rate of occurrence of transient load.

d
Reference period.
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10 

11  In selecting the occupancy and use for the design of a building or a structure, the building owner
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12  should consider the possibility of later changes of occupancy involving loads heavier than
13  originally contemplated. The lighter loading appropriate to the first occupancy should not
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14  necessarily be selected. The building owner should ensure that a live load greater than that for
15  which a floor or roof is approved by the Authority Having Jurisdiction is not placed, or caused or
16  permitted to be placed, on any floor or roof of a building or other structure.

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 1  To solicit specific informed opinion regarding the design loads in Table 4.3-1, a panel of 25
2  distinguished structural engineers was selected. A Delphi (Corotis et al. 1981) was conducted
3  with this panel in which design values and supporting reasons were requested for each
4  occupancy type. The information was summarized and recirculated back to the panel members
5  for a second round of responses. Those occupancies for which previous design loads were
6  reaffirmed and those for which there was consensus for change were included.

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7  It is well known that the floor loads measured in a live load survey usually are well below

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8  present design values (Peir and Cornell 1973,; McGuire and Cornell 1974,; Sentler 1975,;

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9  Ellingwood and Culver 1977). However, buildings must be designed to resist the maximum

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10  loads they are likely to be subjected to during some reference period T , frequently taken as

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11  50 years. Table C4.3-2 briefly summarizes how load survey data are combined with a theoretical
12  analysis of the load process for some common occupancy types and illustrates how a design load
13  might be selected for an occupancy not specified in Table 4.3-1 (Chalk and Corotis 1980). The
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14  floor load normally present for the intended functions of a given occupancy is referred to as the
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15  sustained load. This load is modeled as constant until a change in tenant or occupancy type
16  occurs. A live load survey provides the statistics of the sustained load. Table C4.3-2 gives the
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17  mean, ms , and standard deviation, σs , for particular reference areas. In addition to the sustained
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18  load, a building is likely to be subjected to a number of relatively short-duration, high-intensity,

19  extraordinary, or transient loading events (caused by crowding in special or emergency
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20  circumstances, concentrations during remodeling, and the like). Limited survey information and
21  theoretical considerations lead to the means, mt , and standard deviations, σt , of single transient
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22  loads shown in Table C4.3-2.

23  Combination of the sustained load and transient load processes, with due regard for the
24  probabilities of occurrence, leads to statistics of the maximum total load during a specified
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25  reference period. The statistics of the maximum total load depend on the average duration of an
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26  individual tenancy, τ , the mean rate of occurrence of the transient load, ve , and the reference

27  period, T . Mean values are given in Table C4.3-2. The mean of the maximum load is similar, in
28  most cases, to Table 4.3-1 values of minimum uniformly distributed live loads and, in general, is
29  a suitable design value.

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 1  For library stack rooms, the 150-psf (7.18-kN/m2) uniform live load specified in Table 4.3-1 is
2  intended to cover the range of ordinary library shelving which is described in Section 4.13. The
3  150-psf (7.18-kN/m2) floor loading is also applicable to typical file cabinet installations,
4  provided that the 36-in. (0.92 m) minimum aisle width is maintained. Five-drawer lateral or
5  conventional file cabinets, even with two levels of bookshelves stacked above them, are unlikely
6  to exceed the 150-psf (7.18-kN/m2) average floor loading unless all drawers and shelves are
7  filled to capacity with maximum density paper. Such a condition is essentially an upper bound

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8  for which the normal load factors and safety factors applied to the 150-psf (7.18-kN/m2) criterion

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9  should still provide a safe design.

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10  If a library shelving installation does not fall within the parameter limits that are specified in

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11  Section 4.13, then the design should account for the actual conditions. For example, the floor
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12  loading for storage of medical X-ray film may easily exceed 200 psf ( 9.58 kN / m ), mainly
13  because of the increased depth of the shelves. Mobile library shelving that rolls on rails should
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14  also be designed to meet the actual requirements of the specific installation, which may easily
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15  exceed 300 psf ( 14.4 kN / m ). The rail support locations and deflection limits should be
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16  considered in the design, and the engineer should work closely with the system manufacturer to
17  provide a serviceable structure.
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19  The 50 psf (2.40 kN/m2) live load for theater follow spot, projection, and control rooms
considers the use of typical theater equipment such as projectors, spotlights, and equipment to
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21  control the sound, lighting, and HVAC within the theater. When these rooms are used for
22  storage, the live load used should account for the actual conditions.

23  For the 2010 version of the standard, the provision in the live load table for “Marquees” with its
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24  distributed load requirement of 75 psf (3.59 kN/m2) was removed, along with “Roofs used for
25  promenade purposes” and its 60 psf (2.87 kN/m2) loading. Both “marquee” and “promenade” are
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26  considered archaic terms that are not used elsewhere in the standard or in building codes, with
27  the exception of the listings in the live load tables. “Promenade purposes” is essentially an
28  assembly use and is more clearly identified as such.

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 1  “Marquee” has not been defined in this standard but has been defined in building codes as a
2  roofed structure that projects into a public right of way. However, the relationship between a
3  structure and a right of way does not control loads that are applied to a structure. The marquee
4  should therefore be designed with all of the loads appropriate for a roofed structure. If the
5  arrangement of the structure is such that it invites additional occupant loading (e.g., there is
6  window access that might invite loading for spectators of a parade), balcony loading should be
7  considered for the design.

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8  Balconies and decks are recognized as often having distinctly different loading patterns than

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9  most interior rooms. They are often subjected to concentrated live loads from people

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10  congregating along the edge of the structure (e.g., for viewing vantage points). This loading

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11  condition is acknowledged in Table 4.3-1 as an increase of the live load for the area served, up to
12  the point of satisfying the loading requirement for most assembly occupancies. As always, the
13  designer should be aware of potential unusual loading patterns in the structure that are not
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14  covered by these minimum standards.
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15  The minimum live loads applicable to roofs with vegetative and landscaped areas are dependent
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16  upon the use of the roof area. The 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2) live load for unoccupied areas is the same
17  load as for typical roof areas and is intended to represent the loads caused by maintenance
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18  activities and small decorative appurtenances. The 100 psf (4.79 kN/m2) live load for roof
19  assembly areas is the same as prescribed for interior building areas because the potential for a
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20  dense grouping of occupants is similar. Other occupancies within green roof areas should have
the same minimum live load as specified in Table 4.3-1 for that occupancy. Soil and walkways,
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22  fences, walls, and other hardscaping features are considered dead loads in accordance with
23  Section 3.1.4.

24  The public restroom uniform live load in Table 4.3-1 applies to restrooms for publicly
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25  accessible spaces. Public restrooms should be designed for the live load associated with the
26  occupancy it serves, with an upper limit of 60 psf (2.87 kN/m2). The upper limit recognizes that
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27  the fixtures within restrooms limit the space available for a dense grouping of occupants.

28  C4.3.2 Provision for Partitions

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 1  Partition load provisions have been included in the standard since the first edition in 1988,
2  however the 2005 edition was the first edition to provide a minimum value for the partition load.
3  The 2005 version of the standard provided the minimum partition load for the first time, although
4  the requirement for the load has been included for many years. Historically, a value of 20 psf
5  (0.96 kN/m2) has been required by building codes. The 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2) value, however, was
6  typically specified as a dead load. This load, however, has sometimes been treated as a dead
7  load.

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8  The live load value of 15 psf (0.72 kN/m2) with a load factor of 1.6 gives the same structural

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9  demand as a dead load value of 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2) with a 1.2 load factor. When partitions were

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10  considered as dead load, the partition load would counteract potential uplift conditions, such as

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11  the backspan of a cantilevered member or in the overturning of the structure due to lateral loads.
12  As a live load, the partition load is excluded from the uplift load combinations and is also subject
13  to the partial loading provisions in Section 4.3.
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14  Assuming that a normal partition would be a stud wall with 0.5 in. (13 mm) gypsum board on
15  each side, 8 psf (0.38 kN/m2) per Table C3.1-1, and 10 ft (3.05 m) high, a the wall load on the
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16  floor would be 80 psf (1.16 kN/m). If the partitions are spaced throughout the floor area creating
17  rooms on a grid 10 ft (3.05 m) on center, which would be an extremely dense spacing over a
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18  whole bay, the average distributed load would be 16 psf (0.77 kN/m2). A design value of 15 psf
19  (0.72 kN/m2) is judged to be reasonable in that the partitions are not likely to be spaced this
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20  closely over large areas. Designers should consider a larger design load for partitions if taller
wall heights, heavier walls, or a higher density of partitions is anticipated.
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22  The nature of the distribution of partitions is fundamentally different from office live loads, so
23  the partition live load is not reducible in the design for gravity loads. Another difference with
24  ordinary live loads is that the partition load is both semi-permanent and firmly attached to the
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25  structure. Therefore, the partition weight is required to be considered as a part of the effective
26  seismic weight for seismic design (see Chapter 12).
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27  C4.3.3 Partial Loading

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 1  It is intended that the full intensity of the appropriately reduced live load over portions of the
2  structure or member be considered, as well as a live load of the same intensity over the full
3  length of the structure or member.Uniform live loads applied over only a portion of a structure or
4  a member can produce greater forces than when uniform live loads are applied over the full
5  length of the structure or member.

6 

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7  Partial-length loads on a simple beam or truss produce higher shear on a portion of the span than

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8  a full-length load. “Checkerboard” load patterns applied toloadings on multistory, multipanel
bents, frames, and continuous members produce higher positive moments than full loads,

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9 

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10  applied to all spans, whereas loads on either side of a support produce greater negative moments.

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11  Loads on the half span of arches and domes or on the two central quarters can be critical.

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For roofs, all probable load patterns should be considered uniform for roof live loads that are
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13 
2 2
14  reduced to less than 20 lb / ft ( 0.96 kN / m ) using Section 4.8. Where the full value of the roof
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15  live load ( Lr ) is used without reduction, it is considered that there is a low probability that the

16  live load created by maintenance workers, equipment, and material could occur in a patterned
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17  arrangement. Where a uniform roof live load is caused by occupancy, partial or pattern loading
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18  should be considered regardless of the magnitude of the uniform load. Cantilevers must not rely
19  on a possible live load on the anchorback span for equilibrium.
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20  C4.3.3.1 Partial Loading of Roofs

21  All probable load patterns should be considered uniform for roof live loads that are reduced to
less than 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2) using Section 4.8. Where the full value of the roof live load (Lr) is
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22 
23  used without reduction, it is considered that there is a low probability that the loads from
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24  maintenance workers, equipment, and material could occur in a patterned arrangement. Where a
25  uniform roof live load is caused by occupancy, partial or pattern loading should be considered
26  regardless of the magnitude of the uniform load.

27 

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 1  C4.3.4 Interior Walls and Partitions

2  Interior walls and partitions are subjected to lateral loads from occupants, occasional impact
3  from moving furniture or equipment, and from pressurization from heating, ventilating and air-
4  conditioning (HVAC) systems. The 5 psf (0.24 kN/m2) horizontal load is judged to be reasonable
5  to provide for out-of-plane strength and stability. Interior walls and partitions that are subjected
6  to larger lateral loads should be designed for those loads.

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7  C4.4 CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS

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8  The provision in Table 4.3-1 regarding concentrated loads supported by roof trusses or other

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9  primary roof members is intended to provide for a common situation for which specific

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10  requirements are generally lacking.

11  Primary roof members are main structural members such as roof trusses, girders, and frames,
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12  which are exposed to a work floor below, where the failure of such a primary member resulting
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13  from their use as attachment points for lifting or hoisting loads could lead to the collapse of the
14  roof. Single roof purlins or rafters (where there are multiple such members placed side by side at
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15  some reasonably small center-to-center spacing, and where the failure of a single such member
16  would not lead to the collapse of the roof) are not considered to be primary roof members.
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17  C4.5 LOADS ON HANDRAIL, GUARDRAIL, GRAB BAR, AND VEHICLE BARRIER
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18  SYSTEMS, AND ON SHOWER SEATS AND FIXED LADDERS

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19  C4.5.1 Handrail and Guardrail Systems

20  Loads that can be expected to occur on handrail and guardrail systems are highly dependent on
21  the use and occupancy of the protected area. The single concentrated load applied on the handrail
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22  or top rail represents load from one person or object, or a small number of people. For cases in
23  which extreme loads can be anticipated, such as long, straight runs of guardrail systems against
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24  which crowds can surge, appropriate increases in loading shall be considered.

25  C4.5.1.1 Uniform Load. The uniform load represents distributed loads such as from a group of
26  people. For cases in which extreme loads can be anticipated, such as long, straight runs of

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 1  guardrail systems against which crowds can surge, appropriate increases in loading should be
2  considered. There are three exceptions that allow the uniform load to not be applied, such as
3  when handrail and guardrail systems are located in areas not typically open to the general public.

4  C4.5.2 Grab Bar Systems and Shower Seats

5  When grab bars are provided for use by persons with physical disabilities, the design is governed
by ICC/ANSI A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities (2009).The specified

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6 

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7  concentrated live load provides for the normal anticipated use of grab bars and shower seats.

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8  Shower seats include built-in seats and seats that are removable but secured to the shower or tub.

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9  The specified concentrated live load provides consistency with ICC/ANSI A117.1, Accessible

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10  and Usable Buildings and Facilities (2017). However, while grab bars and shower seats are
11  commonly provided for use by persons with physical disabilities, they shall be designed to resist
12  the concentrated load whenever they are provided.
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13 

C4.5.3 Vehicle Barrier Systems

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15  Vehicle barrier systems may be subjected to horizontal loads from moving vehicles. These
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16  horizontal loads may be applied normal to the plane of the barrier system, parallel to the plane of
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17  the barrier system, or at any intermediate angle. Loads in garages accommodating trucks and
18  buses may be obtained from the provisions contained in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
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19  Specifications (2014/2015), 7th Edition, 2014, with 2015 interim revisions.
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20  C4.5.4 Fixed Ladders

This provision was introduced to the standard in 1998 and is consistent with the provisions for
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21 
22  stairs.
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23  Side rail extensions of fixed ladders are often flexible and weak in the lateral direction. The
24  Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA (2014a) requires side rail extensions,
25  only with specific geometric requirements. The load provided was introduced to the standard in

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 1  1998 and has been determined on the basis of a 250 lb (1.11 kN) person standing on a rung of the
2  ladder and accounting for reasonable angles of pull on the rail extension.

3  C4.6 IMPACT LOADS

4  Grandstands, stadiums, and similar assembly structures may be subjected to loads caused by
5  crowds swaying in unison, jumping to their feet, or stomping. Designers are cautioned that the
possibility of such loads should be considered.

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6 

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Elevator loads are changed in the standard from a direct 100% impact factor to a reference to

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8  ASME A17.1 (20132016). The provisions in ASME A17.1 include the 100% impact factor,

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9  along with deflection limits on the applicable elements.

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10  C4.6.4 Elements Supporting Hoists for Façade Access and Building Maintenance
11  Equipment
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12  The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that façade access
13  platforms that are used for building maintenance meet the requirements of Standard 1910.66,
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14  Powered Platforms for Building Maintenance (OSHA 2014b). OSHA requires that building
15  anchors and components be capable of sustaining without failure a load of at least four times the
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16  rated load of the hoist (i.e., the maximum anticipated load or total weight of the suspended
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17  platform plus occupants and equipment) applied or transmitted to the components and anchors. A
18  design live load of 2.5 times the rated load, when combined with a live load factor of 1.6, results
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19  in a total factored load of 4.0 times the rated load, which matches OSHA’s requirements. It
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20  should also be noted that when using allowable stress design (ASD), 2.5 times the rated load will
21  result in a comparable design when a safety factor of 1.6 is used in determining the allowable
22  stresses. This load requirement is not statistically based but is intended by OSHA to address
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23  accidental hang-up-and-fall scenarios as well as starting and stopping forces that the platforms
24  experience on a day-to-day basis. It also provides a small margin of safety relative to situations
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25  where a suspended platform gets hung up on a façade while ascending, allowing the hoists to
26  apply large forces on the supporting elements. OSHA permits hoists to generate in-service forces
27  up to three times their rated loads. These loads should be applied in the same direction(s) as they
28  are expected to occur.

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 1  OSHA (2014c) provisions (CFR 1926.451) related to “construction” activities also require
2  supporting equipment to be able to carry at least 1.5 times the stall load of the supported hoist.
3  Since OSHA defines “construction” rather broadly (it includes activities such as painting and
4  hanging signs), most equipment is used for “construction” work, which means that it must have
5  the strength required by OSHA construction provisions. The stall load times the live load factor
6  of 1.6 slightly exceeds the OSHA 1.5 times the stall load requirement.

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7  C4.6.5 Fall Arrest, and Lifeline, and Rope Descent System Anchorages

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8  The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that lifeline anchorages

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9  that support fall arrest lines, lifelines, and rope descent systems be capable of sustaining without

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10  failure an ultimate load of 5,000 lb (22.2 kN) for each attached person. Using a design live load
11  of 3,100 lb (13.8 kN), when combined with a live load factor of 1.6, results in a total factored
12  load of 4,960 lb (22.1 kN), which essentially matches OSHA’s requirements for lifeline
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13  anchorages. It should also be noted that when using Allowable Stress Design (ASD), a design
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14  live load of 3,100 lb (13.8 kN) results in a comparable design when a safety factor of 1.6 is used
15  in determining the allowable stresses. This lifeline load is intended by OSHA to address the fall
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16  arrest loads that can and do reasonably occur in typical lanyards for body harnesses, which are
17  highly variable.
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18  When a fall arrest load is applied perpendicular to the length of a horizontal lifeline, much larger
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19  loads can develop at the end anchorages due to the geometry of the horizontal cable; it is
20  important that these increased forces be considered in the design of the anchorages and their
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21  supports.

22  C4.7 REDUCTION IN UNIFORM LIVE LOADS

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23  C4.7.1 General

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24  The concept of, and methods for, determining member live load reductions as a function of a
25  loaded member’s influence area, AI , was first introduced into this standard in 1982 and was the

26  first such change since the concept of live load reduction was introduced more than 40 years ago.
27  The revised formula is a result of more extensive survey data and theoretical analysis (Harris et

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 1  al. 1981). The change in format to a reduction multiplier results in a formula that is simple and
2  more convenient to use. The use of influence area, now defined as a function of the tributary
3  area, AT , in a single equation has been shown to give more consistent reliability for the various

4  structural effects. The influence area is defined as that floor area over which the influence
5  surface for structural effects is significantly different from zero.

6  The factor K LL is the ratio of the influence area ( AI ) of a member to its tributary area ( AT ), that

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7  is, KLL  AI / AT , and is used to better define the influence area of a member as a function of its

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8  tributary area. Figure C4.7-1 illustrates typical influence areas and tributary areas for a structure

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9  with regular bay spacings. Table 4.7-1 has established KLL values (derived from calculated K LL

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10  values) to be used in Equation (4.7-1) for a variety of structural members and configurations.
11  Calculated K LL values vary for column and beam members that have adjacent cantilever

construction, as is shown in Figure C4.7-1, and the Table 4.7-1 values have been set for these
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cases to result in live load reductions that are slightly conservative. For unusual shapes, the
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13 
14  concept of significant influence effect should be applied.
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15 
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16 

17  Figure C4.7-1. Typical tributary and influence areas.

13 
 
 1 

2  An example of a member without provisions for continuous shear transfer normal to its span
3  would be a precast T-beam or double-T beam that may have an expansion joint along one or both
4  flanges or that may have only intermittent weld tabs along the edges of the flanges. Such
5  members do not have the ability to share loads located within their tributary areas with adjacent
6  members, thus resulting in KLL  1 for these types of members. Reductions are permissible for

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7  two-way slabs and for beams, but care should be taken in defining the appropriate influence area.

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For multiple floors, areas for members supporting more than one floor are summed.

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8 

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9  The formula provides a continuous transition from unreduced to reduced loads. The smallest

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allowed value of the reduction multiplier is 0.4 (providing a maximum 60% reduction), but there

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10 
11  is a minimum of 0.5 (providing a 50% reduction) for members with a contributory load from just
12  one floor.
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C4.7.3 Heavy Live Loads
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13 

14  In the case of occupancies involving relatively heavy basic live loads, such as storage buildings,
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15  several adjacent floor panels may be fully loaded. However, data obtained in actual buildings
16  indicate that rarely is any story loaded with an average actual live load of more than 80% of the
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17  average rated live load. It appears that the basic live load should not be reduced for the floor-and-
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18  beam design, but that it could be reduced by up to 20% for the design of members supporting
19  more than one floor. Accordingly, this principle has been incorporated in the recommended
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requirement.
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20 

21  C4.7.4 Passenger Vehicle Garages

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22  Unlike live loads in office and residential buildings, which are generally spatially random,
23  parking garage loads are caused by vehicles parked in regular patterns, and the garages are often
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24  full. The rationale behind the reduction according to area for other live loads, therefore, does not
25  apply. A load survey of vehicle weights was conducted at nine commercial parking garages in
26  four cities of different sizes (Wen and Yeo 2001). Statistical analyses of the maximum load
27  effects on beams and columns caused by vehicle loads over the garage’s life were carried out

14 
 
 1  using the survey results. Dynamic effects on the deck caused by vehicle motions, and on the
2  ramp caused by impact, were investigated. The equivalent uniformly distributed loads (EUDL)
3  that would produce the lifetime maximum column axial force and midspan beam bending
4  moment are conservatively estimated at 34.8 psf (1.67 kN/m2). The EUDL is not sensitive to
5  bay-size variation. In view of the possible impact of very heavy vehicles in the future such as
6  sport utility vehicles, however, a design load of 40 psf (1.95 kn/m2) is recommended with no
7  allowance for reduction according to bay area.

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8  Compared with the design live load of 50 psf (2.40 kN/m2) given in previous editions of the

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9  standard, the design load contained herein represents a 20% reduction, but it is still 33% higher

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10  than the 30 psf (1.44 kn/m2) one would obtain were an area-based reduction to be applied to the

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11  50 psf (2.40 kN/m2) value for large bays as allowed in most standards. Also, the variability of the
12  maximum parking garage load effect is found to be small, with a coefficient of variation less
13  than 5% in comparison with 20% to 30% for most other live loads. The implication is that when
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14  a live load factor of 1.6 is used in design, additional conservatism is built into it such that the
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15  recommended value would also be sufficiently conservative for special- purpose parking (e.g.,
16  valet parking) where vehicles may be more densely parked, causing a higher load effect.
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17  Therefore, the 50 psf (2.40 kN/m2) design value was felt to be overly conservative, and it can be
18  reduced to 40 psf (1.95 kn/m2) without sacrificing structural integrity.
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19 
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20  In view of the large load effect produced by a single heavy vehicle (up to 10,000 lb (44.48 kN)),
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21  the current concentrated load of 2,000 lb (8.90 kN) should be increased to 3,000 lb (13.34 kN)
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22  acting on an area of 4.5 in.  4.5 in. ( 0.11 m  0.11 m ), which represents the load caused by a
23  jack in changing tires.
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24  C4.7.6 Limitations on One-Way Slabs

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25  One-way slabs behave in a manner similar to two-way slabs but do not benefit from having a
26  higher redundancy that results from two-way action. For this reason, it is appropriate to allow a
27  live load reduction for one-way slabs but restrict the tributary area, AT , to an area that is the

28  product of the slab span times a width normal to the span not greater than 1.5 times the span

15 
 
 1  (thus resulting in an area with an aspect ratio of 1.5). For one-way slabs with aspect ratios greater
2  than 1.5, the effect is to give a somewhat higher live load (where a reduction has been allowed)
3  than for two-way slabs with the same ratio.

4  Members, such as hollow-core slabs, that have grouted continuous shear keys along their edges
5  and span in one direction only, are considered as one-way slabs for live load reduction, even
6  though they may have continuous shear transfer normal to their spans.

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7  C4.8 REDUCTION IN ROOF LIVE LOADS

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8  C4.8.2 Ordinary Roofs, Awnings, and Canopies

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9  The values specified in Equation (4.8-1) that act vertically upon on the projected area have been
10  selected as minimum roof live loads, even in localities where little or no snowfall occurs. This is
11  because it is considered necessary to provide for occasional loading caused by the presence of
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12  workers and materials during repair operations.
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13  C4.8.3 Occupiable Roofs

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14  Designers should consider any additional dead loads that may be imposed by saturated
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15  landscaping materials in addition to the live load required in Table 4.3-1. Occupancy-related
16  loads on roofs are live loads ( L ) normally associated with the design of floors rather than roof
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17  live loads ( Lr ) and may be reduced in accordance with the provisions for live loads in
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18  Section 4.7 rather than Section 4.8.

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19  C4.9 CRANE LOADS

20  All support components of moving bridge cranes and monorail cranes, including runway beams,
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21  brackets, bracing, and connections, shall be designed to support the maximum wheel load of the
22  crane and the vertical impact, lateral, and longitudinal forces induced by the moving crane. Also,
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23  the runway beams shall be designed for crane stop forces. The methods for determining these
24  loads vary depending on the type of crane system, and support, and service class. MHI CMAA
25  (2009, 20105a, b), MMA (2016), and MBMA (20128) describe types of bridge cranes and
26  monorail cranes,. Cranes described in these references include including top running bridge

16 
 
 1  cranes with top running trolley, underhung bridge cranes, and underhung monorail cranes. The
2  bridge crane service class descriptions are based on those given in MHI (2010a)CMAA (2015a),
3  which are used by crane manufacturers to efficiently design and manufacture cranes for each
4  installation. Designers of crane runways and connections of runway beams to columns also
5  consider fatigue, which is associated with crane service class. AIST (2003) gives more stringent
6  requirements for crane runway designs that are more appropriate for higher capacity or higher
7  speed crane systems with service class E or F.

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8  C4.10 GARAGES AND VEHICULAR FLOOR LOADS

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9  Buildings and structures that support vehicle loads include both structures where vehicles enter

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10  the structure, such as parking garages, convention centers, manufacturing and storage buildings,
11  and the receiving areas of retail and large office buildings, as well as structures where vehicles
12  travel on top of the structure, such as plaza decks and sidewalks over below-grade spaces.
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13  C4.10.1 Passenger Vehicle Garages
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14  In view of the large load effect produced by a single heavy vehicle (up to 10,000 lb [44.48 kN]),
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15  the previous concentrated load of 2,000 lb (8.90 kN) was increased to 3,000 lb (13.34 kN) in the
16  2002 edition of the standard. For passenger vehicle garages, the concentrated load of 3,000 lb
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17  (13.34 kN) acting on an area of 4.5 in. × 4.5 in. (114 mm × 114 mm) represents the load caused
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18  by a jack when changing tires on a single heavy vehicle [up to 10,000 lb (44.48 kN)]. See
19  Section C 4.7.4 for commentary regarding the passenger vehicle garage uniform live load.
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20  C4.10.2 Truck and Bus Garages

21  The passenger vehicle loads provided in Section 4.10.1 of this standard are limited to vehicles
22  such as cars, sport utility vehicles, minivans, and pickup trucks. For heavier trucks and buses, the
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23  vehicular live loads in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO) are to be
24  applied. The AASHTO provisions for fatigue and dynamic load allowance are not required to be
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25  applied as the vehicle speeds in garages and vehicle storage areas are much lower than typical
26  highway speeds.

17 
 
 1  The exception to the requirement to use the AASHTO vehicle loads allows the actual vehicle
2  weights to be used with the approval of the Authority Having Jurisdiction. This could be applied
3  for example in garages used for vehicles such as garbage trucks, armored trucks, and delivery
4  trucks that are heavier than passenger vehicles but lighter than the highway semitrailer and triple-
5  axle trucks represented by the AASHTO design truck.

6  C4.10.3 Sidewalks, Vehicular Driveways, and Yards Subject to Trucking

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7  The large uniform and concentrated load specified for these areas have been historically used to

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8  design city sidewalk areas over basements and vaults that can be subject to trucks driving up on
the sidewalk and parking to unload.

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9 

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10  C4.10.4 Emergency Vehicle Loads

11  Examples of structures that are accessible to emergency vehicles include parking garages and at-
grade areas such as plaza decks and parking lots over underground structures. Fire trucks and
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12 
ambulances are likely to enter these areas when responding to emergencies, therefore they are
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13 
14  required to be designed for the vehicle loads unless access is physically restricted. Moveable
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15  physical barriers are not considered to physically restrict access as they may allow emergency
16  vehicles on the structure if the barriers are not present when the emergency occurs or if the
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17  barriers swing out of the way for the emergency vehicle.
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18  The emergency vehicle live loads are permitted to be either the operating loads of the vehicles in
19  the local jurisdiction or the AASHTO design truck and design tandem live loads. The operating
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20  loads are required to be obtained from the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) as they have the
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21  most knowledge of emergency vehicles in their jurisdiction and their mutual aid partner
22  jurisdictions. The AHJ may need to consult with the vehicle manufacturer to determine the
23  weight and outrigger loads if this information has not been previously documented. Operating
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24  loads include the vehicle weight, equipment weight, and, if present, stored water weight. The
25  wheel and outrigger loads need to account for the distribution of the weight, the wheel and
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26  outrigger pad contact area and spacing, and the operation of integral ladders and aerial platforms
27  when present. Outrigger reactions can be significant as industry standards permit ratings of up to
28  60,000 lb (266.9 kN).

18 
 
 1  C4.11 HELIPAD LOADS

2  C4.11.1 General

3 

4  Helipad provisions were added to the standard in 2010. For the standard, the term “helipads” is
5  used to refer specifically to the structural surface. In building codes and other references,

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different terminology may be used when describing helipads, e.g., heliports, helistops, but the

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6 
distinctions between these are not relevant to the structural loading issue addressed in ASCE 7.

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7 

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8  Although these structures are intended to be specifically kept clear of non-helicopter occupant

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9  loads on the landing and taxi areas, the uniform load requirement is a minimum to ensure a
10  degree of substantial construction and the potential to resist the effects of unusual events.

11 
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12  Additional information on helipad design can be found in Annex 14 to the Convention on
13  International Civil Aviation, Aerodromes, Vol. 2 (ICAO 2013).
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14  C4.11.2 Concentrated Helicopter Loads

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15  Concentrated loads applied separately from the distributed loads are intended to cover the
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16  primary helicopter loads. The designer should always consider the geometry of the design basis
17  helicopter for applying the design loads. A factor of 1.5 is used to address impact loads (two
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single concentrated loads of 0.75 times the maximum takeoff weight) to account for a hard
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18 
19  landing with many kinds of landing gear. The designer should be aware that some helicopter
20  configurations, particularly those with rigid landing gear, could result in substantially higher
21  impact factors that should be considered.
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22  The 3,000 lb (13.34 kN) concentrated load is intended to cover maintenance activities, similar to
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23  the jack load for a parking garage.

24  C4.13 LIBRARY STACK ROOMS

19 
 
 1  Where library shelving installation does not fall within the parameter limits that are specified in
2  Section 4.13 and Table 4.3-1, the design should account for the actual conditions. For example,
3  the floor loading for storage of medical X-ray film may easily exceed 200 psf (9.58 kN/m2),
4  mainly because of the increased depth of the shelves. Mobile library shelving that rolls on rails
5  should also be designed to meet the actual requirements of the specific installation, which may
6  easily exceed 300 psf (14.4 kN/m2). The rail support locations and deflection limits should be
7  considered in the design, and the engineer should work closely with the system manufacturer to

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8  provide a serviceable structure.

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9  C4.14 SEATING FOR ASSEMBLY USES

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10  The lateral loads apply to “stadiums and arenas” and to “reviewing stands, grandstands, and
11  bleachers, folding and telescopic seating, and grandstands.” However, it does not apply to
12  “gymnasiums—main floors and balconies.” Consideration should be given to treating
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13  gymnasium balconies that have stepped floors for seating as arenas, and requiring the appropriate
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14  swaying forces.
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15  C4.17 SOLAR PANEL LOADS

C4.17.1 Roof Loads at Solar Panels

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16 
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17  These provisions are were added to the 2016 edition of the standard to address the installation of
18  rooftop solar panels consistent with current practices (Blaney and LaPlante 2013). These
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19  provisions allow the offset of roof live load where the space below the solar panel is considered
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20  inaccessible. The dimension of 24 in. (610 mm) was chosen as the clear vertical distance as it is
21  consistent with existing published requirements for solar panel systems and is also a typical
22  minimum height permitted for access into or out of spaces.
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23  C4.17.3 Open-Grid Roof Structures Supporting Solar Panels

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24  This section reduces the uniform roof live load for building structures such as carports and shade
25  structures, which do not include roof deck or sheathing, to the value of the minimum uniform

20 
 
 1  roof live load permitted by Section 4.8.2. The concentrated roof live load requirement in
2  Table 4.3-1 is not modified by this section.

3 

4  REFERENCES

5  AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials). 2014/2015.

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LRFD bridge design specifications, 7th ed., 2014, with 2015 interim revisions. Washington, DC:

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6 
AASHTO.

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7 

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8  AIST (Association of Iron and Steel Technology). 2003. “Guide for the design and construction

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9  of mill buildings.” Tech. Report No. 13. Warrendale, PA: AISE.

10  ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers). 20132016. American national standard
11  sSafety code for elevators and escalators. A17. New York: ASME.
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12  Blaney, C., and R. LaPlante. 2013. “Recommended design live loads for rooftop solar arrays.”
13  Proc., SEAOC Convention, 264–278.
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14  Chalk, P. L., and R. B. Corotis. 1980. “Probability model for design live loads.” J. Struct. Div.
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15  106 (10): 2017–2033.

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16  Corotis, R. B., J. C. Harris, and R. R. Fox. 1981. “Delphi methods: Theory and design load
17  application.” J. Struct. Div. 107 (6): 1095–1105.
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18  CMAA (Crane Manufacturers Association of America).MHI. 20105a. “Specifications for top
19  running bridge and gantry type multiple girder electric overhead traveling cranes.” No. 70-
20  20105. MCharlotte, NC: CMAA.
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21  CMAA. MHI 20105b. “Specifications for top running and under running single girder electric
22  overhead traveling cranes utilizing under running trolley hoist.” No. 74-20105. Charlotte, NC:
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23  CMAA.

24  Ellingwood, B. R., and C. G. Culver. 1977. “Analysis of live loads in office buildings.” J. Struct.
25  Div. 103 (8): 1551–1560.

21 
 
 1  Harris, M. E., C. J. Bova, and R. B. Corotis. 1981. “Area-dependent processes for structural live
2  loads.” J. Struct. Div. 107 (5): 857–872.

3  ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization). 2013. Convention on international civil

4  aviation, aerodromes, Vol. 2. Montreal, Canada: ICAO.

5  ICC/ANSI (International Code Council and American National Standards Institute). 20092017.
6  Accessible and usable buildings and facilities. A117.1. Washington, DC: ICC.

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7  MBMA (Metal Building Manufacturers Association). 20128. Metal building systems manual.

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8  Cleveland, OH: MBMA

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9  McGuire, R. K., and C. A. Cornell. 1974. “Live load effects in office buildings.” J. Struct. Div.

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10  100 (7): 1351–1366.

11  MMA (Monorail Manufacturers Association)MHI. 200916. Specifications for pPatented track
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12  underhung cranes and monorail systems. No. MH 27.1-200916. Charlotte, NC: MMA.
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13  OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration). 2014a. “Ladders.” Code of Federal
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14  Regulations, Section 1910.2723. Washington, DC: OSHA Standards.

15  OSHA. 2014b. “Powered platforms for building maintenance.” Code of Federal Regulations,
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16  Section 1910.66. Washington, DC: OSHA Standards.

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17  OSHA. 2014c. “Safety standards for scaffolds used in the construction industry.” Code of
18  Federal Regulations, Section 1926.451. Washington, DC: OSHA Standards.
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19  Peir, J. C., and C. A. Cornell. 1973. “Spatial and temporal variability of live loads.” J. Struct.
20  Div. 99 (5): 903–922.

Sentler, L. 1975. “A stochastic model for live loads on floors in buildings.” Report No. 60. Lund,
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21 
22  Sweden: Division of Building Technology, Lund Institute of Technology.
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23  Wen, Y. K., and G. L. Yeo.2001. “Design live loads for passenger cars parking garages.” J.
24  Struct. Eng. 127 (3): 280–289.

25 

22