Chapter-One Quantity of Water: Arbaminch Institute of Technology

ArbaMinch Institute of Technology [Pick the date]
Water Supply and Environmental Engineering Department (WSEE)

AMU
CHAPTER-ONE
1.0 QUANTITY OF WATER
1.1. Types of demands
While designing the water supply schemes of the town, it is necessary to
determine the total quantity of water required for various purposes by the city.
Following are the various types of water demands of a city or town.
i. Domestic water demands
ii. Commercial and industrial demand
iii. Fire demand
iv. Demands for public use
v. Compensate losses demand
i. Domestic water demands
 It includes the quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing,
cooking, washing etc.
 The quantity of water required for domestic use mainly depends on the
Habits, social status, climatic condition and custom of the people.
ii. Commercial and industrial Demand
 It includes the quantity of water required in the office building, stores,
Hotels, shopping centers, health center, school, cinema house, industries etc.
iii. Fire Demand
 It is the quantity of water required for fighting a fire break-out. This
quantity is normally obtained on the basis of certain empirical formal.
These are
a. National board of fire underwriter formulas.
Q = 64 √ P (1 – 0.01√P)
Where Q = rate of flow of water in l/sec
P = Population in thousand
b. Freeman formula.
Q = 1135.5 ((P⁄ 10) + 10)
Where Q is in lit/min
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P is in thousands
c. Kuichling formula.
Q = 3182 √P
Where Q is in lit / min
P is in thousands
iv. Demands for public use
 Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as washing
Roads, cleaning of sewer, gardens, public fountains, watering of public
parks etc.
v. Compensate Losses demand
 The quantity of water required for the allowance of losses of water due to
defective pipe joints, cracked & broken pipes, unauthorized & illegal
connection, faulty valves &
fittings etc.
 Generally ,allowance of 15 – 20% of total quantity of water is made to
compensate for the losses.
1.2. Per Capital Demand

In community, water is used for various purposes as described above. For the
purpose of estimation of total requirement of water, the demand is calculated on the
average basis, which is expressed in per capital demand (lit / clay)
I.e. per capital Demand = Q / P*365
Where Q: – is the total quantity of water required by a town per year in
liter.
P: - The population of the town
1.3. Factors affecting the water Demand (water consumption)
Following are the main factors which affect the per capital demand of the city
a) Climatic condition: In hooter & dry place  quantity of H2O more
In cold places,  water required less
b) Quality of water: If the Quality of water is good, & more water will be
consumed.
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a) Living standard of the people: The per capital demand of the town for standard
of living where as low in poor classes of people.
b) Industrial & commercial activities
- The presence of industries & commercial activity a town will increase the
per capital demand of the town.
c) Cost of water: If the cost is   less quantity of water is used.
d) System of sanitation: The presence of water carriage system in a town will
increase the per capital demand of the town.
e) Pressure in the distribution system
If the pressure  - more water loss due to leakage, wastage
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CHAPTER-TWO
2.0 POPULATION FORECASTING
2.1. Design Period
Design Period: - is the no of years for which the designs of the water works
have been done. It should neither be too short or too long, mostly water works are
designed for design period of 22 – 30 years.
Factor, which should be kept in view while fixing the design period:
 Fund
 The life of the material used in project (pipes, structural materials )
 Anticipated expansion of the town
 The rate of interest on the loan taken
2.2. Population Forecasting
 The design of the water supply project is done on the basis of projected
population at the end of the design period. Otherwise a present scheme
will be inadequate in near feature.
 The following are the standard method by w/c the forecasting of popn done:
ii. Arithmetical increase method
iii. Geometrical >> >>
iv. Incremental >> >>
v. Simple graphical method
vi. The logistic curve method
i. Arithmetical increase method
 This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at a
constant rate. The rate of change of population with time is constants
i.e. dp/dt=k
dp=k dt when we integrate the limit Po-Pn & o-n
Pn – po = k (n-o) = kn  pn = po + kn
Where po = initial population (present popn)
Pn = population at indicates in the future
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k = arithmetic increase
n = no of Decades
 This method is generally applicable to a large and old city.
Example 1
The following data have been noted from the census department.
Year 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 8,000 12,000 17,000 22,500
Calculate the probable population in the year 1980, 1990 and 2000
Solution
Year : 1940 950 960 970
Population: 8000 12, 000 17, 000 22, 500
Increase in
Population: 4,000 5,000 5, 5000
Average 4000+ 5, 000+ 5, 000 = 14, 5000 = 4, 833
Increase: 3 3
Probable popn in various decades shall be as flows
Year Population
1980 22,500 + 1* 4833= 27, 333
1990 22,500 + 2*4833 = 32,166
2000 22,500 + 3*4833 = 36,999
ii. Geometrical increase method.
 This method is based on the assumption the percentage increase in population
from decade to decade remains constant.
 If the present population is p and average percentage growth is k, the
population at the end of n decade will be:
P1 = Po + Kpo = po (1 + k)
P2 = p1 + kp1 = p1 (1 + k) = po (1 + k) (1 + k) = po (+k)2
P3 = p2+ kp2 = p2 (1 + k) = po (1 + k) (1 + k) (1 + k) = po (+k)3
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Pn = po (1 + k)n where po = initial population ,Po = popn at n

decades ,n = Decades & k = Percentage (geometric) increase
 This method is mostly applicable for growing towns and cities having vast
scope of expansion.
Example 2: Forecast the population of example 1 by means of geometrical increase
method.
Solution
Year Population Increase in popn Percentage increase in popn
1940 8,000 -------- ------------
1950 12,000 4,000 (4000/8000)*100=50%
1960 17,000 5,000 (500/12000)*100=41.7%
1970 22,500 5,500 (5,500/17,000)*100=32.4%
Total: 14,500 124.1%
Average per Decay: 4,833 = 14,500/3 41.37%=124.1%/3
The popn at the end of various decades shall be as follows:
Year Expected popn
1980 22,500 + (41.37/100) 22,500 = 22,500 (1+41.37/100) =31,808
1990 22,500 (1 + 41.37/100)2= 44,967
2000 22,500 (1 + 41.37/100)3= 63,570
iii. Incremental Increase method
 This method is improvement over the above two methods. The average
increase in the population is determined by the arithmetical method and to this
is added the average of the net incremental increase once for each future
decade.
Example 3: Forecast the population of example 1 by mean of incremental
increase method.
Solution
Year Population Increase in popn Incremental
increase
1940 8,000 --------- -----------
1950 12,000 4000 -----------
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1960 17,000 5000 +1000

1970 22,500 5,500 + 500
Total: 14,500 1,500
Average: 14,500/3 1,500/2 =750
The Population at the end of various decades shall be as follow:
Year Expected Population
1980 22,500 + 1* (4,833 + 750) = 28,083
1990 22,500 + 2* (4,833 + 750) = 33,666
2000 22,500 + 3* (4,833 + 750) = 39,249
iv. Decreasing rate method
 In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out and
is then subtracted from the latest percentage increase for each successive decades.
 This method is applicable to average size cities growing under normal condition.
Example 4: Solve example 1, by using decrease rate of growth method.
Increase in Percentage increase Decrease in the
Year Population Population in Population Percentage increase
1940 8,000 -------- -------- ------
1950 12,000 4000 4000/8000*100=50 ------
1960 17,000 5000 5000/12,000*100=41.7 +8.3
1970 22,500 5,500 5,500/17,000*100=32.4 +9.3
Total: 14,500 17.6
Average: 14,500/3=4,833 17.6/2=8.8
Now the popn at the end of various decades shall be as follows:
Net Percentage increase
Year In population Population
1980 32.4 - 8.8 = 23.6 22,500 + 23.6/100*22,500 = 27,810
1990 23.6 – 8.8 = 14.8 27,810 + 14.8/100*27,810 = 31,926
2000 14.8 – 8.8 = 6.0 31,926 + 6/100*31,926 = 33,842
Exercise: The Population data for a certain town is given below. Find out the
population in the year 1970 and 1980 by arithmetical, geometrical, Incremental
increases and decrease rate of growth methods respectively.
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Year: 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

Population: 75,000 110,000 150,000 200,000 242,000
V) Logistic Curve method

When the population of a town is plotted with respect time the curve so
obtained under normal condition is s – shaped curve and is known as logistic curve.
Equation of logistic curve:
P = Ps
1 + m loge-1 (n.t)
Where P = Population at time t
Ps = saturation popn = 2P0P1P2 – P12 (P0 + P2)
P0P2 – P12
m = Constant = Ps – P0
P0
n = Constant =2.3 log10 P0 (Ps – P1)
t P1 (Ps – P0)
P0 = Popn of the town at t0
P1 = >> >> >> >> >> t1
P2 = >> >> >> >> >> t2
Example 5: Following is the popn of a city as noted from the census department:
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Year: 1950 1960 1970

Population: 35,000 78,000 115,000
Determine a) the saturation popn
a) the expected popn in 1980 & the equation of logistic curve
Solution:
For logistic curve, P0 = 35,000 at t0 = 0
P1 = 78,000 at t1 = 10yr
P2 = 115,000 at t2 = 20yr
a) Ps = 2P0P1P2 – P12 (P0 + P2) = 2*35,000*78,000*115 – 78,0002(35,000 + 115,000)
35,000*115,000 – 78,0002
= 627,900*109 – 6,084*106(150,000)
4,025*106 – 6,084*106
= - 2847*105
- 2059
Ps = 1.38*105
b) P = Ps
1 + m loge -1 (n.t)
m = Ps – P0 = 138,000 – 35,000 = 2.95
Po 35,000
n = 2.3log10 P0 (Ps P1)
t P1(Ps-Po)
= 2.3 log 10 [35,000 (138,000 – 78,000) ] = 2.3 lot 10 (35*60)
10 78,000 (138,000 – 35,000) 10 78*103
= 0.23 log 10 0.26
= 0.25* (-0.585)
= -0.146
P = 138,000
1 + 2, 95 loge-1 (-0.146*t), t = time which starts from to = 0
i.e. t = 30 (t0 = 0, t1 = 10, t2 = 20, t = 30
= 138,000
1 + 2.95 x, x = loge-1(-0.146*t) where t = 30 years
: - The equation of the logistic curve: - P = 138,000
1 + 2.95x
X = loge-1 (-0.146*30)
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loge x = -0.146*30 = - 4.38

2.3 log 10x = -4.38
Log 10x = -4.38/2.3 = -1.9043
x = 10-1.9043= 0.01247
P = 138,000
1 + 2.95 (0.01247)
= 138,000 = 133,980
1 + 0.036787
: - Popn of the town after 10yr (i.e. in 1980) will be:
P = 133,980 Ans.
Vi) Simple graphical method.
In this method the popn curve (the popn vs. year) are correctly plotted to a
suitable scale on the graph. Then the curve is smoothly extended to forecast the future
popn.
Example: The popn in the past decays is given as follows
Year: 1930 1940 1950 1960
Popn: 9,000 13,000 17,000 23,000
Forecast the probable population number by using simple graphical method?
Solution:
From the graph the population in the future decade
Year: 1970 1980 1990
Popn: 28,900 34,000 38,000
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CHAPTER-THREE
3.0 SOURCES OF WATER
3.1 Surface Water Source
The following are the different surface sources of water:
a) River or stream
b) Ponds or lakes
c) Storage reservoir
A. River or steam
- It is formed by the runoff in the mountain & hill areas.
- Some rivers are perennial (water available through out the year) and some
are non perennial (water available in raining season only). Perennial River
should always be selected for the scheme. Incase of non perennial rivers, the
weir or low dam may be constructed to form a storage reservoir.
* The streams are suitable for small water supply scheme.
B. Pond or Lake
- It is natural or artificial depressions where surface runoff
is collected in rainy season.
C. Storage Reservoir
- This sources is always preferred for large water supply projects.
3.2 Ground Water Sources
3.2.1 Types of Ground Water sources
The following are the underground source of water:
i) Spring
- When the under ground water reappears at the ground surface by under
ground pressure, then it is known as spring.
- Generally springs are formed under following circumstances
a) When the surface of the earth drops sharply below the normal
ground water-table.
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b) When due to an obstruction ground water is collected in the form of

a reservoir and forces the water to overflow at the surfaces
c) When a pervious layer is sandwiched between two impervious layer
ii) Infiltration Galleries

- It is underground tunnel. Which have holes on its sides,
used for tapping underground water near river, lakes or
streams.
iii) Infiltration wells

- These are shallow wells constructed under the sandy river bed.
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iv) Wells
- It is an artificial hole make into the ground for extracting the under ground
water.
- The well may be of two types. These are
a) Open well: - It is constructed by digging the earth.
- It draws water from the topmost pervious layer.
- The diameter of this well varies from 1m to 2m and the depth
varies from 20m to 30m depending upon the nature of soil
& the water table.
b) Tube well: - It is constructed by sinking G.I pipes.
- It draws water from the deeper most pervious layer.
- The diameter and the depth of this well varying from
37mm to 150 mm and 100m to 200m respectively,
depending upon the nature of soil and suitable water
bearing strata.
Determination of yields of an open well

The yields of an open well can be determined by the following two tests
 Constant level test (pumping test)
 In this test, the water level is depressed by some head (H).Then the
rate of pumping is adjusted in such a way that the water level remains
constant in the well. At this time, the rate of pumping is equal to the
rate of yield from the well.
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 From Darcy’s Law, V = Ki = KH/L

Q = K*I*A
= K*A*H/L
= K/L*A*H
= C*A*H
Where Q = Discharge
A = Cross-Sectional area of permeable Layer through which water
enters the well
I = Hydraulic gradient
H = Depression head
L = Length of flow path
C = Percolation intensity coefficient
 Recuperation Test
 In this test, the water from the well is pumped to a depression head H1
and the pumping is stopped. The water level is rises due to the ground water
flow.
The rate of yield may be calculated from the Expression deduced below;
Let H1 = Depression head when pumping was stopped.
H2 = Depression head after a certain period
T = Time taken by the water level to rise from H1 to H2
H = Depression head at time t
H = Decrease in depression head in time  t
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If it is assumed that for small interval of line t, the volume of water enter the well is
V, and the corresponding rise in water level is H,
Then: V = A*H -------------- (1)
V = Q*t, Q = K*H
V = K*H*t -------------- (2) where Q = rate of the discharge
K = constant depending
On soil through which
From equation (1) & (2) water enter the wells.
A*H = K*H*t H = Draw down
t = - A/K*H/H (-Ve sign indicates that when t, the depression head H
T H2 Decreases.)
t = - A/K H/H
0 H1
T = - A/K loge [H2/H1] = (A/K)loge [H1/ H2 ]
TK = A [2.303 log 10 (H1/ H2)]
K/A = (2.303/T) log 10 (H1/ H2) (m3/hr/m2 )
Where k/A is known as specific yield of well per unit area.
K = (2.303*A) loge (H1/H2) (m3/hr/unit head)
T
Where K = specific capacity of well
Now, the discharge Q =K*H where H = constant depression head
Examples 1) calculate the specific capacity of an open well from the following data:
Initial depression head = 5m
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Final depression head = 2m

Time of recuperation = 2 hs
Diameter of well = 3m
Calculate also the specific yield & yield of the well under head 3m.
Solution
A = πd2/4= 7.07m2
The specific capacity of well is:
K=
2.303 * A
T
log10 H1 H 2 = 2.303 * 7.07
2
log 10 5 
2
= 3.24m3 /hr/unit head
The specific yield of the well is:
3.24
K/A = = 0.458 m3/hr/m2
7.07
Yield of the well under head 3m is:
Q = K*H = 3.24m3/hr/unit *3
= 9.72 m3/hr
= 9720 lit/hr
Exercise 1)
Find the diameter of an open well to give the discharge of 3 lit/see. The
depression head is 3m and specific yield 1m3/hr/m2 .
Solution
K 3 * 60 * 60 3
Q = K*H = *A*H 3lit = m /hr
H 1000
10.8 m3/hr = 1m3/hr/m2* πd2 /4 *3 = 10.8 m3/hr
10.8 = 2.56d2
d = 10.8 / 2.356 = 2.14m,

So, the diameter of open well is 2.14m
Example 2)
During a recuperating test, the water level was depressed by pumping by 2.5m and is
recuperated by an amount of 1.5m in 60 minutes.
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d) Determine the yield from the well, if the dia of well is 2.5m and the
draw down is 4.0 meters.
e) Also determine the diameter of well to yield 10 lit/see against a
draw-down of 2.5m.
Solution
H1 = 2.5m, H2 = 2.5 – 1.5 = 1.0m, T = 60min = 3600sec.
 2.5    X 2.5 
2
2.3  H1 
a) Q = K *A*H = log10   *log10  * *4
A T  H2  1.0   4 

= 0.254 *10 *
3
= 4.8*10-3m3/sec
= 4.8 lit/see
b) Q = K *A*H
A
 
10*10-3 = 0.254 *103 * A*2.5
A = 15.74m2
4 *15.74
Dia. of the well = = 4.48m

Determination of yield of tube well
There may be two cases
Case I: Yield of tube well in unconfined Aquifer
Let. H = Height of static water level from impervious layer

h = Depth of water in well from max draw down to the top of impervious
layer.
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S = Draw down
R = Radius of circle of influence
r = radius of well
Q = discharge of well
T = A point taken on draw down
Curve with co – ordinate (x,y)
O = A point taken as origin.
Consider that a cylindrical surface that
passes vertical through the point T (x, y),
Area of cylindrical surface, A =2πx.y
By Darcy Law, V = ki = k dy
dx
Rate of flow through cylindrical surface = k. dy , 2π x y

dx
But, Discharge of well = Rate of flow
Q = k*i*A = k*dy/dx*2πx.y
dx
Q= = 2πky.dy
x
ydy = 2 πk  y 2  h H
R H
Q=  dx/ x = 2 π k 
r h  2
Q = loge  R r  = πk (H2-h2)
 
k ( H 2  h 2 k ( H 2  h 2 1.36k ( H 2  h 2 )
Q=  
log e ( R / r ) 2.303 log10 ( R / r ) log10 ( R / r )
S = H – h H=S+hH+h=S+2H
(H2 – h2) = (H + h) (H-h) = (S + 2H) S
1.36k .S ( S  2 H )
So, Q =
log10( R / r )
Example 1
A tube well penetrates fully into a confined aquifer .The following data was
collected during observation. Calculate the discharge of discharge of the well?
- Radius of tube well = 20 cm
- Thickness of confined aquifer = 25m
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- Drawdown = 4m
- Radius of circle of influence = 300m
- Coefficient of transmissibility = 125*10-4 m2/sec
Find also the Coefficient of permeability
Solution
R=300m, r= 20 cm=0.2m, S = 4m, b = 5m, T = 125*10 – 4 m2/sec
T = Kb K = T/ b =125*10 -4 =5*10 -4 m/sec
25
 The Coefficient of permeability, K = 5*10–4 m/sec
 Again, From the Relation
Q = 2.72kbs = 2.72*5*10 – 4 *25*4
Log 10 R/r log10 (300/0.2)
The discharge of the well, Q = 42.8 lit / sec
Example 1) A tube well fully penetrates an unconfined aquifer. Calculate the
discharge of the well from the following data
 Required yield = 100 lit/sec
Radius of circle of influence = 200 m
Thickness of confined aquifer = 30 m
Draw down = 5 m
Coefficient of permeability = 60 m / day
Solution
Q = 100 lit /sec = 0. 10 m3 / sec, R = 200m, b = 30m, s = 5m
K = 60m / day = 60 m/day * 1 day = 6. 944 * 10 – 4 m/sec
24*60*60sec
From the relation, Q = 2.72 k bs
Log 10 (R/r)
0.1 = 2. 72*6.944*10 -4 * 30 * 5
Log 10 (200/r)
Log 10 (200/r) = 2.72*6.944* 10 – 4*30*5

0.1
Log 10 (200/r) = 2.833
200/r = 10 (2.833) = 681
r= 200/681 = 0.29m = 29 cm = 30cm
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So the diameters of the well is, D=2*r= 2*30= 60cm

Exercise 2)
A gravity (unconfined) well has a diameter of 60cm the depth of water in the
well is 40cm before pumping is started. When pumping is being done at the rate of
2000 liters per minutes. The drawn down in a well 10m away is 4m and in another well
20m away is 2m.
Determine (a) radius of zero draw down
(b) Coefficient of permeability
(c) Drawn down in the well
3.3 Source Selection criteria
The choice of source of water supply to a town or city depends on the
following factors
i) Location: - The source of water should be as near to the town as possible
ii) Quantity of water: - The sources of water should have sufficient quantity of water
to meet all the demand of the city through out the year.
 Source of water should be able to meet the maximum demand in dry season
also.
iii) Quality of water: - The quality of water should be good which can be easily &
cheaply treated.
 It should not contain disease germ and free from pollution.
iv. Cost: - The cost of the water supply project should be minimum (the relative
elevation of the town & sources, the distance b/n the source & the town.)
The selection of the source of water supply is done on the above points and
the source w/c will give good quality & quantity at less cost will be selected.
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CHAPTER-FOUR
4.0 COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF
WATER
4.1 Types of Intake
Intakes are used to collect water from varies sources. The sources may be lakes,
rivers, reservoirs or canals. The intake waterworks for each type of source is
designed separately according to its requirements and situations. Depending on
the source of water the intake works are classified as follows.
a) River intake c) Reservoir intake
b) Lake “ d) Canal “
A) River intake
 A circular or rectangular sump well is constructed with masonry work in
the bank of river in such a way that the water can enter the well in both
conditions (H.F.L & L.W.L) through pipes installed at different level.
 Screens are provided at the end of the pipe to eliminate suspended matters.
 The main suction pipe having strainer at the bottom is inserted into the
sump well and connected to the pumping unit which delivers water to the
treatment plant.
Sometimes intake works may be constructed in the middle of the river. In the case,
all precautions should be taken to protect the structure from silting and heavy
current of river.
So there is no hard & fast rule for the type of taping water from the river. The
site condition will guide the type of structure to be constructed.
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B) Lake Intake
 A submersible rectangular chamber is constructed at the bed of the lake
below the low water level. So as to draw water in dry season also.
 The top cover of the chamber consists of several holes having gratings on it
to prevent the entry of debris, aquatic life, weeds etc to the chamber.
 A bell mouthed pipe is provided in the chamber which contain screen at the
top. It is connected to pumping unit through suction pipe to draws water
from the chamber and delivers to the treatment plant.
I. Reservoir Intake
 If a non perennial becomes the only source of water for a town, then the
weir or dam may be constructed across the river to form reservoir.
However, an intake well is constructed on the body of the weir or dam in
such way that the water can be tapped throughout the year.
 The intake pipes which have screen at the ends are fitted at different levels
to a vertical pipe which provided inside the well. This vertical pipe again
connected to the treatment plants.
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II. Canal Intake

 It is a very simple structure constructed on the bank of the canal. The well
may be circular or rectangular and it is constructed with masonry work.
It has an opening on its side provided with screen. An inlet pipe is
inserted in to the well extending up to the L.W.L of the canal for
drawing water and it carries a hemispherical screen at the end. A
manhole is provided on the well cap for inspection work. The intake
pipe is connected to the pumping unit for sending water to treatment
unit.
4.2Distribution System and its Layout

4.2.1 Distribution System
For efficient distribution it is required that water should reach to every
consumers with required flow rate. Therefore, some pressure in pipe lines is
necessary. Which force the water to reach at every place.
Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution system is
classified as follows:
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i. Gravity system
ii. Pumping system
ii. Dual system
i) Gravity System
 In this system, the water flows under the force of gravity from the
distribution reservoir to the distribution area.
 This system is suitable when the source of water treatment plant and the
distribution reservoir are situated at a high level than the distribution
area.
ii. Pumping System

In this system, the water is directly pumped in the main. Since the pumps have to
work at different rates in a day, the maintenance cost will increases.
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iii. Dual System

 In this system, the pumping and gravity both systems are utilized
simultaneously when required.
 Normally, the pumps are operated at a constant speed to meet the average
demand of water. So, during the period of low demand, the excess water is
stored in an elevated reservoir. During the period of peak demand, the water
is supplied by pumping and from the elevated reservoir simultaneously.
 This system is fairly reliable b/c in the case of failure of pumping the water
supply can be continued for some period from the reservoir.
4.2.2. Layout of distribution System
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Generally in practice there are four different system of distribution which is

used. Depending upon their layout of direction of supply, they are classified as
follows:
i) Dead End or Tree System
ii) Grid Iron System
iii) Circular or ring system
iv) Radial System
i) Dead end or Tree System
 In this system, a main line is taken from the reservoir along the main road.
The sub-mains are taken suitably from the main line. Cutt-off values are
provided at the entry of sub-mains. From the sub mains, the branch lines are
taken from which service connections are give to consumer through the
ferrule. The end of the sub-mains and branch lines are stopped by scour
values which are known as dead – ends.
 Due to the dead – ends, there is no free circulation of water and the water
remains stagnant within the pipe line.
 This system is suitable for regular developing town or city.
ii) Grid – Iron System

 In this system, the main line, the sub-main lines, and the branch lines are
interconnected. So, there is free circulation of water through the pipe lines.
Cutt-off values are provided at each junction point so that the repair works
may be conducted at a particular area without disturbing the whole area.
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 In this system the length of the pipe as too long, and hence it is very
costly. It is suitable for town or city having rectangular lay out of roads.
iii) Circular or Ring System

 In this system, the main water line is divided in to two parts; in two
direction left and right. In inlet side, the left and the right water main on the
outlet side.
 It is suitable for well planned town or city where the locality can be
divided in to square or circular blocks and the main water line can be laid
around the sides of the squire or around the circle.
iv) Radial System

 In this system, the town or city is divided in to various circular or square
zones and distribution reservoirs are placed at the centre of each zone. The
distributor lines are laid radially from reservoir towards the periphery of each
zone.
 It is sailable when the town or city can oriented with radial roads and
streets
 In this system, the water from the main reservoir is allowed to flow
through the main pipe and sub-main pipe and get collected at distribution
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reservoir of each zone. The water is supplied to consumers through the

distributor pipe lines.
4.3 Service Reservoir

The Service Reservoir is also known as distribution reservoirs. It’s has four
main function.
 To balance or equalize (allow a uniform rate) the supply and
demand over a long period of high consumption.
 Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant, pumps or
trunk main.
 To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduces pressure
fluctuations there in.
 To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other emergency demand.
Determination of Storage Capacity of Reservoir
The total capacity of the service reservoir is determined by adding the quantity of
water required for various purposes. These are for balancing reserve, for
Breakdown reserve and for fire reserves.
i) For Balancing Reserve: - This is requires equalizing b/n the fluctuations of
demand rate with the constant rate of pumping.
* Balancing Storage: - Max. Surplus + Max. Deficient
ii) For Break down Reserve:- This is the amount of storage
during the break down of pumps.
* From 2 – 3 hrs pumping capacity is provided against this storage.
iii) For Fire reserve: - This is storage required for fighting a fire out break.
* In practice 2 – 5 lit/cap is normally provided for fire storage.
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Example 1.
A small town with a popn of 1600 is to be supplied water at 150 Lpcd. The demand
of water during different period is given in the following table:
Time hr: 0–3 3–6 6–9 9–12 12–15 15–18 18-21 21-24
Demand in
1000 liters: 20 25 30 50 35 30 25 25
Determine the capacity of a service reservoir if pumping is done 24hrs at

constant rate.
Solution
Total water Demand = 150 * 1600 = 240,000 lit/day
For constant rate of pumping rate = 240,000 = 10,000 lit/hr
24
For 3hr  pumping rate = 30,000 lit
I) Analytically
Cum. Cum.
Time (hrs) Pumping Pumping Demand Demand Surplus Deficit
0–3 30,000 30,000 20,000 20,000 10,000
3 -6 30,000 60,000 25,000 45,000 15,000
6–9 >> 90,000 30,000 75,000 15,000
9 – 12 >> 120,000 50,000 125,000 -- 5,000
12 – 15 >> 150,000 35.000 160,000 -- 10,000
15 = 18 >> 180,000 30,000 190,000 -- 10,000
18 – 29 >> 210,000 25,000 215,000 -- 5,000
21 – 24 >> 240,000 25,000 240,000 -- 0
i) For Balancing storage = Max. Surplus + Max. Deficit
= 15,000 + 10,000 = 25,000 lit
Let’s take 3hr pumping rate
ii) For Break down storage = 3* 10,000 lit/hr = 30,000 lit
Let’s take 5 lit/cap
iii) For Fire reserve = 5 lit/cap * 1600 = 8,000 lit
: - Total capacity of reservoirs = 25,000 + 30,000 + 8,000 = 63,000 lits
II) Mass curve method
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 It is a graph of cum.demand & cum. supply Vs Time.

i) Balancing strange = 18000 + 6,000 = 24,000
ii) For Bread down = 30,000
iii) For Five reserve = 8,000
Exercise
A peak hourly flow rate of 100 L/Sec is required at a point A, as shown below.
Pressure at that point is not to drop below 150 kpa.
Determine a) the required pressure at the pump station if the demand is satisfied
without any distribution storages tank.
b) The required pressure head at the pumps if the storage tank is
used to help to meet peak demand by floating on the line at elevation 20m.Assume
CH=100
4.4 Design of the Distribution System

Design of the Pipe Line
While doing the design  First of all the diameters of the pipes are assumed,
 Then the terminal pressure heads at the end of each pipe
section are determined
The determination of friction loss (hL) can be determined by using Hazen – William
formula.
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Q = 0.278*CH * D2.63 * S0.54

Q = 0.278* CH * D2.63 (HL/L) 0.54
hL= (1/0.094) x (Q/CH)x(L/D4.97)
To reduce the tedious calculation, the Hazen-Williams nomogram is used to determine
HL=S*L in the nomograph CH=100 because usually in practice C.I. pipes of standard
diameter are used.
*The distribution mains are designed for the max.hourly demand of the
max.requirment day.
Example1
Water supply line is to be laid in a town developed in haphazard way. The following
figure shows the various zones of the town and the population in each zone. The pipe
lines are to be laid in dead-end type. The average requirement of the town is 175
lit/cap/day. Design the of the distribution pipes AB and BC with the following Data.
(i) Take the population for design from the figure
(ii) the R.L of the bottom of the service reservoir is 155.5m at A=168m, at
B=154m and at C=146m
(iii) the R.L of the pipe points on the main at C=146m
(iv) The length of the pipe AB= 700m and BC=550m.
(v) The distribution system should be designed for max. demand 3 times the
average demand.
(vi) The min pressure head to be maintained at any point in the distribution
system should be 15m.
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Assum
Loss of head
Pipe Popn. Served Max ed Ground Net
Hydrau
secti Previo Local Tot Dema pipe Rate Lengt Actual lic level Level availabl
per h
on us al nd diam. head e head
100 (m)
(3) (5) (mm) m loss (10) (12)
(11)
(1) (2) (4) (6) (9)
(7)
BC 2600 500 310 18.83 150 15.5 550 8.52
0 C=162. C=146 C=16.9
98 3
AB B=154
3100 700 20 B=171. B=17.5
44.66 200 700 14 5 A=168
+ + 735 A=17.5
1800 1750 0 A=185.
5
4900 2450
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Col(4) = Col (2) + Col (3)

Col(5) = 3*175* Col (4)
24*60*60
Col(6)= Read from the hazen -Williams nomograph by taking Q(col (5)) and D(col (6))
Col(9) =col (7) * col (8)
1000
Col (10) = start form point A,
A, Hydraulic level A = R.L of service reservoir =185.5
>> >> B = R.L of pt. A – Col (9) = 185.5- 14 = 171.5
>> >> C = H.L of pt. B – Col (9) = 171.5 – 8.52 = 162.98
Col (12) = col (10) – col (11
Exercise 1
A typical layout of pipes in dead end pattern is given below. The rate of supply is 180
lit/cap/day and the min. pressure head of the water is 15m. Design suitable sizes of
pipes AB, BC&CD, lengths are 300m, 400m and 500m respectively.
Block no popn block no popn block no popn block no popn
1 200 7 400 13 600 19 500
2 500 8 400 14 600 20 100
3 600 9 300 15 700 21 700
4 600 10 500 16 600 22 200
5 700 11 500 17 600 23 500
6 700 12 700 18 800
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1 2 9 10 16
15
3
11 17
4
23
18
5 6 20
12
7 19
13 14
8 21 22
Analysis of the pipe Network

There are number of method of analysis. The most common used are
(a) Equivalent pipe method.
Equivalent pipe is one that has the same hydraulic characteristics (flow rate, pressure
drop) as the pipes it theoretically replaces.
Equivalent pipes can be determined to replace
- pipes in series (connected end to end)
- pipes in parallel (forming loops)
Pipes in series
Procedure for determining an equivalent pipe to replace the pipes w/c connected in
series.
Step1: - Assume any flow rate, Q.
The flow rate should generally selected within the range of flows on the hazen
William nomograph.
Step2:- using nomograph line up Q and D for each section of the original
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Series pipeline, read slope and compute HL=S*L for each section.
Where L= the Length of the Section
Step 3:- Add up the head losses for all section in the series to determine a
Total head loss (HT) for the assumed discharge Q in the pipe line
Step 4:- compute an overall hydraulic gradients S'= Hl/Ĺ
Where Ĺ = is the specified total length of the equivalent pipe
Step 5:- Enter the nomograph again with the assumed value of Q and
Computed value S’, read D of the equivalent pipe.
Example (1)
A series pipe line is given in the figure. It consists of 1500 ft of 8 in dia pipe
from pt. A to B and 2500 ft 12 in diameter pipe from ptB to pt.C. Determine the
equivalent diameter of a single 4000 ft. long pipe line.
Solution
Step 1:- Assume Q=450 pm
Step 2:- For section AB, using nomograph for Q= 450 gpm &D= 8in S=0.0064
Compute hl=SxL= 0.0064*150 ft= 9.6ft
For Section BC, using nomograph for Q==450gpm&D=12in S=0.001
Compute hl = SxL= 0.001*2500ft=2.5ft
Step 3:- Compute the total Head Loss
Hl =9.6ft+2.5ft= 12.1ft
Step 4:- Compute the overall hydraulic gradient from A to C as
S'= Hl/Ĺ = 12.1/400 =0.003
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Step 5:- By using nomograph, for Q=450gpm&S=0.003 D=9.5in

: - An equivalent pipe w/c has a dia. of 9.5in and length of 4000ft.
Pipes in Parallel
Procedures for determining an equivalent Pipe to replace the pipe w/c have parallel
connection
Step1:- Assume a total head loss, Hl across the loop.
Step2:- Compute S= Hl /L for each Branches
Step3:- Enter the Hazen Williams nomograph with D & S for each Branches, and
Determine Q.
Step4:- Compute the total flow rate at the Junction
Step5:- Determine an overall hydraulic gradient S'=assumed Hl/ Ĺ
Where Ĺ is the specified length equivalent pipe
Step6:- using the nomograph with Q & S  determines the equivalent D.
Example 2
Two Pipelines are connected in parallel from junction A to Junction B as shown below.
Branch AIB consists of 500m of 300mm diameters pipe, and branch AIIB consists of
1500m of 200mm pipe. Determine the equivalent diameter of a single 500m long
pipeline from A to B that could replace the given loop.
Solution
Step 1:- Assume Hl= 10m
Step 2:- For Branch AIB, S=10/500= 0.02
For Branch AIIB, S= 10/500 = 0.0067
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Step 3:- For Branch AIB, using Hazen-William’s monograph with D=a300m & S=0.02
read Q1 =143L/S
For branch AIIB, from monograph, with D=200mm and S=0.0067, read Q11=27L/S
Step 4:- The total flow rate into Junction A, Q=Q1+Q11 = 143+27 = 170L/S
Step 5:- The overall hydraulic gradients S==10/500 = 0.02
Step 6:- From monograph, with Q=170L/S and s=0.02, read D= 320mm
: - An equivalent pipe for the problem w/c have D=320 mm with L=500m.
Exercise 2
Find a single pipe; 2000m long, w/c is hydraulically equivalent to the lines given
below.
b) Hardy- crosses method

- It is a trial and error procedures in w/c the correction are applied to assumed flow rate
to converge to hydraulically balanced system. The corrections applied to assumed flow
rate are determinig from the following formula,
Basic conditions
 Flows in a clockwise direction (‫ )م‬are considered to be positive (+) and flows in
CCW direction are considered to be negative(-)
 Head losses from CW flows are considered to be positive (+), Head losses from
CCW flows are negative (-).
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 In hydraulically balanced system the algebraic sum of the head losses around a
loop (∑hl = 0) is zero.
 The flow into and out of that junction must be equal. I.e. Qinto=Qout.
Procedures
Step 1:- For each pipe in the network, assume a flow rate and flow direction of the flow
going into a pipe junction must equal to the total flow going out of that
junction.
Step 2:- Using nomograph, designing S and hL =S*L for each pipe in the loop .Also,
compute hL/Q for each pipe.
Step 3:- Compute ∑ hL and ∑ hL/Q
The hL/Q terms are always positive
Step 4:- Compute Q and add Q to the flow in each pipe of that loop.
Step 5:- Repeat step 2 through 4 for an adjacent loop in the network.
If one the pipe in the first loop is also part of the adjacent, use the previously corrected
flow in the common pipe but the algebraic sign of the flows and head losses in common
pipe change depending on w/c loop is being evaluated.
Step 6:- Alternately repeat step2 through 4 for each loop in the network until the
corrections obtained become sufficiently small.
Example3
Consider the single loop of parallel pipes shown below. If a flow of 4000 L/S enters the
loop at junction A, what will be the flow rate Q1 in branch AIB and QII in branch AIIB?
Solution
From the principle of continuity (the flow entering into a junction must equal to out
from that junction)
I.e. Q1+ QII =400L/S
Let’s assume Q1=300 L/S
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QII = -100 L/S (because the direction is CCW)
1st trial
Pipe D, mm L, m Q,l/s S, m/m hL,m hl/Q Q+▲Q
AIB 300 500 300 0.075 37.5 0.125 300+31=331
AIB 200 1500 -100 -0.07 - 105 1.05 -100+31=-69
∑hL=-67.5 ∑hL/Q=1.175
Q= - ∑hL . = - (-67.5) = 31
1.85*∑ hL/Q 1.85*1.175
nd
2 trial
Pipe D, mm L, m Q, l/s S, m/m hL, m hl/Q Q+▲Q
AIB 300 500 331 0.85 42.5 0.1284 331+7.53=339
AIIB 200 1500 - 69 -0.037 -55.5 0.80435 - 69+7.53=-61
∑hL=13 ∑ hL/Q=0.93275
Q= - (-13) = 7.53
1.85*0.93275
3rd trial
Pipe D, mm L, m Q, l/s S, m/m hL, m hl/Q Q+▲Q
AIB 300 500 339 0.00 45 0.13 339+0=339
AIB 200 1500 -61 -0.03 -45 -0.73 +31=69
∑hL =0 0.86
Q= - (-13) =0
1.85*0.86
 Q1= 33945 (CW) = 34045 CW
 QII = 6145 (CCW) = 6045CCW
The pressure drop from Pt A to B is = γ*h= 9.8*45 = 440kpa
Exercise 3
A water distribution system has been skeletonzed and reduced to the two-loop
network even below. A flow rate of 6045 is pumped into the network at point A, and
two major water withdrawal points, C and D, discharge 20 l/s and 40 l/s, respectively.
Determine the flow rate in all the pipes of the network.
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JULY 2011 Page 41

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ArbaMinch Institute of Technology [Pick the date]

Water Supply and Environmental Engineering Department (WSEE)

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1.2. Per Capital Demand

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Pn = po (1 + k)n where po = initial population ,Po = popn at n

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1960 17,000 5000 +1000

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Year: 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

V) Logistic Curve method

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Year: 1950 1960 1970

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loge x = -0.146*30 = - 4.38

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b) When due to an obstruction ground water is collected in the form of

c) When a pervious layer is sandwiched between two impervious layer

ii) Infiltration Galleries

iii) Infiltration wells

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Determination of yields of an open well

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 From Darcy’s Law, V = Ki = KH/L

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Final depression head = 2m

d = 10.8 / 2.356 = 2.14m,

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Let. H = Height of static water level from impervious layer

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Rate of flow through cylindrical surface = k. dy , 2π x y

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Log 10 (200/r) = 2.72*6.944* 10 – 4*30*5

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So the diameters of the well is, D=2*r= 2*30= 60cm

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II. Canal Intake

4.2Distribution System and its Layout

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ii. Pumping System

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iii. Dual System

4.2.2. Layout of distribution System

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Generally in practice there are four different system of distribution which is

ii) Grid – Iron System

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iii) Circular or Ring System

iv) Radial System

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reservoir of each zone. The water is supplied to consumers through the

Log 10 (200/r) = 2.726.944 10 – 4305

So the diameters of the well is, D=2r= 230= 60cm

Q = 0.278CH D2.63 * S0.54