A Practical Guide To Gas Detection: DET Tronics
A Practical Guide To Gas Detection: DET Tronics
A Practical Guide To Gas Detection: DET Tronics
95
DET-TRONICS
Detector Electronics Corporation
6901 West 110th Street • Minneapolis, Minnesota 55438 USA
Tel: 612.941.5665 or 800.765.3473 • Fax: 612.829.8750
92-1015
Due to the large number of existing hazardous vapors, all with specific physical
and chemical properties, there are many different technologies available for
detection including catalytic, infrared (both point and open path systems), metal
oxide semiconductor (MOS) and electrochemical detection and measurement
techniques.
The intent of this guide is to furnish the user with information concerning the
principles of combustible and toxic gas detection, and to provide assistance in the
selection, placement, and use of gas detection equipment.
Table of Contents
• Definitions & Concepts • Combustible Gas Detection • Definitions & Concepts • Toxic Gas Detection
• Combustible Materials • Types of IR Detection • Toxic Gases Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 1 Figure 2 Table 2
Figure 8
Table 1 Figure 3 Table 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Table of Contents i
ii
Chapter 1 Basic Principles of Combustible Materials
Definitions & Concepts Combustible Material Lower Flammable Limit (LFL), Flash Point (FP)
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
A combustible material is a solid, The flash point is the temperature
liquid, or gas that may undergo The lower flammable limit or at which a liquid or volatile solid
the chemical reaction of lower explosive limit is the lower gives off vapor sufficient to form
combustion. Combustion occurs concentration limit of an explosive an ignitable mixture with the air
when an organic chemical (or range for a combustible mixture. near the surface of the liquid or
other substances such as At or above the LFL a combustible within the test vessel. In general,
hydrogen or sulfur) is oxidized to gas or vapor will support a self- any gas or vapor with a flash
produce energy, water, and propagating flame when mixed point below ambient temperature
carbon dioxide. For example, the with air and ignited. A mixture should be monitored.
combustion of the common below this concentration level is
combustible gas, methane: considered too "lean" to burn. Ignition Point (IP)
CH4 + 2O2 ➞ CO2 + 2H2O + energy The ignition point is the minimum
temperature required to initiate or
If the concentrations of the Upper Flammable Limit (UFL),
cause self-sustained combustion in
reactants (i.e., methane and Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
any substance in the absence of a
oxygen) fall within the explosive The upper flammable limit or spark or flame.
limits of methane, and an ignition upper explosive limit is the upper
source is present, the released concentration limit of the explosive
energy will produce an explosion. range for a combustible mixture. Relative Vapor Density
Above the UFL, the mixture is
The vapor density is the weight of
considered “too rich” to cause an
Explosive Range vapor per unit volume, compared
explosion.
to the weight of the same volume
The explosive range is the of air at a given temperature and
concentration range of a pressure. The substance is lighter
combustible gas or vapor (% by than air if the vapor density is less
volume in air) in which an than 1, and heavier than air if the
explosion can occur upon vapor density is greater than 1.
ignition. In other words, the
region between the LFL and the 100%
Note:
This is NOT a complete listing.
Refer to NFPA 325 “Guide to Fire
Hazard Properties of Flammable
Liquids, Gases and Solids” for a
more complete listing.12
2
Chapter 1 Basic Principles of Combustible Materials
4
Chapter 1 Basic Principles of Combustible Materials
6
Chapter 1 Basic Principles of Combustible Materials
Note:
Data from IEC (North America)
and Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary.
8
Chapter 2 Detection of Combustible Substances
BLK
CATALYTIC SENSOR
Limitations
The output of the catalytic sensor, • Susceptible to poisoning from
in millivolts, has a linear a variety of substances, such
relationship with the concentration as silicones, halogens (halon,
of the combustible gas present. chlorine, fluorine, bromine,
Although, it is possible to measure freon), phosphate esters,
up to 100% LFL with catalytic tetraethyl lead, acid and pvc
sensors, use of catalytics is not vapors, and other corrosive
recommended over 100% LFL. At materials.
high combustible gas • Consumptive technology –
concentrations, there may be exposure to high
insufficient oxygen to catalyze all concentrations of combustible
of the combustible gas. In this gas or for extended periods of
instance, the output may decrease time can consume the sensing
and indicate a concentration of element, thus requiring
less than 100% LEL. Other recalibration or replacement of
restrictions of catalytic sensing the sensor.
technology include:
• Non fail-safe, meaning the
• Requires oxygen levels greater sensor is unable to detect if it
than 10% to ensure oxidation is poisoned.
• Requires routine calibration • As with any diffusion based
(typically every three months) point detector, a number of
• Require either a constant detectors may be required to
current or voltage power monitor a hazardous area.
source (i.e., transmitter/card)
• Can only determine the
general presence of
combustible gases, not the
specific chemicals or the types
of gases.
10
Chapter 2 Detection of Combustible Substances
INFRARED ABSORPTION
Theory of Operation
The infrared (IR) method of gas Defined as: the ratio of the Note:
detection relies on the IR intensity of light leaving (I) the IR gas detectors measure
absorption characteristics of gases sampling area to the intensity of transmission. This signal is not,
to determine their presence and light entering (Io) the sampling however, linear with gas
concentration. IR gas detectors area (otherwise known as the T, concentration. Thus, signal
consist of an IR light source the transmittance of IR) is processing algorithms are
(transmitter) and light detector proportional to the exponential of required to provide a linear output
(receiver) to measure the intensity the absorption coefficient of the with gas concentration.
both at the absorption wavelength particular gas (a), the
and a non-absorbed wavelength. concentration of the gas (c), and
If gas is present in the optical the length of sampling area (L).
path, it will affect the intensity of
light transmitted between the light
source and the detector. This
change in intensity provides the
data for determining that a
specific gas, or type of gas is
present.
Lambert Law.
FIGURE 3
T = I / Io = exp (-aLc) Spectrum Example
12
Chapter 2 Detection of Combustible Substances
Theory of operation
TRANSMITTER
INFRARED SIGNAL
PHOTO PROCESSING NUM. RATIOMETER
(typically 10 – 100 m). As the IR DETECTOR ELECTRONICS ANALOG
OUTPUT
MOTOR
beam reaches the receiver, it
POWER THRESHOLD
passes through a focusing lens and SUPPLY DETECTOR ALARM
RELAY
OPTICAL FILTERS
then passes through two narrow ADJUST
band IR filters – an active and a TRANSMITTER
FILTER WHEEL
THRESHOLD
reference wavelength. The detector OPTICS
HYDROCARBON
DETECTOR STATUS
ALARM
computes the ratio between the LEAK SOURCE
RECEIVER
RELAY
FIGURE 5
Illustration of a 2000 ppm-m gas open path output
for various concentrations and cloud sizes
Advantages Limitations
Open path IR is most effective for Since a larger space is under
general area, perimeter and evaluation it is more susceptible to
straight line monitoring because it the following:
can monitor large areas with a • Obstructions in the beam path
minimum number of instruments. such as dust, rain, snow,
Some examples include, mobile equipment, personnel,
monitoring a bank of heat etc.
exchangers, a row of pumps,
• Weight of the gas/vapor in
tunnels, and pipelines. The
comparison to the surrounding
benefits experienced with open
atmosphere.
path detection include:
• Only detect hydrocarbon-
• Greatest possible coverage –
based gases/vapors. It is not
some commercially available
possible to use IR in the
units are capable of detecting
detection of hydrogen (H2),
vapors over distances of 100
carbon disulfide (CS2) or
meters.
acetylene based substances.
• Immune to poisoning from
• It is more difficult to identify
contaminants.
the specific location of a
• Low maintenance. gas/vapor leak, or cloud
• Unaffected by prolonged concentration.
exposure to gas or high gas • Susceptible to condensation
concentrations. unless external optical surfaces
• Unaffected by changes in are heated.
oxygen level.
• Fail-safe, meaning the sensor Open Path systems are
is able to detect and indicate recommended for use in
conditions in which it is blind conjunction with point IR detectors
to gas. or catalytic sensor systems for
optimal combustible gas detection
within a hazardous area.
14
Chapter 3 Introductory Concepts for Toxic Substances
Toxic gases form another group of Gas detection methods are used The MSDS in Europe differ from
potentially hazardous chemicals. to continuously monitor and those in the US; additional
These differ from combustible measure the concentration of toxic transport and regulatory
materials in terms of the gases, and insure that it falls information is provided in Europe.
mechanisms and effects of within safe limits. Limits for short There are many sources for
exposure. Many toxic gases are and long term exposure to toxic obtaining MSDS on toxic
also combustible, in which case gases have been established by chemicals such as:
the potential for personnel occupational safety and health • Company's collection of MSDS
exposure and hazards will be the agencies such as Occupational on chemicals used at your
determining factors in selecting Safety and Health Organization facility
the appropriate detection method. (OSHA) in the United States and
• Internet
Control of Substances Hazardous
A toxic substance may be defined to Health (COSHH) in the United • Chemical manufacturer
as a chemical compound that can Kingdom. For specific information • Local Environmental or
cause a wide range of damage to on individual toxic chemicals refer Occupational Health Offices
humans, ranging from minor to the appropriate Material Safety • A chemistry library
irritations to the most extreme Data Sheets (MSDS), which • Chemical handbooks.
situation leading to death. Toxic include:
chemicals may be ingested, • Chemical's identity Note:
inhaled, or absorbed through the
• Manufacturer and contact The format may vary depending
skin. The effects of toxic
information on the source, however, the
substances vary by:
• Hazardous Ingredients and information provided will be
• Physical properties of the consistent.
Identity information (i.e.,
chemical.
exposure limits)
• Length of exposure in units of
• Fire and Explosion Hazard
time.
Data (i.e., flash point,
• Concentration in air of the firefighting procedures,
toxic chemical often measured flammability limits)
in parts per million (ppm) or
• Reactivity Data (i.e., health
milligrams per cubic meter (mg
hazards, emergency first aid,
m-3).
routes of entry)
• Individual susceptibility.
• Precautions for Safe Handling
and Use
• Control Measures (i.e., gloves,
protective equipment)
Definitions & Concepts Threshold Limit Value (TLV) Immediate Danger to Life
and Health (IDLH)
The threshold allowable time-
weighted average, expressed in The maximum concentration from
parts per million (ppm) or parts which one could escape within
per billion (ppb) or milligrams per minutes without any escape-
cubic meter (mg m-3), for impairing symptoms or irreversible
personnel exposure over a normal harm effects.4
8 hour workday and 40 hour
workweek.4 For optimal protection
from toxic gases, typically a full Lethal Concentration 50
scale range of 3 to 10 times the (LC50)
TLV of gas being monitored is
The concentration of a material in
selected. Exposure below the TLV
air that is expected to kill 50% of
generally does not have negative
a group of test animals inhaling
health effects.
it.4
16
Chapter 3 Introductory Concepts for Toxic Substances
Note:
For a complete listing of occupational exposure standards for toxic substances refer to OSHA in the United States
and COSHH in the United Kingdom.
Note:
For further information consult the IDLH Sheets from NIOSH.11
18
Chapter 4 Detection of Toxic Substances
AIR SUPPLY
CAPILLARY DIFFUSION BARRIER
O-RING SEAL
SEPARATOR
-
4e
ANODE
ELECTROLYTE RESERVOIR
FIGURE 6
Two-electrode electrochemical cell FIGURE 7
(oxygen cell shown) Three-electrode electrochemical cell
ELECTROCHEMICAL ELECTROCHEMICAL
Advantages Limitations
Advantages of electrochemical There are limitations to using
sensors include: electrochemical cells such as:
• Highly sensitive. • Consumptive technology,
• Low power (i.e., intrinsically electrolyte evaporates (this
safe operation). varies with the sensor's design
and manufacturer) in arid
• Good specificity to target
conditions.
gas/vapor.
• Restrictions in some cold
• Direct linear output of current
temperature environments.
to gas concentration.
• Requires routine calibration.
• Real zero.
• As with all point detectors a
number of devices may be
required to monitor a
hazardous area.
• Non fail-safe, meaning the
sensor is unable to detect if it
is poisoned.
20
Chapter 4 Detection of Toxic Substances
FIGURE 8
Diagram of a MOS detector
MOS DETECTORS
Limitations
Despite the advantages mentioned
above, this method is not
commonly employed due to:
• Must be frequently checked as
the calibration tends to drift
more than other technologies,
they "go to sleep."
• Non-specific to target
gas/vapor.
• High sensitivity to atmospheric
disturbances such as rain and
humidity changes.
• Affected by changes in oxygen
level.
• As with all diffusion-based
point detectors, a number of
individual detectors may be
required to monitor a
hazardous area.
• Indirect measurement
technique.
• Non fail-safe, meaning the
sensor is unable to detect if it
is poisoned.
22
Chapter 5 Gas Detection Helpful Hints and Applications
This chapter of the guide contains What type of gas detection Suggestions for selecting 3. Review plant safety policy,
suggestions as to what type of method should be used? detection technology for an insurance requirements/
detection method is suitable for application: incentives, and regulatory or
different applications. Typical gas As illustrated in Chapter 2 and legal requirements/incentives
detection applications, along with Chapter 4 of this manual, there 1. The type of gas – combustible for additional information
the relevant gases to be are 4 main types of gas detection: or toxic – and its associated regarding hazard protection
monitored, basic guidelines for • Catalytic and Infrared (IR) for danger potential. and the need for gas
detector placement, and other combustible gases. In toxic gas applications, detection equipment.
considerations for proper a full scale range should be
• MOS and Electrochemical for
installation and usage will be chosen that is greater than the 4. The amount of funds available
toxic gases.
provided. TLV. (This allows you to set to purchase gas detection
alarm points at concentration systems, and life cycle cost
ranges above or below the analysis for maintenance,
TLV in situations where gas particularly calibration.
levels are hazardous.)
After these issues are addressed,
2. The potential risks that could the appropriate detection method
result from a leak, such as may be determined. Some tips for
when to use which method are
• level of toxicity and the
provided in Table 4. Table 5,
effects of exposure to
which lists many common
personnel for toxic
industries and the types of
substances
hazardous gases in their
• explosion potential and processes may be of use.
magnitude for combustible
gases (Remember, that an Note:
explosion will only occur if These tables are intended as
the concentration falls guides only, and do not include
within the explosive every possible industry or every
range, oxygen is present, possible hazard within each
and there is an ignition industry. Each situation should be
source) carefully examined to determine
• value of the equipment or all possible risks and to determine
process within the area the best possible gas detection
under investigation equipment.
24
Chapter 5 Gas Detection Helpful Hints and Applications
Where should the sensor be Indoor vs. Outdoor Hazardous engineering judgement, to identify • If the density of the
placed? Areas: and select optimum detector gas/vapor is
locations. approximately equal to
While various regulatory No other single property has a that of air (1.29 g/cc at
authorities have put forth gas larger impact on vapor dispersion General Sensor Placement normal conditions), the
detection system design and characteristics and gas detection Guidelines: detector should be placed
performance requirements (see capability than the environmental at or near breathing level,
Chapter 6), there are no “third setting of the application. 1. Density of gas(es) to be or near leakage point.
party”* rules that define optimum monitored • The density of a gas is
detector placement, or quantity Indoor settings usually mean that • If the density of the effected by temperature.
requirements for an application. the overall hazardous area is well gas/vapor is less than air Heating will decrease the
contained. In addition, air flow (1.29 g/cc at normal density, making the gas
There are, however, factors that characteristics are usually fairly conditions) the gas/vapor lighter. Cooling will
should be considered when consistent, and can be identified will rise, in still air, so the increase the density of the
determining the best sensor and often controlled. Ceilings and detector should be placed gas, making it heavier.
locations within a hazardous walls usually are the likely areas near the ceiling. (Refer to Heating or cooling a gas
area. While some factors result in for gas accumulation and area Table 1 and Table 2 for by 30°C (54°F) will
hard-fast rules that apply to all delineation. Point(s) of human the relative densities of change the density of the
gas detection applications, other contact are usually easily many combustible and gas by approximately
factors will vary depending upon identifiable. These factors help the toxic gases.) 11%.
the specific situation. General application engineer to select the
• If the density of the
guidelines are provided below to optimum detector locations. 2. Air movement
gas/vapor is greater than
help identify the best locations of
air (1.29 g/cc at normal The velocity and direction of
detectors for optimal performance. Outdoor settings mean the air
conditions) the gas/vapor air will affect the distribution
flow characteristics of the
will settle, in still air, the of vapors or gases or both. To
* Instrumentation Society of hazardous area are less
detector should typically resolve this issue, the
America (ISA) offers the controllable. Typically, there are
be placed 18 to 24 in detectors should be placed
following standards: no clear areas of likely gas
(45.7 to 61 cm) above the where the currents with the
• RP92.0.02, Installation, accumulation, and often there are
floor or ground, or in maximum concentration of the
Operation and Maintenance multiple points for potential human
some instances inches gas being monitored reside.
of Toxic Gas Instruments, contact. Prevailing winds, if
above where the gas Smoke generator tests are
Hydrogen Sulfide present, may be variable at best.
would settle. (Refer to often helpful to identify dead
These areas present the
• RP12.13, Part II, Installation, Table 1 and Table 2 for air spaces.
application engineer with a
Operation and Maintenance the relative densities of • Pressurized vapors will be
challenge which requires
of Combustible Gas many combustible and distributed based upon
comprehensive application
Detection Instruments toxic gases.) location of leak.
analysis, and ultimately sound
26
Chapter 5 Gas Detection Helpful Hints and Applications
Are there any other 1. When multiple gases/vapors 4. For indoor applications, be
precautions to be taken are present, sensors should be aware that a confined area
when installing Gas calibrated to detect the gas will increase the danger or
Detectors? that provides the least amount hazard potential, or both, of
of relative sensor output at the gas due to higher
concentrations up to 100% explosion pressures caused
LFL. by contaminant of the
explosion.
2. Generally, a diffusion-based
gas detector can be 5. A dust cover or rain shield is
considered to provide recommended for dirty, dusty,
adequate coverage for a wet, and outside applications.
distance of 18 ft (5.5 m),
according to the Christian 6. For catalytic applications,
Michelsen Institute, Norway. verify that the sensor is
installed facing downwards.
Note:
This is for unobstructed space 7. Sensor wiring should be
only. It is not suitable for indoor routed away from other high
applications. current ac or dc wiring.
28
Chapter 6 Approval Organizations and Guidelines
Note:
Countries without approval agency may follow the IEC standards.
30
Chapter 6 Approval Organizations and Guidelines
Acetylene, or Hydrogen, or Ethylene, or gases Propane, or gases Conductive metal Carbon dust Flour, starch, or
gases or vapors of gases or vapors of or vapors of or vapors of dust grain dust
equivalent hazards equivalent hazards equivalent hazards equivalent hazards
The IEC consists of close to 40 IIC Acetylene, hydrogen, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazards.
countries, attempting to establish IIB Ethylene, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazards.
international standards for IIA Propane, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazards.
electrical products. The IEC uses I Methane, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazards.
"Gas Groups," "Zones," and
"Temperature Codes" to classify
equipment for use in hazardous
locations. The "Gas Groups"
define the hazardous material in
the surrounding atmosphere (Table TABLE 12 — IEC Zones
11). The "Zone" defines the ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
probability of hazardous material Zone 0 An explosive concentration of gas or vapor is present continuously or is present for long periods
being present in an ignitable of time.
concentration in the surrounding
atmosphere (Table 12). The Zone 1 An explosive concentration of gas or vapor is likely to be present for short periods of time under
"Temperature Code" indicates the normal operating conditions.
maximum surface temperature of Zone 2 An explosive concentration of gas or vapor is likely to be present for very short periods of time
the apparatus or components due to an abnormal condition.
based on –20°C to +40°C
ambient temperature limits (Table Zone 20 An explosive atmosphere of dust is present continuously or is present for long periods of time.
10). Zone 21 An explosive atmosphere of dust is likely to be present for short periods of time under normal
operating conditions.
Zone 22 An explosive atmosphere of dust is likely to be present for very short periods of time due to an
abnormal condition.
32
Chapter 6 Approval Organizations and Guidelines
Fill in the following information to guide you in the selection and placement for different applications at your site.
1. Provide a general description of the application in which the detector(s) will be placed (for example,
environmental conditions, equipment conditions, equipment present and locations).
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
2. List all combustible and toxic gases and/or vapors which may be present at the site under surveillance.
4. Are there any other substances present (for example, dust)? If so, please list:
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
5. A) Is detection in:
❑ Normal oxygen environment (21 Vol %)
❑ Oxygen deficient environment
❑ Oxygen enriched environment
B) Estimate the concentration of oxygen present in the atmosphere:__________________________________
Appendix 35
Appendix
10. List any potential contaminants (poisons) that may affect the performance of the detectors.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
36
Glossary
Glossary 37
Glossary
38
References
For additional information on any 1. Mark E. Dundas, New 6. Canadian Electrical Code 10. Richard J. Lewis, Sr.,
of the topics mentioned in this Technologies in Infrared Part 1; Safety Standard for Hawley's Condensed
manual or any other issues related Hydrocarbon Detection, ISSN Electrical Installations, CSA Chemical Dictionary,
to the detection of combustible Volume 31, Number 4, 1992 Standard C22. 1-1990, Thirteenth Edition, Van
and toxic gases, the following list Sixteenth Edition, Canadian Nostrand Reinhold, 1997
of resources is suggested: 2. Robert H. Sonner, William V. Standards Association,
Dailey, and David E. Wright, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada 11. IDLH Documentation, NIOSH
An Open Path Infrared (National Institute for
Hydrocarbon Detector, ISA 7. Classification of Locations for Occupational Safety and
Spring Symposium, Chicago, Electrical Installations in Health),
IL, May 1-3 1984 Petroleum Refineries, API http://www.ded.gov/niosh/
Recommended Practice 7783064.html, last updated
3. Installation, Operation, and 500A; Fourth Edition, August 16, 1998
Maintenance of Combustible Committee on Refinery
Gas Detection Instruments, Equipment, Refining 12. NFPA 325, Guide to
ISA – RP12.13, Part II – Department, American Properties of Flammable
1987 Petroleum Institute, USA, Liquids, Gases, and Volatile
1982 Solids, 1194 Edition
4. Genium Publishing
Corporation, Worker Safety 8. Earley, Mark W., and Murray, 13. Denis P. Nolan, P. E.
Resources, Richard H., and Caloggero, “Handbook of Fire and
http://genium.com/glossary_ John M., The National Explosion Protection
search/, August, 1998 Electrical Code – 1990 Engineering Principles for Oil,
Handbook, Fifth Edition, Gas, Chemical and Related
5. British Standard Code of National Fire Protection Facilities,” Noyes
Practice for Selection, Association, Quincy, Publications, 1996
Installation and Maintenance Massachusetts, USA., 1989
of Electrical Apparatus for
Use in Potentially Explosive 9. Manual for Classification of
Atmospheres (Other than Gases, Vapors, and Dusts for
Mining Applications or Electrical Equipment in
Explosives Processing and Hazardous (Classified)
Manufacture, BS5345: Part Locations, NFPA 497M,
1: 1989, British Standards 1991 Edition, National Fire
Institution, London, England Protection Association,
Quincy, Massachusetts, USA
References 39
Glossary
40
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Fax: (281) 556-9860
42
Det-Tronics is a member Since it was founded in Throughout the years, Det-Tronics' Mission is
of the Fire Protection 1973, Det-Tronics has Det-Tronics has to be the world's leading
Group of Kidde maintained a policy of established itself as a manufacturer of
International, which is a worldwide service, leader in innovation, and detection safety systems
division of Williams Plc. quality, and innovation. a provider of high for high hazard, high
The company has an quality solutions. This risk applications. Our
international network of reputation was achieved name must be
distributors, sales by aggressively striving synonymous with
representatives and to meet customer's near SAFETY, QUALITY,
branch offices to serve and long term needs. SERVICE and VALUE
the global needs of Det-Tronics quality and where the customers'
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has a full force of and are based on the life and property.
experienced field service philosophy: "We will
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engineers who are with our problem."
available to give advice
and technical assistance.
They analyze specific
applications and then
design the best solution
for the job.
DET-TRONICS
Detector Electronics Corporation
6901 West 110th Street • Minneapolis, MN 55438 USA
Tel: 612.941.5665 or 800.468.3244 • Fax: 612.829.8745 • Web site: www.detronics.com