Ec8452 Ec-Ii Unit-1

1
2
Please read this disclaimer before proceeding:
This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose of
RMK Group of Educational Institutions. If you have received this document
through email in error, please notify the system manager. This document
contains proprietary information and is intended only to the respective group /
learning community as intended. If you are not the addressee you should not
disseminate, distribute or copy through e-mail. Please notify the sender
immediately by e-mail if you have received this document by mistake and delete
this document from your system. If you are not the intended recipient you are
notified that disclosing, copying, distributing or taking any action in reliance on
the contents of this information is strictly prohibited.
3
EC8452 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS II
UNIT-I FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND

STABILITY
Department:ECE
Batch/Year: 2019-2023 / 2020-2021
Created by: Ms.K.JEEVITHA, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Mr.M.SHYAM, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Date: 09.02.2021
4
Table of Contents
Page
S.No Contents
Number
1 Course Content 7
2 Course Objectives 8
3 Pre Requisites 8
4 Syllabus 9
5 Course outcomes 10
6 CO - PO/PSO Mapping 11
7 UNIT I FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY 11
7.1 Lecture Plan 12
7.2 Activity based learning 13
7.3 Lecture Notes 14
 Introduction 14
 General Feedback Structure 15
 Classification of Amplifiers 16
 Basic Feedback Concept 20
 Properties of Negative Feedback 26
 Effect of Negative Feedback on Input and Output

47
Resistance
 Method of Analysis of Feedback Amplifier 63
 Stability Problem 97
 Frequency Compensation 100
7.4 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO) 105

7.5 Part-B Question Bank (with K Level and CO) 109
5
Table of Contents
Page
S.No Contents
Number
7.6 Supportive online Certification Courses 112
7.7 Real time Application in day to day life and Industry 113
7.8 Contents beyond the Syllabus 114
8 Assessment Schedule 116
8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 117
10 Mini Project Suggestions 118
6
1.Course Content
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY
OSCILLATORS
TUNED AMPLIFIERS
WAVE SHAPING AND MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
POWER AMPLIFIERS AND DC CONVERTERS
7
2.Course Objectives
To give a comprehensive exposure to all types of amplifiers and oscillators

constructed with discrete components. This helps to develop a strong basis
for building linear and digital integrated circuits.
To study about feedback amplifiers and oscillators principles
To design oscillators.
To study about turned amplifier.
To understand the analysis and design of LC and RC oscillators, amplifiers,

multivibrators, power amplifiers and DC convertors.
3.Pre Requisites
(Course Names with Code)
EC8251 Electronic Devices

EC8351 Electronic Circuits I
8
4.SYLLABUS
EC8452 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS II LTPC 3003
UNIT I FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY
Feedback Concepts – gain with feedback – effect of feedback on gain stability,

distortion, bandwidth, input and output impedances; topologies of feedback
amplifiers – analysis of series-series, shunt-shunt and shunt-series feedback
amplifiers-stability problem-Gain and Phase-margins-Frequency compensation.
UNIT II OSCILLATORS
Barkhausen criterion for oscillation – phase shift, Wien bridge - Hartley & Colpitts
oscillators – Clapp oscillator-Ring oscillators and crystal oscillators – oscillator
amplitude stabilization.
UNIT III TUNED AMPLIFIERS
Coil losses, unloaded and loaded Q of tank circuits, small signal tuned amplifiers –
Analysis of capacitor coupled single tuned amplifier – double tuned amplifier - effect
of cascading single tuned and double tuned amplifiers on bandwidth – Stagger
tuned amplifiers - Stability of tuned amplifiers – Neutralization - Hazeltine
neutralization method.
UNIT IV WAVE SHAPING AND MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
Pulse circuits – attenuators – RC integrator and differentiator circuits – diode

clampers and clippers –Multivibrators - Schmitt Trigger- UJT Oscillator.
UNIT V POWER AMPLIFIER AND DC CONVERTORS
Power amplifiers- class A-Class B-Class AB-Class C-Power MOSFET-Temperature

Effect- Class AB Power amplifier using MOSFET –DC/DC convertors – Buck, Boost,
Buck-Boost analysis and design
9
5.Course outcomes
Upon completion of the course, the student should be able to:
CO1: Analyze different types of amplifier with negative feedback
CO2: Design & Analysis of transistorized RC oscillators & LC oscillators
CO3: Analyze transistorized tuned amplifiers
CO4: Analysis of wave shaping circuits
CO5: Design & Analysis of multivibrators
CO6: Analysis of power amplifiers
10
6.CO- PO/PSO Mapping
CO
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES(PO) PSO*
PO12
PO10
PO11
PSO1
PSO2
PSO3
PO6
PO1
PO2
PO3
PO4
PO5
PO7
PO9
P08
CO3 CO2 CO1
√ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
CO6 CO5 CO4
√ √ √
√ √ √ √ √
*Program Specific Outcome
11
7.1 Lecture Plan
UNIT I FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY
Taxonomy
pertaining
Proposed
Delivery
Mode of
Periods
Actual
No. of
Date
level
S.No
date
CO
Topic
Feedback concepts- Online

1 1 CO1 K2
Feedback with gain class
Effect of feedback
Online
2 on gain stability, 1 CO1 K2
class
distortion.
Effect of feedback Online
3 1 CO1 K2
on bandwidth class
Effect of feedback
Online
4 on input and output 1 CO1 K2
class
resistances
Topologies of Online
5 1 CO1 K2
feedback amplifiers class
Analysis of series-
series and shunt- Online
6 1 CO1 K3
shunt feedback class
amplifiers
Analysis of series-
shunt and shunt- Online
7 1 CO1 K3
series feedback class
amplifiers
Online
8 Stability problems 1 CO1 K3
class
Phase margins and
Online
9 frequency 1 CO1 K2
class
compensation
12
7.2 Activity based learning
Stick Experiment.
The yardstick puzzle can be used to explain positive and negative feedback, its
description is given below.
Part 1: Negative feedback
Balance a smooth stick on your outstretched forefingers as shown in (Figure a) to

see negative feedback in action. Now move your fingers towards each other until
they come together. Your fingers will end up touching each other right under the
stick’s center of mass, and the stick will balance (Figure b). You can repeat the
trick, changing the initial position of your fingers, but the result will always be the
same.
This is an example for negative feedback. The fingers alternate in motion until
they touch each other (Figure a). At any moment in the experiment only one
finger at a time moves. The one that moves experiences less friction. This action
continues until the friction between the stick and the moving finger exceeds the
friction of the other finger. This leads to a switch in fingers roles, the moving
finger stops moving, and the stationary finger starts to move. The process repeats
itself until the fingers touch each other. This is a great experiment to illustrate
negative feedback. In fact it always works whatever you use – a ruler, a walking
stick, a broom, or a billiard cue
Part 2: Positive feedback
Once at the center, try to move your fingers away from each other (Figure c).
When attempting to do so, an unexpected motion occurs. Only one finger moves
toward the end of the stick, while the other stays at the center. This is caused by
a greater friction force exerted on the stationary finger. As one finger moves there
is less friction with the stick on that finger, allowing it to move farther away,
exerting less and less friction on it as it moves. In addition, due to unbalanced
forces, more force is exerted on the stationary finger, making it even more
unlikely to change its position. This is certainly an example of positive feedback.
The difference in friction forces keeps growing, therefore causing only one finger
to keep moving away from the center of the stick.
13
7.3 Lecture notes UNIT I
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Most physical systems incorporate some form of feedback. The technique

has been so widely used that it is impossible to think of electronic circuits without
some form of feedback. The concepts of feedback are currently used in areas other
than engineering, such as in the modeling of biological systems.
Feedback can be either negative (degenerative) or positive (regenerative). In

amplifier design, negative feedback is applied to improve one or more of the
following properties.
Desensitize the gain: Negative feedback make the value of the gain less sensitive
to variations in the value of circuit components, such as changes in temperature.
Reduce non linear distortion: Negative feedback make the output proportional to
the input (that is, makes the gain constant, independent of signal level).
Reduce the effect of noise: Negative feedback minimize the contribution to the
output of unwanted electric signals generated, either by circuit components
themselves or by interference.
Control the input and output impedance: Negative feedback raise or lower the
input and output impedances by the selection of a proper feedback topology.
Extend the bandwidth of the amplifier
All the properties mentioned above are obtained at the expense of

reduction in gain. The gain-reduction factor, called the amount of feedback, is the
factor by which the circuit is desensitized, by which the input impedance of a voltage
amplifier is increased, by which the bandwidth is extended and so on. The basic idea
of negative feedback is to trade off gain for other desirable properties. This unit
deals with the study of negative feedback amplifiers: their analysis and design.
14
1.2 GENERAL FEEDBACK STRUCTURE
Fig.1.1 shows the basic structure of a feedback amplifier.
Fig. 1.1.General Structure of the feedback amplifier

Fig.1.1 is a basic block diagram of feedback amplifier, where each of the quantities
x can represent either a or a current signal. The open-loop amplifier has a gain A.
The output 𝑥0 is related to the input 𝑥𝑖 by
𝑥0 = A 𝑥𝑖 ---(1)
The output x o is fed to the load as well as to a feedback network, which
produces a sample of the output. This sample x f is related to x o by the feedback
factor β ,
𝑥𝑓 = β𝑥0 ---(2)
The feedback signal 𝑥𝑓 is subtracted from the source signal 𝑥𝑠 , which is the
input to the complete feedback amplifier, to produce the signal 𝑥𝑖 , which is the
input to the basic amplifier.
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑠 – 𝑥𝑓 ---(3)
It is this subtraction that makes the feedback negative. Negative feedback

reduces the signal that appears at the input of the basic amplifier.
The gain of the feedback amplifier is obtained by combining equations (1) to

(3).
𝑥0
𝐴𝑓 = 𝑥𝑠
𝑥
0
= 𝑥 +𝑥
𝑖 𝑓
15
𝑥0
𝑥𝑖
= 𝑥𝑓
1+
𝑥𝑖
𝑥0
𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓 𝑥
1 + 𝑥 . 𝑥0
0 𝑖
𝐴 𝑥
𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝐴β [ ∵ β=𝑥𝑓 ] ---(4)
0
The quantity Aβ is called the loop gain. For the feedback to be

negative, the loop gain A β should be positive, that is the feedback signal x f
should have the same sign as xs, thus resulting in a smaller difference signal x i.
Equation (4) indicates that for positive A β the gain with feedback A f will be
smaller than the open-loop gain A by the quantity 1 + A β, which is called the
amount of feedback.
If the loop gain is large, A β >> 1, then from equations (4), A ⋍ 1/β
The gain of the feedback amplifier is entirely determined by the feedback network.
The feedback network usually consists of passive components. Therefore, the
overall gain will have very little dependence on the gain of the basic amplifier, A.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS
The amplifiers are classified into following four categories.
1. Voltage Amplifier
2. Current Amplifier
3. Trans conductance Amplifier
4. Trans resistance Amplifier
This classification is based on the magnitudes of the input and output

impedances of an amplifier with respect to the source and load impedances,
respectively.
16
1.3.1. VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER
Voltage amplifiers amplify an input voltage signal and provide an output

voltage signal. The voltage amplifier is a voltage-controlled voltage source. The
input impedance is required to be high, and the output impedance is required to
be low. Since the signal source is a voltage source, it is represented in terms of a
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.1.2.
Fig. 1.2.Thevenin’s equivalent circuits of a voltage amplifier

If the source resistance 𝑅𝑠 is so small compared with input resistance 𝑅𝑖
(i.e, 𝑅𝑠 ≪ 𝑅𝑖 ), then the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 approximately equal to the source voltage
𝑉𝑠 .
𝑉𝑠 ≈ 𝑉𝑖 When 𝑅𝑠 ≪ 𝑅𝑖 ---(1)
If the external load resistance 𝑅𝐿 is very large compared with the output resistance
𝑅𝑜 of the amplifier (i.e, 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑜 ), then the output voltage is given by
𝑉0 ≈ 𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑖
Therefore, 𝑉0 ≈ 𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑠
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑉 - voltage gain of the amplifier
This amplifier provides a voltage output proportional to the voltage input, and the
proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source and load
resistances. Such a circuit is called a voltage amplifier.
An ideal voltage amplifier must have infinite input resistance 𝑅𝑖 and zero
output resistance 𝑅𝑜 .
That is. 𝑅𝑖 → ∞
and 𝑅𝑜 → 0
17
1.3.2. CURRENT AMPLIFIER
An ideal current amplifier is defined as an amplifier which provides an
output current proportional to the signal current. The input signal in a current
amplifier is a current, and thus the signal source is represented by its Norton
equivalent as shown in Fig.1.3.
A practical current amplifier has low input resistance and high output resistance
If 𝑅𝑖 ≪ 𝑅𝑠 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 , 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠 and
If 𝑅0 ≫ 𝑅𝐿 , 𝐼𝐿 ≈ 𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑖 ≈ 𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑠
Fig. 1.3.Norton’s equivalent circuits of a current amplifier

Such amplifier provides a current output proportional to the signal
current and the proportionality factor is independent of source and load resistance.
This amplifier is called current amplifier.
An ideal current amplifier must have zero input resistance 𝑅𝑖 and infinite
output resistance 𝑅𝑜
That is , 𝑅𝑖 → 0
and 𝑅𝑜 → ∞
1.3.3 TRANDUANCE AMPLIFIER

In transconductance amplifiers the input signal is a voltage and the output
signal is a current. Transconductance amplifier is a combination of Thevenin‟s
equivalent circuit in the input side and Norton‟s equivalent circuit in the output
side as shown in Fig.1.4.
18
Fig. 1.4. A transconductance amplifier
In this amplifier, an output current is proportional to the input signal

voltage and the proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the
source and load resistance.
That is, 𝐼𝑜 ∝ 𝑉𝑖
Or 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖
𝐼
Proportionality constant 𝐺𝑚 = 𝑉o with 𝑅𝐿 = 0
𝑖
𝐺𝑚 is known as short circuit transfer conductance
A practical transconductance amplifier has a large input resistance and

hence it is driven by a low-resistance source. It has a high output resistance and
hence it drives a low-resistance load.
That is, 𝑅i >> 𝑅S
and 𝑅0 >> 𝑅𝐿
An ideal transconductance amplifier must have an infinite input resistance 𝑅𝑖

and infinite output resistance 𝑅𝑜 .
That is , 𝑅𝑖 → ∞
and 𝑅𝑜 → ∞
1.3.4. TRANSRESISTANCE AMPLIFIER

An amplifier which supplies an output voltage Vo in proportion to the
signal current 𝐼𝑠 independently of 𝑅𝑠 and 𝑅𝐿 is called a transresistance amplifier
19
Transresistance amplifier is a combination of Norton‟s equivalent in its input circuit
and a Thevenin‟s equivalent in its output circuit as shown in Fig.1.5.
Fig. 1.5. A Transresistance Amplifier

For a practical transresistance amplifier, 𝑅𝑖 ≪ 𝑅𝑠 and 𝑅0 ≪ 𝑅𝐿 . Hence
the input and output resistance are low relative to the source and load resistance.
If 𝑅𝑖 ≪ 𝑅𝑠 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠
If 𝑅0 ≪ 𝑅𝐿 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉0 ≈ 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖 ≈ 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑆
𝑉0
Where Proportionality constant 𝑅𝑚 = with 𝑅𝐿 = ∞
𝐼𝑖
𝑅𝑚 is the open-circuit transfer resistance
An ideal transresistance amplifier must have zero input resistance 𝑅𝑖 and zero
output resistance 𝑅𝑜 .
That is , 𝑅𝑖 → 0
and 𝑅𝑜 → 0
1.4 BASIC FEEDBACK CONCEPT

In the amplifier circuit, the output voltage or current are sampled by
means of a sampling network and this signal is applied to the input through a
feedback two-port network, as shown in Fig.1.6. At the input the feedback signal is
combined with the external (source)signal through a mixer network and is fed into
the amplifier.
20
Fig. 1.6. Block diagram of an amplifier with feedback
𝑉
A - gain of the basic amplifier =𝑉𝑜
𝑖
𝑉
β - feedback ratio = 𝑉𝑓
𝑜
𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑓 - gain of the feedback amplifier =
𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑆 - ac signal in the input side
𝑉𝑓 - feedback signal
There are two types of feedback: (i) Positive feedback (ii) Negative feedback
Positive feedback: If the feedback signal 𝑉𝑓 is in phase with the input signal
𝑉𝑆 , then the net input to the amplifier is 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑓 . Hence, the input applied to
the basic amplifier is increased thereby increasing the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 .
This type of feedback is said to be positive or regenerative feedback.
Gain of the amplifier with positive feedback is
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓
21
Dividing by Vo both in the numerator and denominator, we get
𝑉𝑜 1
𝐴𝑓 = = 𝑉
−𝑉𝑓𝑜
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑜
1
𝐴𝑓 = 1
𝐴
−𝛽
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =1−𝐴𝛽
Here, | 𝐴𝑓 | > |A|. The product of the open loop gain A and the feedback
factor b is called the loop gain. That is, loop gain = 𝐴𝛽.
If | 𝐴𝛽 | = 1, then 𝐴𝑓 = ∞ Hence, the gain of the amplifier with positive

feedback is infinite and the amplifier gives an ac output without ac input signal.
Thus, the amplifier acts as an oscillator.
The positive feedback increases the instability of an amplifier, reduces the

band-width and increases the distortion and noise. The property of the positive
feedback is used in oscillations.
Negative Feedback:
If the feedback signal 𝑉𝑓 is out of phase with the input signal 𝑉𝑆 , then 𝑉𝑖 =
𝑉𝑆 – 𝑉𝑓 . So the input voltage applied to the basic amplifier is decreased and hence
the output is decreased. Therefore, the voltage gain is reduced. This type of
feedback is known as negative or degenerative feedback. Gain of the
amplifier with negative feedback is
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓
Dividing by Vo both in the numerator and denominator, we get
𝑉𝑜 1
𝐴𝑓 = = 𝑉
+𝑉𝑓𝑜
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑜
22
1
𝐴𝑓 = 1
𝐴
+𝛽
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =1+𝐴𝛽
1
Here, |𝐴𝑓 | < |A|. If | 𝐴𝛽 | >> 1, then 𝐴𝑓 =𝛽, where 𝐴𝛽 is the feedback ratio. Hence,
The gain depend entirely on the feedback network. If the feedback network contains
stable passive element, the gain of the negative feedback amplifier is also stable.
The block diagram of the feedback amplifier shown in Fig.1.6 has three networks in
the feedback connection.
1.Sampling network
2.Feedback network
3. Mixer network
Here, the output voltage or current is sampled by means of a

sampling network and the sampled signal is feedback to the input through a
feedback two port network. At the input of the amplifier, the feedback signal is
mixed with signal from the source in a mixer network and the difference in signal is
the input to the basic amplifier.
Sampling Network
The sampling network is used in sampling the system samples.

That is, output from basic amplifier is connected to the feedback network in shunt or
series with the output. There are two ways of sampling the signal at the output.
They are voltage sampling and current sampling.
(i) Voltage Sampling
Fig.1.7 shows the voltage sampling
Voltage sampling is otherwise called shunt or parallel sampling, since

the part of the output signal is taken in parallel or across the load and output of
the basic amplifier.
23
This sampling is also known as nodal sampling. Voltage sampling tends to decrease
the output impedance of the amplifier.
Fig. 1.7. Voltage or node sampling
(ii)Current Sampling
Fig. 1.8. Current or loop sampling
Fig.1.8 shows the current sampling. Current sampling is also known as

loop sampling or series sampling. Here the sampling network samples the
output current by connecting the feedback network in series with the output.
Current sampling tends to increase the output impedance of the amplifier.
Feedback Network
Feedback network is usually a passive two-port network which may

contain resistors, capacitors and inductors. Most often it is resistive configuration in
amplifier circuits. It provides a reduced portion of the output as feedback signal to
the input mixer network
24
𝑉𝑓 =𝛽𝑉𝑜
where is β a feedback factor or feedback ratio. The value of β always lie
between 0 and 1.
Mixer Network
The mixer network used to the mix the feedback signal from the feedback
network with input signal and then the resultant signal is given to the input of the
amplifier. There are two ways of mixing the signal at the input. They are series
mixing and shunt mixing.
(i) Series mixing
Fig.1.9 shows the series mixing. In series mixing, the feedback signal from feedback
network is mixed with input signal in series i.e., loop formation. Series mixing tends
to increase the input impedance of the amplifier.
Fig. 1.9. Series mixer
(ii) Shunt mixing
Fig. 1.10 shows the shunt mixing. Shunt mixing is also known as parallel
mixing or nodal mixing. In shunt mixing, the feedback signal from the feedback
network is mixed with the input signal in parallel or nodal form. Shunt mixing tends
to decrease the input impedance.
v
Fig. 1.10. Shunt mixer
1.5 PROPERTIES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
1.5.1. GAIN WITH FEEDBACK
Fig.1.11 shows the schematic representation of negative feedback amplifier.
Fig. 1.11. Schematic representation of negative feedback amplifier
The input signal 𝑋𝑠 , the output signal 𝑋0 , the feedback signal 𝑋𝑓 and the
difference signal 𝑋𝑑 , each represents either a voltage or a current.
The output of the comparator or mixer network is the sum of the inputs
𝑋𝑑 = 𝑋𝑠 – 𝑋𝑓 = 𝑋𝑖 ---(1)
Since 𝑋𝑑 represents the difference between the applied signal and that
feedback to the input, 𝑋𝑑 is called the difference, error or comparison signal.
26
The reverse transmission factor or feedback factor factor β is defined by
𝑋𝑓
β= ---(2)
𝑋𝑜
The transfer gain A is defined by

𝑋0
A= ---(3)
𝑋𝑖
The gain with feedback 𝐴𝑓 is defined by
𝑋0 𝑋0
𝐴𝑓 = =
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑖 + 𝑋𝑓
Dividing by 𝑋𝑖 both in numerator and denominator, we get
𝑋0
𝑋𝑖
𝐴𝑓 =
𝑋𝑓
1 +𝑋
𝑖
𝐴 𝐴
𝐴𝑓 = 𝑋𝑓 𝑋 = 1 +𝐴𝛽 ---(4)
1 + . 0
𝑋0 𝑋𝑖
From equation(4) , we can say that the gain without feedback (A) is always larger
than gain with feedback (𝐴𝑓 ) and it decreases with increase in feedback factor 𝛽.
Loop gain: The signal 𝑋𝑑 is multiplied by A in passing through the amplifier, is

multiplied 𝛽 in transmission through the feedback network and is multiplied by –1 in
the mixing network.
A path of a signal from input terminals through the basic amplifier,

through the feedback network and back to the input terminals forms a loop. The
gain of this loop is the product – A𝛽. This gain is known as loop gain or return
ratio.
27
1.5.2. DESENSITIVITY OF GAIN
The transfer gain of the amplifier is not constant as it depends on aging,

temperature, replacement, etc. This lack of stability can be reduced by introducing
negative feedback.
Gain with feedback 𝐴𝑓 is given by
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 = 1 +𝐴𝛽 ---(1)
Differentiating eq(1) both sides with respect to A is
𝑑𝐴𝑓 1 +𝐴𝛽 .1− 𝐴𝛽

=
𝑑𝐴 1 +𝐴𝛽 2
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴𝑓 =
1 +𝐴𝛽 2
Dividing both sides by 𝐴𝑓 , we get,
𝑑𝐴𝑓 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝐴 1 +𝐴𝛽
= . = .
𝐴𝑓 1 +𝐴𝛽 2 𝐴𝑓 1 +𝐴𝛽 2 𝐴
The absolute value of the resulting equation is
𝑑𝐴𝑓 1 𝑑𝐴
= ----(2)
𝐴𝑓 1+𝐴𝛽 𝐴
𝑑𝐴𝑓
−− −fractional change in amplification with feedback
𝐴𝑓
𝑑𝐴
−− −fractional change in amplification without feedback
𝐴
The change in gain with feedback is less than the change in gain without
feedback by factor (1 + A𝛽).
The fractional change in amplification with feedback divided by the

fractional change without feedback is called sensitivity of the transfer gain.
28
The sensitivity is given by
𝑑𝐴𝑓
𝐴𝑓 1
sensitivity = 𝑑𝐴 = 1+𝐴𝛽
𝐴
The reciprocal of the sensitivity is called the desensitivity D.
Desensitivity is given by
D= 1 + A𝛽
Stability of the amplifier increases with increase in desensitivity.

𝐴 𝐴 1
If A𝛽 >> 1, then 𝐴𝑓 = 1 +𝐴𝛽= 𝐴𝛽
=𝛽
and the gain may be made to depend entirely on the feedback network.
1.5.3. BANDWIDTH EXTENSION

Introduction of the negative feedback in the amplifier increases the bandwidth. We
know that, the gain with feedback for an amplifier is given by
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 = 1 +𝐴𝛽
Using this equation, we can write
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑑 = ---(1)
1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = ---(2)
1 +𝛽𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐴ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ
𝐴𝑓ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = ---(3)
1 +𝛽𝐴ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ
Lower Cut-Off Frequency with Feedback (𝐟𝐋𝐟 )
We know that, the relation between gain at lower cut-off frequency and gain at mid
frequency for an amplifier is given as
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑤 1
=
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝐿
1−𝑗
𝑓
29
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑓𝐿 ---(4)
1−𝑗
𝑓
Substituting equation (4) in (2), we get
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝑓𝐿
1−𝑗
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑓
+ 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
1 𝛽 𝑓
1−𝑗 𝐿
𝑓
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
1−𝑗
𝑓𝐿
𝑓
+𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑓𝐿
1+𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 −𝑗
𝑓
Dividing numerator and denominator by (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 ), we have
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
1−𝑗
𝑓(1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑)
𝐴𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑑
1−𝑗
𝑓(1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑)
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑓𝐿𝑓 ---(5)
1−𝑗
𝑓
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 1
= 𝑓𝐿𝑓 ,
𝐴𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑑 1−𝑗
𝑓
Where the lower cut-off frequency with feedback is given as
𝑓𝐿
𝑓𝐿𝑓 = ---(6)
(1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 )
30
From the above equation, we can say that lower cut-off frequency with
feedback is less than the lower cut-off frequency without feedback by factor (1 +
Amid 𝛽).Therefore, by introducing negative feedback, low frequency response of the
amplifier
Upper Cut-Off Frequency with Feedback (𝐟𝐇𝐟 )
We know that, the relation between gain at lower cut-off frequency and gain at mid
frequency for an amplifier is given as
𝐴ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 1
=
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑓
1−𝑗
𝑓𝐻
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 𝑓
---(7)
1−𝑗
𝑓𝐻
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝑓
1−𝑗
𝑓𝐻
𝐴𝑓ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ =
+
𝐴
1 𝛽 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑓
1−𝑗
𝑓𝐻
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
1−𝑗
𝑓
𝑓𝐻
+𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑓ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 𝑓
1+𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 −𝑗
𝑓𝐻
Dividing numerator and denominator by (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 ), we have
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝑓
1−𝑗
𝑓𝐻 (1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑)
31
𝑓
1−𝑗
𝑓𝐻 (1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑)
𝑓
1−𝑗
𝑓𝐻𝑓
𝐴𝑓ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 1
= ,
𝐴𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝒇
1−𝑗
𝒇𝑯𝒇
Where the upper cut-off frequency with feedback is given as
𝑓𝐻𝑓 = 𝑓𝐻 (1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 ) ---(8)
From equation (8) we can say that upper cut-off frequency with feedback
is greater than upper cut-off frequency without feedback by factor (1 + Amid 𝛽).
Therefore by introducing negative feedback, high frequency response of the
amplifier is improved.
The bandwidth of the amplifier without feedback is given as

𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿
The bandwidth of the amplifier with feedback is given as

𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 𝑓𝐻𝑓 − 𝑓𝐿𝑓
𝑓𝐿
𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 𝑓𝐻 (1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 ) −
(1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 )
The bandwidth of the amplifier with feedback can also written as
𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 𝐵𝑊(1 +𝛽𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑑 )
The product of voltage gain and bandwidth of an amplifier is known as Gain-

Bandwidth product (GBW).
32
Fig.1.12 shows the frequency response graph for without feedback and
with feedback.
From Fig.1.12 , it is clear that (𝑓𝐻𝑓 – 𝑓L𝑓 ) > (𝑓𝐻 – 𝑓L ) and hence the
bandwidth of the amplifier with feedback is greater than the bandwidth of the
amplifier without feedback.
As the voltage gain of a feedback amplifier reduces by ( 1 + A𝛽 ), its

bandwidth increases by (1 + A𝛽). This shows that the product of voltage gain and
bandwidth of an amplifier without feedback and with feedback remains the same.
That is,
A𝑓 × BW𝑓 = A × 𝐵𝑊
The product of voltage gain and bandwidth of an amplifier is known as Gain-

Bandwidth product (GBW).
Fig. 1.12. Effect of negative feedback on gain and bandwidth
1.5.4. REDUCTION IN NON-LINEAR DISTORTION
Let us consider the voltage gain changing from 1000 to 100 and then to 0.
This non linear characteristics of an amplifier generates a large amount of non
linear distortion at the output.
33
This characteristics can be considerably linearized (i.e, made less non-
linear) by applying negative feedback to the amplifier. Hence, large changes in open-
loop gain (1000 to 100 in this case) results in much smaller changes in closed-loop
gain.
Let us apply negative feedback with 𝛽 = 0.01 to the amplifier.
If 𝐴1 = 1000, then the closed-loop gain 𝐴𝑓1 is
1000
𝐴𝑓1 = =90.9
1+1000×0.01
If 𝐴2 = 100, then the closed-loop gain 𝐴𝑓2 is
100
𝐴𝑓2 = =50
1+100×0.01
Thus the order of magnitude change with feedback has been considerably
reduced. This has been achieved at the expense of reduction in voltage gain. Thus,
if the overall gain has to be restored, then a preamplifier should be added. This,
preamplifier should not present a severe non-linear distortion problem, since it will
be dealing with smaller signals.
Consider an amplifier with an open-loop voltage gain (A) and a total

harmonic distortion without feedback (D). Then, due to introduction of negative
feedback with the feedback ratio (𝛽), the distortion (D) is reduced by a factor of (1
+ A𝛽) and the distortion with feedback (𝐷𝑓 ) is given by
𝐷
𝐷𝑓 = 1 +A𝛽
Let, D - Distortion of amplifier without feedback
𝐷𝑓 or D′ - Distortion of amplifier with feedback
Assume D′ = xD ---(1)
Therefore, the fraction of output distortion which is fedback to input is
𝛽 D′ = 𝛽 x D ---(2)
34
After the amplification, the distortion becomes 𝛽xDA, it is antiphase with original
distortion voltage D.
Therefore, New Distortion D′ = D – 𝛽x DA ---(3)
Comparing equation (1) and (3) , we get
xD = D – 𝛽 xDA ---(4)
xD + 𝛽 xDA = D
xD(1 + A 𝛽) = D
𝐷
xD = 1 +𝐴𝛽
Therefore, from equation (1), 𝐷𝑓 = xD, the equation (5) becomes
𝐷
𝐷𝑓 = 1 +A𝛽
The distortion produced in the output is reduced by a factor of (1 + A𝛽), but the
input noise (i.e, already exists) is not reduced.
1.5.5. NOISE REDUCTION
Negative feedback reduces the noise or interference in an amplifier, more

precisely, by increasing the ratio of signal to noise, consider the amplifier block
shown in Fig.1.13 (a) with input signal 𝑉𝑆 , noise signal 𝑉𝑛 and gain 𝐴1 .
Assume that the noise is introduced at the input of the amplifier and the signal-
to-noise ratio for this amplifier is given by
𝑆 𝑉𝑆
=
𝑁 𝑉𝑛
35
A
Fig. 1.13. Noise reduction due to negative feedback

In Fig.1.13 (b ), another amplifier stage with gain A 2 , that does not suffer from
the noise problem, is connected before the main amplifier A1 and by applying
negative feedback around the overall cascaded block, the overall gain is maintained
constant. The output voltage of the circuit shown in Fig.1.13 (b) can be obtained by
superposition and it is given by
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴1
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑛
1 + 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝛽 1 + 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝛽
Thus the signal-to-noise ratio at the output becomes
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑆 𝑉𝑆 1 + 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝛽 𝑉𝑆
= = 𝐴2
𝑁 𝑉 𝐴1 𝑉𝑛
𝑛1+𝐴 𝐴 𝛽
1 2
which is 𝐴2 times higher than the original case. Hence, there is an improvement in
signal-to-noise ratio, by connecting a noise free amplifier before the noisy stage,
with the application of negative feedback. Improvement in SNR results in reduction
of noise.
1.5.6. INCREASE IN INPUT RESISTANCE
An amplifier should have high input resistance so that it will not load the
preceding stage or the input source, such a desirable characteristic can be achieved
with the help of negative feedback. Fig.1.14 shows the basic block diagram of
feedback amplifier.
36
Fig. 1.14. Basic block diagram of feedback amplifier
𝑉𝑖
Let, 𝑅𝑖 - input resistance of the amplifier without feedback = 𝐼𝑖
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 - input resistance of the amplifier with feedback = 𝐼𝑖
From Fig.1.14, we know that
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑠 – 𝑉𝑓
or 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 +𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑠 =𝑉𝑖 +𝛽𝐴𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 (1+𝛽𝐴) ∵ 𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝐴𝑉𝑖
Similarly 𝑉𝑖 = I𝑖 R 𝑖
Hence, 𝑉𝑠 =I𝑖 R 𝑖 (1+𝛽𝐴)
𝑉
Therefore, 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑠 =𝑅𝑖 (1+𝛽𝐴)
𝑖
Thus, the input resistance is increased by a factor of (1+𝛽𝐴).
1.5.7 DECREASE IN OUTPUT RESISTANCE
An amplifier with low output resistance is capable of delivering power (or

voltage) to the load without much loss. Such a desirable characteristics is achieved
by applying negative feedback.
The output resistance with feedback is expressed by
𝑅0
𝑅0𝑓 =
1+𝛽𝐴
37
Ex:1 An amplifier has an open-loop gain of 1000 and a feedback ratio of 0.04. If the
open loop gain changes by 20% due to temperature, find the percentage change in
gain of the amplifier with feedback.
SOLUTION:
GIVEN:
dA
A = 1000, β = 0.04 and = 20
A
dAf 1 dA
=
Af 1+Aβ A
dAf 1
= 1×1000×0.04 ×20
Af
dAf
=0.48%
Af
Ex:2. An amplifier has voltage gain with feedback of 100. If the gain without
feedback changes by 20% and the gain with feedback should not vary more than
2% determine the values of open loop gain A and feedback ratio 𝛽.
Solution:
Given :
𝑑𝐴𝑓 𝑑𝐴
𝐴𝑓 = 100, = 2% = 0.02 and = 20%=0.2
𝐴𝑓 𝐴
𝑑𝐴𝑓 1 𝑑𝐴
We know that =
𝐴𝑓 1+𝐴𝛽 𝐴
1
0.02=0.2× 1+𝐴𝛽
0.2
1 + 𝐴𝛽 = = 10
0.02
38
Ex:3 An amplifier has a mid band gain of 125 and a bandwidth of 250 KHz. (a) If
4% negative feedback is introduced, find the new bandwidth and gain. (b) If the
bandwidth is to be restricted to 1 MHz, find the feedback ratio.
Solution:
Given: A = 125, BW = 250 KHz and β = 4% = 0.04
(a) We know that, 𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 𝐵𝑊(1 +𝛽𝐴)
= (1 + 125 ×0.04) 250 × 103 = 1.5 MHz
𝐴 125
Gain with feedback, 𝐴𝑓 = =
1+𝐴β 1+125×0.04
𝐴𝑓 = 20.83
(b) 𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 𝐵𝑊(1 +𝛽𝐴)
1× 106 = (1 + 125 𝛽 ′ ) × 250 × 103
1×106
(1 + 125 𝛽 ′ )= =4
250 × 103
3
𝛽′ = 125
= 0.024 = 2.4%
Ex:4 An amplifier has a voltage gain of 400, 𝑓1 = 50 Hz, 𝑓2 = 200 KHZ and a
distortion of 10% without feedback. Determine the amplifier voltage gain, 𝑓1𝑓 , 𝑓2𝑓
and 𝐷𝑓 when a negative feedback is applied with feedback ratio
Solution:
Given: A=400, 𝑓1 = 50 Hz, 𝑓2 = 200 KHZ ,D = 10%, 𝛽 = 0.01
We know that, voltage gain with feedback
𝐴 400
Gain with feedback, 𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝐴β = 1+400×0.01
𝐴𝑓 = 80
39
New lower 3dB frequency,
f1 50
f1f = = 1+400×0.01 = 10Hz
1+Aβ
f1f = 10Hz
New upper 3dB frequency,
f2f = f2 (1 + Aβ)
= 200 × 103 (1 + 400 × 0.01)

f2f = 1MHz
Distortion with feedback,
D 10
Df = =
1 + Aβ 1 + 125 × 0.04
Df =2%
Ex: 6 A feedback amplifier has an open loop gain of 600 and feedback factor β =
0.01. Find the closed loop gain with negative feedback.
Solution:
Given: β=0.01 and A=600
𝐴
Gain with feedback, 𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝐴β
600
𝐴𝑓 = = 85.71
1 + 600 × 0.01
𝐴𝑓 = 85.71
Ex: 7 An amplifier with negative feedback gives an output of 12.5 V with an input of
1.5 V. When feedback is removed, it requires 0.25 V input for the same output. Find
(i) The value of voltage gain without feedback
(ii) Value of feedback β, if the input and output are in phase and β is used.
40
Solution:
output voltage 12.5

(i)Gain without feedback, A = = 0.25
𝑖nput voltage
A =50
output voltage 12.5

(ii) Gain without feedback, 𝐴𝑓 = = 1.5
𝑖nput voltage
𝐴𝑓 =8.33
We know that,
𝐴
(iii) Gain with feedback, 𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝐴β
50
8.33=1+50β
β=0.1
Ex: 8 The distortion in an amplifier is found to be 3% when the feedback ratio of

negative feedback amplifier is 0.04. When the feedback is removed, the distortion
becomes 15%. Find the open and closed loop gain.
Solution:
Given: β = 0.04
Distortion with feedback = 3%
Distortion without feedback = 15%
𝐷
𝐷𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴β
𝐷 15
1 + 𝐴β = = =5
𝐷𝑓 3
Open loop gain
1 + 𝐴β =5
41
1 + 𝐴 × 0.04 =5
A=100
𝐴
Closed loop gain , 𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝐴β
100
𝐴𝑓 = = 20
1 + 100 × 0.04
𝐴𝑓 = 20
Ex: 9 A negative feedback amplifier has an open loop gain of 60,000 and a closed
loop gain of 30. If the open loop upper cut-off frequency is 15 KHz, estimate the
closed loop upper cut off frequency. Also, calculate the total harmonic distortion with
feedback if there is 10% harmonic distortion without feedback.
Solution:
Given: A=60000, 𝐴𝑓 =30 , 𝑓2 = 15 KHZ ,D = 10%
We know that, voltage gain with feedback
𝐴
Gain with feedback, 𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝐴β
60000
30 =
1 + 60000 × β
β = 0.033
New upper 3dB frequency,
𝑓2𝑓 = 𝑓2 (1 + 𝐴β)
= 15 × 103 (1 + 60000 × 0.033)

𝑓2𝑓 = 29.72𝑀𝐻𝑧
Distortion with feedback,
𝐷 0.1
𝐷𝑓 = =
1 + 𝐴β 1 + 60000 × 0.04
𝐷𝑓 =0.005%
42
Ex:10 If an amplifier has a bandwidth of 300 KHz and a voltage gain of 100, what
will be the new bandwidth and gain if 10% negative feedback is introduced? What
will be the gain-bandwidth product before and after feedback?
Solution:
Bandwidth with feedback, 𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 𝐵𝑊(1 +𝛽𝐴)
= (1 + 100 ×0.1) 300 × 103 = 3.3 MHz
𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 3.3 MHz
Gain-bandwidth product, before feedback =𝐴𝑉 𝐵𝑊
= 100(300 × 103 )
GBW = 30 MHz
Gain-bandwidth product , after feedback GBW = 𝐴𝑉𝑓 𝐵𝑊𝑓
𝐴 100
𝐴𝑓 = = = 9.091
1 + 𝐴β 1 + 100 × 0.1
𝐴𝑓 = 9.091
GBW = 9.091 × 3.3 × 103
Therefore GBW = 30 MHz
1.6 BASIC FEEDBACK TOPOLOGIES

Based on the type of sampling (voltage/current) at the output side and the
type of mixing (series/shunt) to the input side, feedback amplifiers are classified
into four topologies as
1. Voltage-series feedback or series-shunt feedback
2. Current-series feedback or series-series feedback
3. Current-shunt feedback or shunt-series feedback
4. Voltage-shunt feedback or shunt-shunt feedback
43
In all the above four configurations, the first part (say voltage or current)
meant for method of sampling and second part (say series or shunt) is meant for
mixing.
Ex: Voltage - Series feedback

↑ ↑
Method of sampling method of mixing
(It is shunt or nodal sampling) (It is series mixing)
Similarly, in all the four topologies, the first part (series or shunt) meant
for method of mixing and second part(series or shunt) meant for method of
sampling.
Ex: Series - Shunt feedback

↑ ↑
Method of mixing method of sampling
1. Voltage-Series Feedback (Series-Shunt Feedback)
Fig.1.15 shows the voltage amplifier with voltage-series feedback .
A suitable feedback topology for the voltage amplifier is the Voltage-

Mixing Voltage-Sampling topology. Because of the series connection at the input
and the parallel or shunt connection at the output, this feedback topology is also
known as Series-Shunt Feedback.
In this topology, the sampling parameter is voltage and the mixing fashion
is series. Hence, it is also known as Voltage-Series Feedback.
That is, output is directly proportional to input voltage. Hence, the basic amplifier
involved is the voltage amplifier.
𝑉𝑜
In this configuration, A = or 𝑉𝑜 = A 𝑉𝑖 . That is, output is directly proportional to
𝑉𝑖
input voltage. Hence, the basic amplifier involved is the voltage amplifier.
44
Fig. 1.15. Voltage amplifier with voltage-series feedback
2. Current-Series Feedback (Series-Series Feedback)
Fig.1.16 shows the transconductance amplifier with current-series

feedback.
A suitable feedback topology for the transconductance amplifier is

voltage- mixing current- sampling topology. Because of the series connection at
the input and the series connection at the output, this feedback topology is also
known as series-series feedback.
In this topology, the sampling parameter is current and the mixing fashion
is series. Hence, it is also known as current-series feedback.
Fig. 1.16. Transconductance amplifier with current-series feedback
𝐼𝑜
In this configuration, A = or 𝐼𝑜 = A 𝑉𝑖 . That is, the output current is
𝑉𝑖
directly proportional to the input voltage. Hence, the basic amplifier involved is the
transconductance amplifier.
45
3. Current-Shunt Feedback (Shunt-Series Feedback)
Fig.1.17 shows the current amplifier with current-shunt feedback.
Fig. 1.17. Current amplifier with current-shunt feedback
A suitable feedback topology for the the current amplifier is the current-
mixing current-sampling topology. Because of the shunt connection at the input
and the series connection at the output, this feedback topology is also known as
shunt-series feedback.
In this topology, the sampling parameter is current and the mixing fashion
is shunt. Hence, it is also known as current-shunt feedback.
𝐼𝑜
In this configuration, A = or 𝐼𝑜 = A 𝐼𝑖 . That is, the output current is
𝐼𝑖
directly proportional to the input current. Hence, the basic amplifier involved is the
current amplifier.
4. Voltage-Shunt Feedback (Shunt-Shunt Feedback)
Fig.1.18 shows the transresistance amplifier with voltage-shunt feedback.
A suitable feedback topology for the transresistance amplifier is the

current-mixing voltage-sampling topology. Because of the shunt connection at
the input and the shunt connection at the output, this feedback topology is also
known as shunt-shunt feedback.
In this topology, the sampling parameter is voltage and mixing fashion is

shunt. Hence, it is also known as voltage-shunt feedback.
46
𝑉𝑜
In this configuration, A = or 𝑉𝑜 = A 𝐼𝑖 . That is, the output voltage is directly
𝐼𝑖
proportional to the input current. Hence, the basic amplifier involved is the
transresistance amplifier.
Fig. 1.18. Transresistance amplifier with voltage shunt feedback
1.7 EFFECT OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ON INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE
Input Resistance
When the negative feedback signal is fedback to the input in series with
the applied voltage (regardless of whether the feedback is obtained by sampling the
output current or voltage), it increases the input resistance.
Since the feedback voltage 𝑉𝑓 opposes 𝑉𝑠 , the input current 𝐼𝑖 is less than
𝑉𝑠
it would be if 𝑉𝑓 were absent. Hence, the input resistance with feedback 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = is
𝐼𝑖
greater than the input resistance without feedback 𝑅𝑖 .
For this topology,
𝑉
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑠 =𝑅𝑖 (1+𝛽𝐴) = 𝑅𝑖 D
𝑖
When the negative feedback signal is fedback to the input in shunt with
the applied signal (regardless of whether the feedback is obtained by sampling the
output current or voltage) decreases the input resistance, since 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑓 , then the
current 𝐼𝑖 is decreased from what it would be if there were no feedback current.
47
𝑉𝑖 𝐼 𝑖 𝑅𝑖
Hence 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = = is decreased because of this type of feedback. For this
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
topology,
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = =
1+𝐴𝛽 𝐷
Output Resistance
In the feedback amplifiers, voltage sampling (shunt connection across the

load) at the output tends to decrease the output resistance (𝑅𝑜𝑓 < 𝑅𝑜 ). For this
topology,
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 1+𝐴𝛽
In feedback amplifiers, current sampling (connected in series with the

output) at the output tends to increase the output resistance (𝑅𝑜𝑓 > 𝑅𝑜 ). For this
topology,
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 (1+𝛽𝐴)
1.7.1. VOLTAGE-SERIES FEEDBACK (SERIES-SHUNT FEEDBACK)
Input Resistance
The voltage-series feedback topology is shown in Fig.1.19 with the amplifier

replaced by its Thevenin’s model.
Fig. 1.19. Voltage-series feedback circuit to calculate input resistance
48
The input resistance with feedback is given as
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = ---(1)
𝐼𝑖
Applying KVL to the input side, we get
𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓 = 0
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜 ---(2)
The output voltage Vo is given by
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅 . 𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖
𝐿 +𝑅𝑜
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐴𝑣 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 ---(3)
𝑉 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅 . 𝐴𝑣
𝑖 𝐿 +𝑅𝑜
Substituting equation(3) in (2) , we get

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐴V 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴V )
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴V )
𝐼𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴V )
In voltage-series feedback, the input resistance increases by a factor (1 + 𝛽𝐴V ).
𝐴𝑣 represents the open circuit voltage gain without feedback and 𝐴𝑉 represents
voltage gain without feedback taking the load 𝑅𝐿 into account.
Output Resistance
In voltage-series feedback topology shown in Fig 1.20, the resistance with

feedback 𝑅𝑜𝑓 looking into the output terminals is obtained by disconnecting 𝑅𝐿 (that
is, 𝑅𝐿 =∞) and by making the external source signal to zero (that is, set 𝑉𝑠 = 0).
49
To find 𝑅𝑜𝑓 , impress a voltage V across the output terminals and calculate the
𝑉
current I delivered by V. Then, 𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝐼 .
Applying KVL to the output side, we get
𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖 + 𝐼𝑅𝑜 − 𝑉 = 0
𝑉−𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖
∴𝐼= ---(1)
𝑅𝑜
The input voltage is given by
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓 = 0
𝑉𝑖 = −𝑉𝑓 = −𝛽𝑉 ---(2)
Substituting equation (2) in (1) we get
𝑉 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽𝑉 𝑉(1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽)
𝐼= =
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜
𝑉 𝑅𝑜
=
𝐼 (1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽)
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
(1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽)
In voltage-series feedback, the output resistance decreases by a factor (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣 ).
Fig. 1.20. Voltage-series feedback circuit used for calculation for output resistance
50
Note: 𝐴𝑉 is the open loop voltage gain without taking 𝑅𝐿 in account.
′
𝑅o𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝐿
𝑅o𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜
𝑅
′ (1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽) 𝐿 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝑅o𝑓 = = =
𝑅𝑜
+ 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽) 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑣 𝛽
(1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽)
Dividing numerator and denominator by (𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )we get
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
′ 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅o𝑓 =
𝑅 𝐴 𝛽
1 + 𝑅 𝐿 +𝑣𝑅
𝑜 𝐿
′ 𝑅′
Therefore , 𝑅o𝑓 = 1+𝐴0 𝛽
𝑉
𝑅 𝑅
Where 𝑅o′ = 𝑅 𝑜+𝑅𝐿
𝑜 𝐿
𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑣
𝐴𝑉 =
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
1.7.2. CURRENT-SERIES FEEDBACK (SERIES-SERIES FEEDBACK)
Input Resistance
The current-series feedback topology is shown in Fig.1.21 with the

amplifier input circuit is represented by Thevenin’s model and the output circuit by
Norton’s equivalent circuit.
51
Fig. 1.21. Current series feedback circuit used for calculation of input resistance
The input resistance with feedback is given as
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖
Applying KVL to the input side, we get
𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓 = 0
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐼𝑜 ---(1)
The output current 𝐼𝑜 is given by
𝑅𝑜 𝑅 𝐺
𝐼𝑜 = 𝑅 . 𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐺𝑀 𝑉𝑖 ---(2), where 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑅 𝑜+𝑅𝑚
𝐿 +𝑅𝑜 𝐿 𝑜
Substituting equations (2) in (1), we get

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 )
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 )
𝐼𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 )
In current-series feedback, the input resistance increases by a factor of (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 ).
52
Output Resistance
The current-series feedback topology is shown in Fig.1.22 for finding 𝑅𝑜𝑓 , 𝑅𝐿 is

disconnected (i.e., 𝑅𝐿 =∞), the external source signal is made zero(i.e., set 𝑉𝑠 = 0).
Applying KCL to the output node, we get
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝑅 − 𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖 ---(1)
𝑜
The input voltage is given by
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓 = 0
𝑉𝑖 = −𝑉𝑓 = −𝛽𝐼𝑜 ---(2)
=𝛽𝐼
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝑅 − 𝐺𝑚 𝛽𝐼
𝑜
Fig. 1.22. Current-series feedback circuit used for calculation of output resistance
𝑉
𝐼 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽𝐼 = 𝑅
𝑜
𝑉
𝐼(1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) = 𝑅
𝑜
53
𝑉
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
𝐼
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
In current-series feedback, the output resistance increases by a factor (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)

′
𝑅0𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅0𝑓 =
′ 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
𝑅0𝑓 = = =
𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑜 𝐺𝑚 𝛽 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
′ 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
𝑅0𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑜 𝐺𝑚 𝛽 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
′ 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
𝑅0𝑓 =
𝑅 𝐺 𝛽
1 + 𝑅 𝑜 +𝑚𝑅
𝑜 𝐿
′ 𝑅0′ (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
𝑅0𝑓 =
1 + 𝐺𝑀 𝛽
𝑅 𝑅
Where 𝑅0′ = 𝑅 𝑜+𝑅𝐿
𝑜 𝐿
𝑅𝑜 𝐺𝑚
𝐺𝑀 =
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
1.7.3. CURRENT-SHUNT FEEDBACK (SHUNT-SERIES FEEDBACK)
Input Resistance
The current-shunt feedback topology is shown in Fig.1.23, with the amplifier
input and output circuit is replaced by its Norton‟s model.
54
Fig. 1.23. Current-shunt feedback circuit used for calculation of input resistance
Applying KCL to the input node, we get
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑓
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝐼𝑜 ---(1)
The output current 𝐼𝑜 is given as
𝑅𝑜
𝐼𝑜 = 𝑅 . 𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐴𝐼 𝐼𝑖 ---(2)
𝑜 +𝑅𝐿
𝐴 .𝑅
Where, 𝐴𝐼 = 𝑅 𝑖+𝑅𝑜
𝑜 𝐿

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 𝐼𝑖
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼
The input resistance with feedback is given by
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = =𝐼 =
𝐼𝑠 𝑖 1+𝛽𝐴𝐼 1+𝛽𝐴𝐼
𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼
In current-shunt feedback, the input resistance decreases by a factor (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 ).
Note: 𝐴i represents the open circuit current gain without feedback and 𝐴𝐼 is the
current gain without feedback taking the load 𝑅𝐿 into account.
55
Output Resistance
The current-series feedback topology is shown in Fig.1.24 for finding 𝑅𝑜𝑓 , 𝑅𝐿 is

disconnected (i.e., 𝑅𝐿 =∞), the external source signal is made zero(i.e., set 𝑉𝑠 = 0).
Applying KCL to the output node, we get
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝑅 − 𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑖 ---(1)
𝑜
The input current is given by
𝐼𝑖 = −𝐼𝑓 = −𝛽𝐼𝑜 ---(2)
=𝛽𝐼
𝑉
𝐼= − 𝐴𝑖 𝛽𝐼
𝑅𝑜
Fig. 1.24. Current-shunt feedback circuit used for calculation of output resistance
𝑉
𝐼 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽𝐼 =
𝑅𝑜
𝑉
𝐼(1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽) =
𝑅𝑜
56
𝑉
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
𝐼
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
In current-shunt feedback, the output resistance increases by a factor (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
′
𝑅o𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
′ 𝑅 𝑅𝐿
𝑅o𝑓 = 𝑅 𝑜𝑓+𝑅
𝑜𝑓 𝐿
′ 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽) 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽) 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
𝑅o𝑓 = = =
𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽) + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽) + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑜 𝐴𝑖 𝛽 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
′ 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
𝑅o𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑜 𝐴𝑖 𝛽 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
′ 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
𝑅o𝑓 =
𝑅 𝐴𝛽
1 + 𝑅 𝑜+𝑖𝑅
𝑜 𝐿
′ 𝑅o′ (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
𝑅o𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝐼 𝛽
𝑅 𝑅
Where 𝑅o′ = 𝑅 𝑜+𝑅𝐿
𝑜 𝐿
𝑅𝑜 𝐴𝑖
𝐴𝐼 =
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
1.7.4. VOLTAGE-SHUNT FEEDBACK (SHUNT-SHUNT FEEDBACK)
Input Resistance
The voltage shunt feedback topology is shown in Fig.1.25, with the amplifier input
circuit represented by Norton‟s model and the output circuit by Thevenin‟s
equivalent.
57
Fig. 1.25. Voltage-shunt feedback circuit used for calculation of input resistance
Applying KCL to the input node, we get
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑓
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜 ---(1)
The output voltage 𝑉𝑜 is given as
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅 . 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑅𝑀 𝐼𝑖 ---(2)
𝑜 +𝑅𝐿
𝑅 .𝑅
Where,𝑅𝑀 = 𝑅 𝑚+𝑅𝐿
𝑜 𝐿

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀 𝐼𝑖
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀
The input resistance with feedback is given by
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = =𝐼 =
𝐼𝑠 𝑖 1+𝛽𝑅𝑀 1+𝛽𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀
In voltage-shunt feedback, the input resistance decreases by a factor (1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀 ).
Note: 𝑅𝑚 represents the open circuit transresistance gain without feedback and 𝑅𝑀 is
the transresistance gain without feedback taking the load RL into account.
58
Output Resistance
The voltage-shunt feedback topology shown in Fig.1.26., the resistance with

feedback 𝑅𝑜𝑓 looking into the output terminals is obtained by disconnecting 𝑅𝐿 (that
is, 𝑅𝐿 =∞) and by making the external source signal to zero (that is, set 𝑉𝑠 = 0).
𝑉
Then, 𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝐼 .
Fig. 1.26. Voltage-shunt feedback circuit used for calculation of output resistance
Applying KVL to the output side, we get
𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑅𝑜 − 𝑉 = 0
𝑉−𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖
∴𝐼= ---(1)
𝑅𝑜
The input current is given by
𝐼𝑖 = −𝐼𝑓 = −𝛽𝑉 ---(2)
Substituting equation (2) in (1) we get
𝑉 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽𝑉 𝑉(1 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽)
𝐼= =
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜
𝑉 𝑅𝑜
=
𝐼 (1 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽)
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
(1 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽)
59
In voltage-shunt feedback, the output resistance decreases by a factor (1 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽).
′
𝑅o𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅o𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜
𝑅
′ (1 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽) 𝐿 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝑅o𝑓 = = =
𝑅𝑜
+ 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽) 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑚 𝛽
(1 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽)
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
′ 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅o𝑓 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝛽
1 + 𝑅 𝐿 +𝑚𝑅
𝑜 𝐿
′ 𝑅0′
𝑅o𝑓 =
1 + 𝑅𝑀 𝛽
𝑅 𝑅
Where 𝑅0′ = 𝑅 𝑜+𝑅𝐿
𝑜 𝐿
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑀 =
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
60
Ex:11 A Voltage-series negative feedback amplifier has a voltage gain without
feedback of A = 1000, input resistance 𝑅𝑖 = 5 k 𝛺, output resistance 𝑅𝑜 = 25 k 𝛺
and feedback ratio 𝛽 = 0.01. Calculate the voltage gain 𝐴𝑉𝑓 , input resistance 𝑅𝑖𝑓
and output resistance 𝑅𝑜𝑓 of the amplifier with feedback.
Solution:
Given: A = 1000, 𝑅𝑖 = 5 k𝛺, 𝑅𝑜 = 25 k𝛺 and β = 0.01
𝐴 1000
Voltage gain with feedback 𝐴𝑉𝑓 = 1+𝐴𝑣 β =
𝑣 1+1000×0.01
Therefore, 𝐴𝑉𝑓 =90.91

Input resistance with feedback, 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 ( 1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽)
= 5 × 103 (1 + 1000 × 0.01)
Therefore, 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 55 k 𝛺
𝑅
Output resistance with feedback, 𝑅𝑜𝑓 = ( 1+𝐴𝑜
𝑣 𝛽)
25× 103
=
1+1000×0.01
Therefore, 𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 2.27 k 𝛺
61
Summary of Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifier
Parameter Voltage Series

Voltage Series Current Series Current shunt
(Shunt –Series ) (Series - Shunt)
(Series - Shunt) (Series - Series)
𝐴𝑣 𝐺𝑚 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝑚
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = 𝐺𝑀𝑓 = 𝐴𝐼𝑓 = 𝑅𝑀𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝑣 β 1 + 𝐺𝑚 β 1 + 𝐴𝑖 β 1 + 𝑅𝑚 β
Gain with
Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases
feedback
Stability Improves Improves Improves Improves
Frequency Improves Improves Improves Improves
response
Frequency Reduces Reduces Reduces Reduces
distortion
Noise &
Reduces Reduces Reduces Reduces
Non-
linear
distortion
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣 ) = 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀
Input =
Resistance Increases Increases 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 Decreases
Decreases
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
(1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽) = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽) (1 + 𝑅𝑚 𝛽)
Output
Decreases Increases Increases Decreases
Resistance
62
1.8 METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF A FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
The complete analysis of a feedback amplifier is obtained by carrying out the
following steps.
Step 1: Identify Topology (Type of Feedback)
To find the type of sampling network

By shorting the output (𝑉𝑜 = 0) if feedback signal (𝑥𝑓 ) becomes zero,
then it is called “ Voltage Sampling”.
By opening the output loop (𝐼𝑜 = 0) if feedback signal (𝑥𝑓 ) becomes zero,
then it is called “Current Sampling”.
To find the type of mixing network
If the feedback signal is subtracted from the externally applied signal as a

voltage in the input loop, it is called “Series Mixing”.
If the feedback signal is subtracted from the externally applied signal as a

current in the loop, it is called “Shunt Mixing”.
Thus by finding the type of sampling network and mixing network, type of
feedback amplifier can be determined.
Step 2 : To find the input circuit
For voltage sampling, set 𝑉𝑜 = 0 by shorting the output.
For current sampling, set 𝐼𝑜 = 0 by opening the output loop.
Step 3: To find the output circuit
For series mixing, set 𝐼𝑖 = 0 by opening the input loop.
For shunt mixing, set 𝑉𝑖 = 0 by shorting the input.
Step 2 and step 3 ensure that the feedback is reduced to zero without altering the
loading on the basic amplifier.
63
Step 4: Optional. Replace each active device by its h-parameter model at low
frequency.
Step 5: Find A, the open loop gain (gain without feedback) of the amplifier.
Step 6: Indicate 𝑋𝑓 (feedback voltage or current) and 𝑋𝑜 (output voltage or current)

𝑋
on the circuit and evaluate 𝛽= 𝑋𝑓
𝑜
Step 7: From A and 𝛽, find D, 𝐴𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑓 , 𝑅𝑜𝑓 and 𝑅𝑜𝑓

′
.
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER ANALYSIS
Topology
Current Current Voltage
Voltage series
series shunt shunt
Feedback
Signal X f Voltage Voltage Current Current
sampled signal
Voltage Current Current Voltage
Xo
To find input
Vo = 0 Io = 0 Io= 0 Vo = 0
loop, set
To find output
Ii = 0 Ii = 0 Vi = 0 Vi = 0
loop set
Signal source Thevenin Thevenin Norton Norton
 = Xf/Xo Vf / Vo V f / Io Iƒ / Io I ƒ / Vo
A = X o/Xi AV = Vo/Vi G M = Io/Vi AI = Io/Ii RM = Vo/Vi
D = 1 + A 1 + AV 1 + GM 1 + AI 1 + RM
Af AV / D G M /D AI / D RM / D
Ri  RiD RiD Ri / D Ri / D
Ro Ro
Ro R o(1 + G m ) Ro(1 + Ai)
1 + AV 1 +  Rm
R′o R′ (1 +  G ) R′ (1 +  Ai) R′o
R′ = Ro || R L of
o m 
1 + AV 1 +  GM 1 +  AI 1 +  RM
64
1.10 ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE SERIES FEEDBACK (SERIES SHUNT
FEEDBACK)
Three examples of the voltage-series topology are considered in this section.
(i) Bipolar transistor common-emitter amplifier (Emitter Follower)
(ii) FET Common-Drain amplifier (Source Follower)
(iii) Voltage-Series Feedback Pair
1.10.1. EMITTER FOLLOWER
Fig.1.27 shows the transistor Emitter Follower circuit. The feedback signal
is the voltage Vf across R E and the sampled signal is Vo across R E .
Fig. 1.27. BJT Emitter Follower
Identification of Topology
By shorting output voltage (Vo = 0), feedback signal becomes zero, and
hence it is voltage sampling. From Fig. , the feedback signal Vf is subtracted from the
externally applied signal VS and hence it is series mixing. Hence, this topology is
voltage-mixing voltage-sampling (series-shunt) feedback or voltage-series
feedback.
65
To find input and Output circuit
To find the input circuit, set 𝑉𝑜 = 0 and hence VS in series with 𝑅𝑆 appears
between B and E. To find the output circuit, set 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑏 = 0 (i.e., the input loop is
opened) and hence 𝑅𝐸 appears only in the output loop. Following these rules, the
circuit shown in Fig.1.28., is obtained.
Fig. 1.28. Amplifier without feedback
Replace transistor by its low-frequency appropriate h –parameter model, as shown in

Fig.1.29.
Fig. 1.29. Transistor replaced by its approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit
66
Voltage gain without feedback (𝐴𝑉 )
𝑉 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝜋 𝑅𝐸
𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 = ---(1)
𝑆 𝑉𝑆
Applying KVL to the input loop, we get
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝑏 (𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 ) ---(2)
Substituting (2) in (1), we get
𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 𝑅𝐸
𝐴𝑉 = [∵𝑣𝜋 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 ]
𝐼𝑏 (𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 )
𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 𝑅𝐸
= [∵𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 = 𝛽𝑜 ]
(𝑅𝑆+𝑟𝜋 )
𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
𝐴𝑉 =
Indicate 𝑉𝑜 and 𝑉𝑓 and calculate 𝛽
𝑉𝑜
𝛽= =1
𝑉𝑓
Calculation of D, 𝐀 𝐕𝐟 ,𝐑 𝐢𝐟,𝐑 𝐨𝐟and 𝐑 𝐨𝐟 ′
D=1+ 𝛽𝐴𝑉
𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 +𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
=1+(1) =
(𝑅𝑆+𝑟𝜋 ) 𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋
𝐴𝑉
𝐴𝑉𝑓 =
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉
𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = =
𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 + 𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 + 𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋
𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
𝐴𝑉𝑓 =
𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 + 𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
67
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋
𝑹𝒊𝒇 = 𝑅𝑖 D
𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 +𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
=(𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 ) 𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋
𝑹𝒊𝒇 = 𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 + 𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑜 = ∞
The output resistance of the amplifier with feedback ( 𝑹𝒐𝒇 ), without

considering the external load resistance is given by
𝑅𝑜 ∞
𝑹𝒐𝒇 = =
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 ∞
where Ro = ∞ and 𝐴𝑉 = lim 𝐴𝑉 = ∞

𝑅𝐿→∞
The output resistance of the amplifier with feedback by considering the

external load, can be written as
𝑅𝑜 ′ 𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ′= = +𝑟𝜋+𝛽𝑜𝑅𝐸
𝐷 𝑅𝑆
𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋
𝑅𝐸 (𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 )
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ′=
𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 +𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑜 ′ =𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = lim 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ′ =
𝑅𝐿→∞ 𝛽𝑜
Hence, the feedback desensitizes voltage gain with respect to changes in

𝛽𝑜 and it increases the input resistance and decreases the output resistance for
voltage-series feedback (series-shunt feedback) topology.
68
1.10.2 FET SOURCE FOLLOWER
Fig.1.30 shows the FET source follower circuit. The feedback signal is the
voltage Vf across 𝑅S and the sampled signal is the output voltage 𝑉o across 𝑅S .
Fig. 1.30. Source Follower
Topology Identification
By shorting output voltage 𝑉o = 0, feedback signal becomes zero and

hence it is voltage sampling. From Fig.1.30, the feedback signal 𝑉f is subtracted from
the externally applied signal 𝑉S and hence it is series mixing. Hence this topology is
voltage-mixing voltage-sampling (series-shunt) feedback or voltage-series feedback.
To find input and output circuit
69
To find the input circuit, set 𝑉o = 0, hence VS appears between G and S
at the input side. To find the output circuit, set 𝐼𝑖 = 0 (i.e., 𝐼𝐺 = 0, the input loop is
opened) and hence 𝑅S appears only in output loop. Following these rules, the circuit
shown in Fig.1.31 is obtained.
If FET is replaced by its low-frequency model, Fig.1.32 is obtained.
From this figure, 𝑉f and 𝑉o are equal, and
𝑉f
=1
𝑉o
This topology stabilizes the voltage gain
Fig. 1.32. FET replaced by its small-signal low-frequency model
Voltage gain without feedback (𝑨𝑽 )
From Fig.1.32, the voltage gain without feedback is calculated. Since

without feedback 𝑉i = 𝑉S , then
𝑉o 𝑔m 𝑉gs (𝑟d ∥ 𝑅S ) 𝑔m 𝑉gs 𝑟d 𝑅S

𝐴V = = =
𝑉i 𝑉i 𝑉S (𝑟d +𝑅S )
𝜇𝑅S
𝐴V =
(𝑟d +𝑅S )
Where, 𝜇 = 𝑔m 𝑟d and 𝑉gs = 𝑉S
Calculation of D, AVf ,Ri β, Ro β and R′of
The desensitivity D is given by
D=1+ 𝛽𝐴𝑉
70
𝜇𝑅S
D=1+ 𝛽 ( 𝑟
d +𝑅S )
𝑟d +(1+𝜇)𝑅S
= , where 𝛽 = 1
𝑟d +𝑅S
The voltage gain with feedback (𝐴V𝑓 ) is given by
𝜇𝑅S
𝐴V (𝑟d +𝑅S )
𝐴V𝑓 = =
𝐷 𝑟d + (1 + 𝜇)𝑅S
𝑟d +𝑅S
𝜇𝑅S
𝐴V𝑓 = 𝑟 +(1+𝜇)𝑅
d S
The input impedance of FET is infinite.
i.e., 𝑅𝑖 = ∞
Hence, 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 𝐷 = ∞
The output resistance of the amplifier with feedback without considering

the external load resistance (𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑆 ) is given by
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
1+ 𝛽𝐴𝑉
𝑟d
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
1+𝜇
Where 𝑅𝑜 = 𝑟d and 𝛽 = 1
𝐴𝑉 = lim 𝐴𝑉 = 𝜇
𝑅𝐿→∞
The output resistance of the amplifier with feedback by considering the external
load, can be written as
′ 𝑅𝑜 ′ 𝑟d ∥ 𝑅S 𝑟d 𝑅S 𝑟d +𝑅S 𝑟d 𝑅S
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = = = × =
𝐷 𝑟d + (1 + 𝜇)𝑅S 𝑟d +𝑅S 𝑟d + (1 + 𝜇)𝑅S 𝑟d + (1 + 𝜇)𝑅S
𝑟d +𝑅S
71
1.10.3. VOLTAGE-SERIES FEEDBACK PAIR
Fig.1.33 shows two CE stages connected in cascade whose voltage gains are
AV1 and AV2 respectively. In this case, the output of the second stage is returned
through the feedback network R1 – R2 in opposition to the input signal VS. As the
sampled signal is taken directly from the output node and the feedback signal is
applied in series with the signal source, this topology is Voltage-Series (Series-
Shunt) Feedback.
By shorting output voltage, Vo = 0, feedback becomes zero and hence it is
voltage sampling. The feedback signal Vf is subtracted from the externally applied
signal VS and hence it is a series mixing. Hence this topology is voltage-mixing
voltage-sampling (series-shunt) feedback or voltage-series feedback.
Fig. 1.33. Voltage-series feedback pair
To find input and output circuit
To find the input circuit set Vo = 0 and hence R2 appears in parallel with R1
between the emitter of first transistor and ground.
To find the output circuit set Ii = 0 and hence R1 is placed in series with
R2 between the collector of second transistor and ground.
Following these rules results in Fig.1.34, to which the series feedback
voltage Vf across R1 is added in the output circuit.
72
Fig. 1.34. Equivalent circuit without feedback
Fig. 1.35. Two-Stage CE amplifier with voltage-series feedback
𝑉f 𝑅1
From Fig.1.34, the feedback factor is given by β = =𝑅
𝑉o 1 +𝑅2
Fig.1.35 shows a two-stage CE amplifier with voltage-series feedback, by

connecting the second transistor collector to the first transistor emitter through the
voltage divider resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 .
73
Ex: 12 In the BJT emitter follower circuit shown in Fig., the circuit components
values are 𝑅𝑆 = 600 𝛺, RC= 4.7 k 𝛺, RE = 2 k 𝛺, 𝛽𝑜 = 80, 𝑟𝜋 = 5 k 𝛺. Calculate 𝐴𝑉𝑓 ,
𝑅𝑖𝑓 , 𝑅𝑜𝑓 and 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ′ .
Solution:
𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸
𝐴𝑉 =
80×2×103
=
600+5×103
𝐴𝑉 = 28.57
𝑉
D=1+ 𝛽𝐴𝑉 , 𝛽 = 𝑉𝑜 = 1
𝑓
=1+1× 28.57
∴ 𝐷 = 29.57
𝐴𝑉
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = 1+𝛽𝐴𝑉
Fig. 1.36
28.57
= 29.57
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = 0.966
Input resistance without feedback is
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋
=600 × 5 × 103
𝑅𝑖 = 5.6𝐾𝛺
74
Input resistance with feedback is
𝑹𝒊𝒇 = 𝑅𝑖 D
=29.57 × 5.6 × 103

𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 165.59𝐾𝛺
Output resistance,
𝑅𝑜 = ∞
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = =∞
𝐷
𝑅𝑜 ′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ′= , 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑜 ′ =𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐸
𝐷
𝑅
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ′= 𝐷𝐸
2×103
= 29.57 = 67.64𝛺
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ′=67.64𝛺
1.11 ANALYSIS OF CURRENT-SERIES FEEDBACK (SERIES-SERIES

FEEDBACK)
CE Configuration with Unbypassed RE
Fig.1.37 shows the CE configuration with unbypassed 𝑅𝐸 . The feedback

signal is the voltage 𝑉𝑓 across 𝑅𝐸 and the sampled signal is the load current 𝑉𝑓 .
Fig. 1.37. Amplifier with an unbypassed

emitter resistance as an example of current-
series feedback
75
By opening the output loop (output current 𝑉𝑓 = 0), feedback signal

becomes zero and hence it is current sampling. The feedback signal 𝑉𝑓 is subtracted
from the externally applied signal 𝑉S and hence it is a series mixing.
Hence this topology is voltage-mixing current - sampling (series-series)

feedback or current-series feedback.
To Find Input and Output Circuit
To find input circuit set Io = 0, then 𝑅𝐸 appears at the input side. To find
the output circuit set Ii = 0, then 𝑅𝐸 appears in the output circuit. Following these
rules, the circuit shown in Fig.1.38 is obtained.
Fig.1.39. Transistor replaced by its approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit
76
Replace transistor by its low frequency approximate h-parameter model as shown in
Fig.1.39.
Open loop transfer gain without feedback (𝑮𝑴 )
I −𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝜋
𝑮𝑴 = 𝑉o = ---(1)
i 𝑉S
Applying KVL to the input loop, we get
𝑉S = Ib (R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 ) ---(2)
Substituting (2) in (1), we get
−𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝜋
𝑮𝑴 =
Ib (R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 )
−𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 Ib
𝑮𝑴 = I [∵ 𝑣𝜋 = Ib 𝑟𝜋 ]
b S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 )
(R
−𝛽𝑜
𝑮𝑴 =
R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸
The feedback signal Vf appears 𝑅𝐸 in the output circuit, then from Fig
Vf −Io 𝑅𝐸
𝛽= = = −𝑅𝐸
Io Io
Calculation of D,𝐆𝐌𝐟 , 𝐀 𝐕𝐟 ,𝐑 𝐢𝐟 ,𝐑 𝐨𝐟 and 𝐑 𝐨𝐟 ′
D=1+ 𝛽𝐺𝑀
−𝛽 RS +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 +𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸

=1+(−𝑅𝐸 )R +𝑟 𝑜+𝑅 =
S 𝜋 𝐸 RS +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸
RS +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 (1+𝛽𝑜 )

D= RS +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸
𝐺𝑀
𝐺𝑀𝑓 =
1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀
77
−𝛽𝑜
R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 −𝛽𝑜
𝐺𝑀𝑓 = =
R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 (1 + 𝛽𝑜 ) R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 (1 + 𝛽𝑜 )
R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸
−𝛽𝑜
𝐺𝑀𝑓 =
R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 (1 + 𝛽𝑜 )
The load current is given by
−𝛽 𝑉 −𝑉𝑆
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐺𝑀𝑓 𝑉𝑆 = R +𝑟 +𝑜𝑅 𝑆(1+𝛽 ) ≈
S 𝜋 𝐸 𝑜 𝑅𝐸
The voltage gain with feedback (𝐴𝑉𝑓 ) is given by
𝑉 𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐿 −𝛽 𝑅
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 = = 𝐺𝑀𝑓 𝑅𝐿 = R +𝑟 +𝑜𝑅 𝐿(1+𝛽 ).
𝑆 𝑉𝑆 S 𝜋 𝐸 𝑜
From Fig.1.39, the input resistance is given by
𝑅𝑖 = R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸
RS +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 +𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐸

𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 D= R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 RS +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 (1 + 𝛽𝑜 )

𝑅𝑜 = ∞
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 = ∞
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = R L ∥𝑅𝑜𝑓 =R L ∥∞ = R L
78
Ex: 13 For the circuit shown in Fig., identify the topology and determine 𝐺𝑚 , 𝐺𝑚𝑓 ,
𝐴𝑣𝑓 , 𝑅𝑖𝑓 and 𝑅𝑜𝑓
′
.
Solution:
To Determine the Topology
By opening the output loop (Io = 0), feedback signal becomes zero and
hence it is current sampling. The feedback signal Vf is subtracted from the externally
applied signal VS and hence it is a series mixing. Therefore, the given circuit in Fig. is
current-series feedback amplifier.
To find input circuit set Io = 0, then R E appears at the input side. To find
output circuit set Ii = 0, then R E appears in the output circuit. The resulting circuit is
shown in Fig.
79
To Determine 𝐆𝐦
−𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝜋
𝐺𝑚 =
Ib (R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 )
−𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 Ib
𝐺𝑚 = I [∵ 𝑣𝜋 = Ib 𝑟𝜋 ]
+𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸)
b (RS
−𝛽𝑜 −50
𝐺𝑚 = = = −0.016
R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 1𝐾+1.1𝐾+1𝐾
To Determine 𝐆𝐦𝐟
Vf −Io 𝑅𝐸
𝛽= = = −𝑅𝐸 = −1𝐾
Io Io
𝛽 = −1𝐾
D=1+ 𝛽𝐺𝑀 = 1 + (−1𝐾)(−0.016)
D=17
𝐺𝑚 −0.016
𝐺𝑚𝑓 = = 17
𝐷
𝐺𝑚𝑓 = -0.941× 10−3
To Determine 𝐀 𝐕𝐟
𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = = = 𝐺𝑚𝑓 𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
𝐴𝑉𝑓 =-0.941× 10−3 × 3.3 × 103
𝐴𝑉𝑓 =-3.1
To Determine 𝐑 𝐢𝐟
𝑅𝑖 = R S +𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸
=1K+1.1K+1K=3.1K
𝑅𝑖 = 3.1K
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 D
=3.1K(17)
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =52.7K𝛺
80
𝑅𝑜 = ∞
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 = ∞
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = R L ∥𝑅𝑜𝑓 =R C ∥∞ = R C
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =3.3K𝛺
1.12 ANALYSIS OF CURRENT SHUNT FEEDBACK

(SHUNT-SERIES FEEDBACK)
Fig.1.40 shows two transistors in cascade with feedback from the second
emitter to the first base through the resistor R′.
The voltage 𝑉𝑖2 is much larger than𝑉𝑖1 because of the voltage gain of 𝑄1 .
Also 𝑉𝑖2 is 1800 out of phase with 𝑉𝑖1 . Because of emitter-follower action, 𝑉𝐸2 is only
slightly smaller than 𝑉𝑖2 , and these voltages are in phase. Hence 𝑉𝐸2 is larger in
magnitude than𝑉𝑖1 and is 1800 out of phase with𝑉𝑖1 . If the input signal increases so
that 𝐼𝑆 increases, and 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 – 𝐼𝑓 is smaller than it would be if there were no
feedback .
Fig. 1.48.Current-Shunt feedback
81
1.12 ANALYSIS OF CURRENT-SHUNT FEEDBACK
(SERIES-SERIES FEEDBACK)
Fig.1.48 shows two transistors in cascade with feedback from the second emitter
to the first base through the resistor R′.
The voltage Vi2 is much larger than Vi1 because of the voltage gain of Q 1 . Also
Vi2 is 180 out of phase with Vi1. Because of emitter-follower action, VE2 is only
slightly smaller than Vi2, and these voltages are in phase. Hence VE2 is larger in
magnitude than Vi1 and is 180 out of phase with Vi1. If the input signal increases
so that I S increases, and Ii = I S – Iƒ is smaller than it would be if there were no
feedback .
Fig. 1.48.Current-Shunt feedback
By shorting output voltage (Vo = 0), feedback signal does not become zero and
hence it is not voltage sampling. By opening the output loop (Io = 0), feedback
signal becomes zero and hence it is current sampling. The feedback

signal appears in shunt with input (Ii = I S – Iƒ ) and hence it is shunt mixing.
Hence this topology is current-mixing current sampling (shunt-series) feedback
orcurrent-shunt feedback.
82
By shorting output voltage (𝑉𝑜 = 0), feedback signal does not become zero
and hence it is not voltage sampling. By opening the output loop (𝐼𝑜 = 0), feedback
signal becomes zero and hence it is current sampling. The feedback signal appears
in shunt with input (𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 – 𝐼𝑓 ) and hence it is shunt mixing. Hence this topology
is current-mixing current sampling (shunt-series) feedback or current-
shunt feedback.
To find the input circuit, open the output loop at the emitter of 𝑄2 (𝐼𝑜 =
0). This places R′ in series with 𝑅𝐸2 from base to emitter of 𝑄1 .
To find the output circuit, short the input node (the base of 𝑄1 ) i.e making
𝑉𝑖 = 0. This places 𝑅𝐹 in parallel with 𝑅𝐸2 . Following these rules, the circuit shown in
Fig.1.41 is obtained.
83
Open circuit transfer gain (𝐀 𝐈 )
−𝐼𝐶2 −𝐼𝐶2 𝐼𝑏2 𝐼𝐶1 𝐼𝑏1

𝐴𝐼 = = . . .
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑏2 𝐼𝐶1 𝐼𝑏1 𝐼𝑆
We know that,
−𝐼𝐶2
= 𝐴𝑖2 = −𝛽0
𝐼𝑏2
−𝐼C1
= 𝐴𝑖1 = −𝛽0
𝐼𝑏1
𝐼𝑏2 𝑅𝐶1
=
𝐼𝐶1 𝑅𝐶1 + 𝑅𝑖2
Where 𝑅𝑖2 = 𝑟𝜋 + (1 + 𝛽𝑜 ) (𝑅𝐸 ∥𝑅𝐹 )
𝐼𝑏1 𝑅
=
𝐼𝑆 𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋
Where R=𝑅𝑆 ∥(𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐸2 )
Calculation of 𝛃
𝐼 𝑅
𝐼𝑓 = − 𝑅 𝐸 +𝑅
𝐸2
, 𝐼𝐸 =𝐼𝐶2 , 𝐼𝑜 = −𝐼𝐶2
𝐸2 𝐹
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐸2
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑅𝐸2 + 𝑅𝐹
𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝐸2
𝛽= =
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐸2 + 𝑅𝐹
Calculation of D,𝐀 𝐢𝐟 , 𝐀 𝐕𝐟 ,𝐑 𝐢𝐟 ,𝐑 𝐨𝐟 and 𝐑 𝐨𝐟 ′
D=1+𝐴𝐼 𝛽
𝐴𝐼
𝐴𝑖𝑓 =
𝐷
𝐴𝑖𝑓 . 𝑅𝐶2
𝐴𝑉𝑓 =
𝑅𝑆
84
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅 ∥ 𝑟𝜋
𝑅
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝐷𝑖
𝑅𝑜 = ∞
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 . 𝐷 = ∞
𝑅𝑜′ = 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝐶2
From calculation for AI , AI is independent of the load 𝑅L = 𝑅𝐶2 . Hence
Ai = lim AI = AI . Since 𝑅𝑜′ = 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝐶2 ,

𝑅𝐶2→0
1+𝛽A
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ’ = 𝑅𝑜′ 1+𝛽Ai = 𝑅𝑜′ = 𝑅𝐶2
I
Ex:14 For the circuit shown in Fig, identify the topology and determine Ai , Ai𝑓 ,
AV𝑓 , 𝑅𝑖𝑓 and 𝑅𝑜𝑓 .
By shorting output voltage (𝑉𝑜 = 0), feedback signal does not become zero
and hence it is not voltage sampling. By opening the output loop (𝐼𝑜 = 0), feedback
signal becomes zero and hence it is current sampling. The feedback signal appears
in shunt with input (𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 – 𝐼𝑓 ) and hence it is shunt mixing. Hence this topology
is current-mixing current sampling (shunt-series) feedback or current-
shunt feedback.
85
To find the input circuit, open the output loop at the emitter of 𝑄2 (𝐼𝑜 =
0). This places R′ in series with 𝑅𝐸2 from base to emitter of 𝑄1 .
To find the output circuit, short the input node (the base of 𝑄1 ) i.e making
𝑉𝑖 = 0. This places 𝑅𝐹 in parallel with 𝑅𝐸2 . Following these rules, the circuit shown in
Fig., is obtained.
Open circuit transfer gain (𝐀 𝐈 )
−𝐼𝐶2 −𝐼𝐶2 𝐼𝑏2 𝐼𝐶1 𝐼𝑏1

𝐴𝐼 = = . . .
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑏2 𝐼𝐶1 𝐼𝑏1 𝐼𝑆
We know that,
−𝐼𝐶2
= 𝐴𝑖2 = −𝛽0 = −50
𝐼𝑏2
𝐼C1
− = 𝐴𝑖1 = −𝛽0 = −50
𝐼𝑏1
𝐼C1
(𝑖. 𝑒) = 50
𝐼𝑏1
86
𝐼𝑏2 𝑅𝐶1
=
𝐼𝐶1 𝑅𝐶1 + 𝑅𝑖2
Where 𝑅𝑖2 = 𝑟𝜋 + (1 + 𝛽𝑜 ) (𝑅𝐸 ∥𝑅𝐹 )
100×1𝐾
=1.5K(1+50) 100+1𝐾
=5.27K𝛺
𝐼𝑏2 −3.3 × 103

=
𝐼𝐶1 3.3 × 103 + 5.27 × 103
=-0.367
𝐼𝑏1 𝑅
=
Where R=𝑅𝑆 ∥(𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐸2 )
1100×1𝐾
=1K ∥ (1K+100)= = 523.81
1100+1𝐾
𝐼𝑏1 523.81
= = 0.32
𝐼𝑆 523.81 + 1.1𝐾
Hence AI = −(50)(−0.367)(50)(0.32)
AI =293.6
Calculation of 𝛃
𝐼 𝑅
𝐼𝑓 = − 𝑅 𝐸 +𝑅
𝐸2
, 𝐼𝐸 =𝐼𝐶2 , 𝐼𝑜 = −𝐼𝐶2
𝐸2 𝐹
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐸2
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑅𝐸2 + 𝑅𝐹
𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝐸2
𝛽= =
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐸2 + 𝑅𝐹
100
= 100+1𝐾 = 0.09
87
Calculation of D,𝐀 𝐢𝐟 , 𝐀 𝐕𝐟 ,𝐑 𝐢𝐟 ,𝐑 𝐨𝐟 and 𝐑 𝐨𝐟 ′
D=1+𝐴𝐼 𝛽
=1+(0.09× 293.6) = 27.4
𝐴𝐼 293.6
𝐴𝑖𝑓 = =
𝐷 27.4
𝐴𝑖𝑓 = 10.72
To Determine 𝑨𝑽𝒇
𝐴𝑖𝑓 . 𝑅𝐶2
𝐴𝑉𝑓 =
𝑅𝑆
10.72 × 500
=
1 × 103
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = 5.36
To Determine 𝑹𝒊𝒇
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅 ∥ 𝑟𝜋 = 523.8 ∥ 1.1K
523.8 × 1.1 × 103

=
523.8 + 1.1 × 103
𝑅𝑖 = 354.8𝛺
𝑅 354.8
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝐷𝑖 = 27.4
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 12.95𝛺
To Determine 𝑹𝐨𝒇’
𝑅𝑜 = ∞
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 . 𝐷 = ∞
𝑅𝑜′ = 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝐶2 = 500𝛺
From calculation for AI , AI is independent of the load 𝑅L = 𝑅𝐶2 . Hence
Ai = lim AI = AI . Since 𝑅𝑜′ = 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝐶2 ,

𝑅𝐶2→0
1+𝛽A
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ’ = 𝑅𝑜′ 1+𝛽Ai = 𝑅𝑜′ = 𝑅𝐶2 = 500𝛺
I
88
1.13 ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE –SHUNT FEEDBACK(SHUNT-SHUNT
FEEDBACK)
Fig.1.42 shows a common-emitter stage with a resistor R′ connected
from the output to the input.
Fig. 1.42. Voltage-shunt feedback
The output voltage 𝑉𝑜 is much greater than the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 and is 1800 out of
phase with 𝑉𝑖 from the Fig.1.42 . Hence, the feedback current 𝐼𝑓 is given by
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜 −𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑓 = = = 𝛽𝑉𝑜
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
−1
Where 𝛽 = 𝑅
𝐹
By shorting output voltage (𝑉𝑜 = 0), feedback reduces to zero and hence
it is a voltage sampling. As 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 – 𝐼𝑓 , the mixing is shunt mixing. Hence the
topology is current-mixing voltage-sampling (Shunt-Shunt) feedback or
voltage-Shunt feedback .
89
To find input circuit, set 𝑉𝑜 = 0, this places 𝑅𝐹 between base and ground.
To find output circuit, set 𝑉𝑖 = 0, this places 𝑅𝐹 between collector and ground.
Following these rules, the circuit shown in Fig.1.43 is obtained
𝐼𝑓 = =
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝐼𝑓 −1
=𝛽=
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝐹
The transresistance gain with feedback (𝑅𝑚𝑓 ) is given by
𝑉𝑜 𝑅 1
𝑅𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚
= 1+𝛽𝑅 ≈𝛽 [∵ 𝛽𝑅𝑚 ≫ 1]
𝐼𝑆 𝑚
Therefore, 𝑅𝑚𝑓 = −𝑅𝐹
In the case of voltage-shunt feedback, both the input and output resistance are low.
If we assume that 𝑅𝑖𝑓
′
= 0, then the voltage gain with feedback is
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 1
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = = ≈
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝑆 𝛽𝑅𝑆
𝐼𝑓 = = = 𝛽𝑉𝑜
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = 𝑅𝑆
Open Loop Transresistance (𝑅𝑚 )
𝑉𝑜
𝑅𝑚 = 𝐼𝑆
′ ′
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐶 −𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
= =
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆
Where, 𝑅𝐶′ = 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐹
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
− 𝐼𝐶 = − 𝐼𝐶 . 𝐼𝑏
𝑆 𝑏 𝑆
𝐼
− 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐴𝑖 = −𝛽𝑜
𝑏
𝐼𝑏 𝑅
= 𝑅+𝑟 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑆 ∥ 𝑅𝐹
𝐼𝑆 𝜋
′
−𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 −𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐶′ 𝑅
Therefore, 𝑅𝑚 = =
𝐼𝑆 𝑅+𝑟𝜋
Calculation of D, 𝑹𝒎𝒇 , 𝑨𝑽𝒇 , 𝑹𝒊𝒇 , 𝑹𝒐𝒇 and 𝑹′𝒐𝒇
The desensitivity is given by
−𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐶′ 𝑅
𝐷 = 1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚 = 1 +
𝑅𝐹 (𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋 )
𝑅𝐹 𝑅+𝑟𝜋 +𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐶′ 𝑅

D= 𝑅𝐹 (𝑅+𝑟𝜋 )
The transresistance with feedback is given by
𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑚𝑓 = 𝐷
−𝛽𝑜 𝑅′𝐶𝑅
𝑅+𝑟𝜋
= 𝑅𝐹 𝑅+𝑟𝜋 +𝛽𝑜 𝑅′𝐶 𝑅
𝑅𝐹 (𝑅+𝑟𝜋 )
91
𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑚𝑓 =
𝐷
′
−𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝐹
𝑅𝑚𝑓 = 𝑅 ′
𝐹 𝑅+𝑟𝜋 +𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐶 𝑅
The voltage gain with feedback can be written as
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝑆
𝑅𝑚𝑓
𝐴𝑉𝑓 =
𝑅𝑆
From Fig.
𝑅 × 𝑟𝜋
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅 ∥ 𝑟𝜋 =
𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋
For voltage-shunt feedback amplifier, the input resistance with feedback decreases
due to shunt mixing at the input and it is given by
𝑅𝑖 𝑅 ∥ 𝑟𝜋
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = =
𝐷 𝐷
If 𝑅𝐶 is considered an external load, the output resistance, neglecting feedback is 𝑅𝑜

= 𝑅𝐹 . Then
𝑅𝑜 −𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐹 𝑅
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = , 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑚 = lim 𝑅𝑀 =
1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝐿→∞ 𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋
𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐹 𝑅
Therefore, 1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚 = 1 + 𝑅
𝐹 (𝑅+𝑟𝜋 )
𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋 + 𝛽𝑜 𝑅 𝑟𝜋 + (1 + 𝛽𝑜 )𝑅
= =
𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋 𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋
From Fig.
𝑅𝑜′ = 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐹 ∥ 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶′
92
The output resistance with feedback, by considering the load resistance, can be
written as
′ 𝑅𝑜′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝐷
𝑅𝑜′
=
1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝐶′ 𝑅𝐹 (𝑅 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 )
=
𝑅𝐹 𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋 + 𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐶′ 𝑅
Alternatively, it can be written as

′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ∥ 𝑅𝐶′
Ex: 15 For the amplifier circuit given in Fig. with 𝛽𝑜 = 50, 𝑟𝜋 = 1.1 k𝛺
(i) Identify the type of negative feedback present
(ii) Obtain the basic amplifier circuit
(iii) Calculate the voltage gain, input resistance and output resistance of the given
amplifier.
Solution :
(i) To Determine the Topology
The feedback current 𝐼𝑓 is
𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑓 = , But 𝑉𝑜 > 𝛽𝑉𝑖
𝑅′
−𝑉
𝐼𝑓 ⋍ 𝑅 𝑜
𝐹
By shorting output voltage (𝑉𝑜 = 0), feedback reduces to zero and hence it
is a voltage sampling. As 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 = – 𝐼𝑓 , the mixing is shunt type and topology is
voltage-shunt feedback amplifier.
93
To determine input and output of amplifier circuit
To find input circuit, set 𝑉𝑜 = 0 , hence, 𝑅 ′ is between base and ground.

To find output circuit, set 𝑉𝑖 = 0, then 𝑅 ′ is between collector and ground.
𝐼𝑓 = =
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝐼𝑓 −1
𝑉𝑜
=𝛽=𝑅
𝐹
Open Loop Transresistance (𝑅𝑚 )
𝑉𝑜
𝑅𝑚 = 𝐼𝑆
′ ′
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝐶 −𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
= =
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆
Where, 𝑅𝐶′ = 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐹 = 4𝐾 ∥ 40𝐾 = 3.636𝐾
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
And − 𝐼𝐶 = − 𝐼𝐶 . 𝐼𝑏
𝑆 𝑏 𝑆
𝐼
− 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐴𝑖 = −𝛽𝑜 = −50
𝑏
94
𝐼𝑏 𝑅
= ,
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑆 ∥ 𝑅𝐹 = 10𝐾 ∥ 40𝐾 = 8𝐾
𝐼𝑏 8𝐾
= = 0.879
𝐼𝑆 8𝐾 + 1.1𝐾
′
−𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 −𝛽𝑜 𝑅𝐶′ 𝑅
Therefore, 𝑅𝑚 = = = −50 × 0.879 × 3.636𝐾
𝐼𝑆 𝑅+𝑟𝜋
𝑅𝑚 = −159.8K
−1 −1
𝛽= = = −2.5 × 10−5
𝑅𝐹 40𝐾
To determine voltage gain with feedback 𝑨𝑽𝒇

𝐷 = 1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑚
= 1 + (−2.5 × 10−5 )(−159.8K )

𝐷 = 4.995
𝑅𝑚 −159.8K
𝑅𝑚𝑓 = =
𝐷 4.995
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝑆
−32 × 103
𝐴𝑉𝑓 =
10 × 103
𝐴𝑉𝑓 = −3.2
To determine input resistance
𝑅 × 𝑟𝜋
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅 ∥ 𝑟𝜋 =
𝑅 + 𝑟𝜋
8 × 103 × 1.1 × 103

=
8 × 103 + 1.1 × 103
𝑅𝑖 = 0.967𝐾𝛺
95
𝑅𝑖 0.967 × 103
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = =
𝐷 4.995
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 193.59𝛺
To determine output resistance

𝑅𝑜 = ∞
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = =∞
𝐷
𝑅𝑜′ = 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝐶 = ∞ ∥ 3.63𝐾
= 3.63𝐾𝛺
′ 3.63 × 103
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
4.995
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 728𝛺
96
1.14 STABILITY PROBLEM
It is the manner in which the loop gain varies with frequency that determines the
stability or instability of the feedback amplifier.
The instability in an amplifier with positive feedback is illustrated. Let us assume

that, no signal is applied, but because of some transient disturbance, a signal 𝑋𝑜
appears at the output terminals. A portion of this signal – 𝛽 𝑋𝑜 , will be fed
back to the input circuit, and will appear in the output as an increased signal – A𝛽 𝑋𝑜 . If
this equals 𝑋𝑜 , then the output has regenerated itself. In other words, if –A𝛽 , 𝑋𝑜 = 𝑋𝑜
(that is , if –A𝛽 = 1 ), the amplifier will oscillate. If an attempt is made to
obtain large gain by making | A𝛽 | almost equal to unity, then there is a possibility that
the amplifier may break out into immediate oscillation.
This would occur if there is any disturbance in the circuit, such as the closure of the
power. Supply switch, aging of transistors, etc., will generate a signal at the input to
the amplifier. Such a noise signal usually contains a wide range of frequencies. The
transient response of the noise signal may make the stable feedback amplifier unstable
and suddenly starts oscillating.
1.14.1. CONDITION FOR STABILITY
If an amplifier is designed to have negative feedback in a particular frequency range

breaks out into oscillation at some high or low frequency. Therefore, it is useless as an
amplifier. Hence, the feedback amplifier should be designed properly in such a way
that the circuit is stable at all frequencies, and not merely over the frequency range of
interest.
The system is stable if a transient disturbance results in a response which dies out.
A system is unstable if a transient disturbance exists indefinitely or increases until it is
limited by some non linearity in the circuit.
The stability involves a study of the poles of the transfer function since these
determine the transient behavior of the network. The condition that must be satisfied
for a system to be stable is that, the poles of the transfer function must all lie in the
left hand half of the complex-frequency plane.
97
1.14.2. THE NYQUIST PLOT
The Nyquist Plot is an approach for testing the stability. It is a polar plot of loop gain with
frequency used as a parameter. Fig. 1.44 shows the Nyquist Plot of an unstable amplifier.
Fig. 1.44. Nyquist plot of an unstable amplifier
The solid-line plot is for positive frequencies. Since the loop gain has a magnitude that
is an even function of frequency and a phase that is an odd function frequency, the A𝛽 plot
for negative frequencies (shown in broken line) can be drawn as a mirror image through
the 𝑅𝑒 axis.
Fig. 1.45. Stability condition using Nyquist Criterion
98
The Nyquist Plot intersects the negative real axis at the frequency 𝜔180. Thus, if
this intersection occurs to the left of the point (–1,0), the magnitude of loop gain at
this frequency is greater than unity and the amplifier will be unstable. If the
intersection occurs to the right of the point (–1,0) the amplifier will be stable.
The Nyquist Criterion states that the amplifier is unstable if the curve encloses
the point –1 + j 0 and the amplifier is stable if the curve does not enclose this point.
The condition for positive or negative feedback is also represented in the complex
plane. From the Fig.1.46, |1 + A𝛽 | = 1 represents a circle of unit radius, with its
center at the point –1 +j 0.
Fig. 1.46. The locus of |1 + A𝛽 | = 1 is a circle of unit radius, with its center at – 1 +
j0
For any frequency, A𝛽 extends outside this circle, the feedback is negative, since
|1 + A𝛽 | > 1. If A𝛽 lies within this circle, then |1 + A𝛽 | < 1, and the feedback is
positive. In the latter case the system will not oscillate unless Nyquist’s criterion is
satisfied.
Gain and Phase Margin
It is evident that from Nyquist criterion, that a feedback amplifier is stable if the
loop gain, A𝛽 , is less than unity when its phase angle is 1800 . Also from the Bode
plots, some margins of stability can be determined to indicate how close to instability
the system is Fig. 1.47 shows the Bode plot relating gain and phase margins.
99
Gain Margin: The gain margin is defined as the value of |A𝛽| in dB at the frequency at
which the phase angle of A𝛽1800 . If the gain margin is negative, then the amplifier is
stable because the rise in open-loop gain will not introduce oscillations. If the gain margin
is positive, then the amplifier is unstable.
Phase Margin: The phase margin is defined as the angle of 1800 minus the magnitude
of the angle of A𝛽 at when | A𝛽 | is unity (0 dB). The magnitude of these quantities give an
indication of how stable an amplifier is.
Fig. 1.47. Bode plots relating gain and phase margins
1.15 Frequency Compensation
The methods for modifying the open loop transfer function A(s) of an amplifier having
three or more poles so that the closed-loop amplifier is stable for any desired value of
closed-loop gain is discussed in this section.
100
The simplest method of frequency compensation consists of introducing a new
pole in the function A(s) at a sufficiently low frequency, 𝑓𝐷 , such that the modified
open-loop gain, A′(s), intersects the 20 log (1/ |𝛽|) curve with a slope difference of
20dB/decade .
Let it be required to compensate the amplifier whose A(s) is shown in Fig.1.48

such that closed-loop amplifiers with 𝛽 as high as 10– 2(i.e, closed-loop gain
approximately 40 dB) will be stable.
Fig. 1.48. Frequency compensation for β= 10– 2
101
First, draw a horizontal straight line at the 40-dB level to represent 20 log
(1/ 𝛽) as shown in Fig.1.48 . Then locate point Y on this line at the frequency of the first
pole, f p1. From Y draw a line with – 20 dB/decade slope and determine the point at
which this line intersects the dc gain line, point Y′. This gives the frequency f D of the
new pole that has to be introduced in the open-loop transfer function.
The compensated open-loop response A′(s) is indicated in Fig.1.48 . It has

four –20dB/decade at f D. At f p1 the slope changes to – 40 dB/decade, at f p2 it changes to
– 60 dB/decade and so on. Since the 20 log (1/ 𝛽 ) line intersects the 20 log |A′|
curve at point Y on the – 20 dB/decade segment, the closed-loop amplifier with this 𝛽
value will be stable.
The disadvantage of this compensation method is that most frequencies the

open- loop gain has been drastically reduced. This means that at most frequencies the
amount of feedback available will be small. Hence, the performance of the compensated
amplifier has been worse.
From Fig.1.48 the gain A′(s) is low because of the pole at f p1 . If this pole is
eliminated, then rather than locating point Y 1 drawing YY′, and so on- it can be started
from point Z (at the frequency of second pole) and draw the line ZZ′. This results in the
open-loop curve A′′(s), which shows higher gain than A′(s).
Although it is not possible to eliminate the pole at f p1, it is possible to shift
that pole from f = f p1 to f = f ′D . This makes the pole dominant and eliminates the
need for introducing an additional lower-frequency pole.
102
LINKS TO VIDEOS
UNIT I
NPTEL Videos
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/108/117108107/
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/106/117106088/
You Tube Videos

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hU8zx0RGJGQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=99Et8OJgHSU
103
E-book References
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory- Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nasheresky
Electronic Devices and Circuits- . David A. Bell
Pulse Digital and Switching Waveforms- Millman J. and Taub H
Integrated Electronics-Millman and Halkias. C
Microelectronic Circuits - Sedra Smith 7th edithon
104
7.4. PART-A Q & A
S.No Questions K- CO
Level
1 Identify the type of feedback in the circuit. K1 CO1
Ans-By shorting output voltage (Vo = 0), feedback reduces

to zero and hence it is a voltage sampling. As Ii = IS – Iƒ,
the mixing is shunt mixing. Hence, the topology is Voltage-
Shunt (Shunt-Shunt) feedback.
2 Name four types of basic feedback topologies. (May 06) K1 CO1
Ans- (i) Voltage series feedback or series-shunt feedback

(ii) Current-series feedback or series-series feedback
(iii) Current-shunt feedback or shunt-series feedback
(iv) Voltage-shunt feedback or shunt-shunt feedback
3 List the characteristics of negative feedback amplifiers. K1 CO1
Ans- (i) Desensitize the gain
(ii) Reduce non linear distortion
(iii) Reduce the effect of noise
(iv) Extend the bandwidth of the amplifier
(v) Control the input and output impedance
105
Level
4 A voltage series feedback amplifier has a voltage gain with K1 CO1
feedback as 83.33 and feedback ratio as 0.01. Calculate the

voltage gain of the amplifier without feedback.
Ans- Given: AVf = 83.33, β= 0.01
AVf = AV/ (1 + AV β)
83.33 = AV/(1 + AV (0.01))
83.33 + 0.8333 AV = AV
Therefore, AV = 499.88 ⋍ 500

5 Addition of negative feedback to an amplifier reduces its K1 CO1
voltage gain from 300 to 60. Determine the feedback factor
Ans- AVf = AV/ (1 + Avβ)
60 = 300/ (1 + (300) β)
Therefore, β = 0.013
6 What is the impact of negative feedback on noise in K1 CO1
circuits?
Ans- Noise decreases when negative feedback is
introduced.
Nf = N / (1 + Aβ)
7 Justify that negative feedback amplifier increases K1 CO1
bandwidth.
Ans- When negative feedback is introduced, the lower cut-
off frequency decreases and the upper cut-off frequency
increases. Hence, bandwidth increases in the negative
feedback amplifier.
106
Level
8 State the Nyquist criterion to maintain the stability of K1 CO2

negative feedback amplifier.
Ans- The Nyquist criterion states that the amplifier is
unstable if the curve encloses the point –1 + jo and the
amplifier is stable if the curve does not enclose this point
9 What are the effects of negative feedback on gain, stability K1 CO2
and distortion?
Ans- Gain – decreases , Stability – increases, Distortion -
decreases
10 Mention the three networks that are connected around the K1 CO2
basic amplifier to implement feedback concept.
Ans- 1. Sampling network
2. Feedback network
3. Mixer network
11 What is the effect on input and output impedance of an K1 CO2
amplifier if it employs voltage series negative feedback?
Ans-
Input impedance (Rif) = Ri(1 + Aβ) - increases
Output impedance (Rof) = Ro / (1 + Aβ) - decreases
12 What is negative feedback? K1 CO2
Ans- If the feedback signal Vf is out of phase with the input
signal VS, then Vi = VS – Vf So the input voltage applied to
the basic amplifier is decreased and hence the output is
decreased. Therefore, the voltage gain is reduced. This
type of feedback is known as negative or degenerative
feedback.
13 What is positive feedback? K1 CO2
Ans- If the feedback signal Vf is in phase with input signal
VS, then the net input to the amplifier, Vi = VS + Vf . Hence,
the input applied to the basic amplifier is increased thereby
increasing the output voltage Vo. This type of feedback is
said to be positive or regenerative feedback.
107
Level
14 What is ‘return ratio’ of a feedback amplifier? K1 CO2
Ans- A path of a signal from input terminals through the

basic amplifier, through the feedback network and back to
the input terminals forms a loop. The gain of this loop is
the product ¡VAƒÒ. This gain is known as loop gain or
return ratio.
15 Draw the schematic circuit of transresistance amplifier. K1 CO2

Specify conditions for Ri and Ro.
Ans-
108
7.5 PART B QUESTION BANK
S. No. Question K CO
Level
1 Discuss the effect of negative feedback on properties of K2 CO1
amplifiers in detail with relevant analytical expressions (Apr-

May 2019)
2 Discuss in detail about the impact of feedback on the amplifier K2 CO1
with single and two poles (Apr-May 2019)

3 Consider a 3-pole amplifier with a loop gain function by K3 CO1
T(f) = 105 / {(1 + j (f / 5 x 105)) . (1 + j (f / 100)) .

(1 + j (f / 5 x 105)}
(Apr-May 2019)
4 (i)Sketch the block diagram of feedback amplifier and derive K3 CO1
the expressions for gain with positive feedback and with

negative feedback
(ii) An amplifier has a voltage gain with feedback as 100. If
the gain without feedback changes by 20% and the gain with
feedback should not vary more than 2% , determine the
values of open loop gain A and Feedback factor β, (Apr-May
2017)
5 (i) Draw the circuits of voltage shunt and current series K2 CO1
feedback amplifiers and derive the expressions for input

resistance Rif
(ii) Write about the Nyquist criterion for stability of feedback
amplifiers (Apr-May 2017)
6 What is the effect of a current series negative feedback K2 CO1
amplifier on input and output resistance of a BJT amplifier?.

Explain the same with necessary circuit, equivalent circuit and
equations. (Apr-May 2017)
109
Level
7 Draw the block diagram of current series feedback amplifier K2 CO1
and derive an expression for input resistance, voltage gain and

output resistance (Nov-Dec 2016)
8 Identify the feedback topology for the network shown below, K3 CO1
which has Rs = 600 Ω, hie=5kΩ, hfe=80, RL = 2 KΩ and RB=

40 KΩ . Calculate Av, Rif, Avf, Rof and R’of. (Nov-Dec 2016)
9 Draw the circuit diagram of a single stage Common Emitter K3 CO1
amplifier that uses emitter current feedback. Analyse the

circuit and derive equations for gain, input and output
impedance with feedback (Apr-May 2016)
10 With a neat diagram, derive the expressions of Rif, Rof, Av, K2 CO1
and Avf for the following:

(i) Voltage series feedback amplifier
(ii) Current shunt feedback amplifier (May-June 2016)
11 (i) Discuss Nyquist criterion for stability of feedback K3 CO1
amplifiers, with the help of Nyquist and Bode plot

(ii) An amplifier has a voltage gain of 4000. Its input
impedance is 2KΩ, output impedance is 60KΩ. Calculate
voltage gain, input and output impedance of the circuit is 5%
of feedback is fed in the form of negative feedback.
110
Level
12 (i) Draw the block diagram of a voltage series amplifier and K3 CO1
derive Avf, Rif and Rof. Draw a 2 stage amplifier with

voltage series feedback.
(ii) Derive bandwidth with feedback Bwf. (May-June 2015)
13 Describe the effect of negative feedback on bandwidth and K2 CO1
harmonic distortion of an amplifier. (May-June 2015)

14 A negative feedback amplifier has an open loop gain of 60,000 K3 CO1
and a closed loop gain of 300. If the open loop upper cut-off
frequency is 15Khz, estimate the closed loop upper cut-off
frequency. Also, calculate the total harmonic distortion with
feedback if there is 10% harmonic distortion without
feedback. (Nov-Dec 2014)
111
7.6 Supportive Online Certification courses (NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)
 Coursera - Analog Vs Digital Circuits
 Udemy - Electronics Analog
 NPTEL - Analog Circuits & Systems
159
112
7.7 Real time Applications in day to day life and to industry
UNIT I
 Can be applied in homeostatic systems.
 Thermoregulation (if body temperature changes, mechanisms are induced to
restore normal levels).
 Blood sugar regulation (insulin lowers blood glucose when levels are high ;
glucagon raises blood glucose when levels are low).
Industry Applications
 A current series feedback amplifier can be used as local negative feedback to
increase input resistance, linearize the transfer curve, and stabilize bias.
 They are used in the regulated power supplies.
 Used in noise reduction and compressing circuits.
160
113
7 . 8 Contents beyond Syllabus ( COE related value
added courses)
COE related value added courses:

1. Embedded COE
2. Robotics Process Automation (RPA) COE
3. Automotive Electronics COE
Content beyond syllabus:
UNIT I –FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY

Two-port analysis of negative feedback circuits
Tw o - p o r t (TP) analysis is widely used in the study of

negative-feedback circuits. This type of analysis requires
identification of the four topologies the circuit belongs to
(series-shunt, shunt-series, series-series, or shunt-
s h u n t ) , a n d t h e n s u i t a b l y m o d i f y t h e b a s i c a m p l i f i e r, t o
account for loading by the feedback network
Fig Block diagram of 2 -Port Analysis
Next is the circuit that is used to find the value of modified value of gain during
the mid frequency range. The next circuit diagram illustrates the above
mentioned concept
161
114
Fig Circuit to find modified gain in the mid frequency range
Since analysis of any circuit is achieved through 2-port analysis, the simple and lucid
method of negative feedback is successfully achieved. The analysis generally
considers only 2 ports, namely the input and output ports. By either short circuiting
or open circuiting any one pair of terminals, the variables at the other end can be
determined very quickly.
After determining one set of values, the same set can be used for future values by
altering the port through which we are going to give input. All the obtained vales are
generally substituted for finding the new set of values. After obtaining all the values,
all values are put into a matrix. Finally, the matrix can be simplified and the desired
result can be obtained.
115
8.Assessment Schedule
Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date
Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1
Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1
Retest for IA 1
Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2
Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2
Retest for IA 2
Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1
Revision Test 2
Model Exam
Remodel Exam
University Exam
163
116
9.Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
TEXT BOOK:
1. Sedra and Smith, “Micro Electronic Circuits”; Sixth Edition, Oxford University
Press,
2011. (UNIT I, III,IV,V)
2. Jacob Millman, ‘Microelectronics’, McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition, Reprinted, 2009.
(UNIT I,II,IV,V)
REFERENCES:
1. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nasheresky, ―Electronic Devices and Circuit

Theory‖, 10th Edition, Pearson Education / PHI, 2008
2. David A. Bell, ―Electronic Devices and Circuits‖, Fifth Edition, Oxford University
Press, 2008.
3. Millman J. and Taub H., ―Pulse Digital and Switching Waveforms‖, TMH, 2000.
4. Millman and Halkias. C., Integrated Electronics, TMH, 2007.
164
117
10. Mini Project Suggestions
Building a Guitar Amplifier through negative feedback
How Does the Guitar amplifier work?
A guitar amplifier is an audio electronic device that can be used to amplify the
signal of a pickup attached to a guitar. By altering the tone frequencies of the
instrument through an amp, the musician can control its distortion, tone, and
volume.
The input signal input for the amplifier comes initially through a ¼” audio jack
that produces a mono audio jack (meaning it doesn't differentiate between the left
and right speakers audio input). The input to the audio jack comes from an
electromagnetic pickup, which is made of hundreds of coils, each of which consists
of resistors and inductors connected in series with one another. These resistors
and inductors are, in turn, connected to a capacitor in parallel.
The guitar pickup works on the basis of Lenz’s law, which states that the direction
of induced current is always opposed to the change in magnetic flux produced by
the circuit. When the guitar strings of an electric guitar get magnetized by the coil,
the movement of the strings produces a source voltage (Vs) which supplies an
electric signal (V) to the audio jack according to Lenz’s law.
Any guitar amplifier consists of three main circuits, which we will discuss below:
• Volume
• Distortion
• Tone
164
118
Guitar Amplifier Schematic:
The Tone Circuit

The first stage of the amp is the tone circuit, which uses a dual JFET-input op-amp
IC, the TL072. As you'll see in the schematic, we have a sliding capacitor. This forms
a potentiometer on the feedback loop of the op-amp.
To increase the base tone of the guitar, you can slide the capacitor to the very left
position of the potentiometer. This amplifies the lower frequencies in the pickup
signal.
Conversely, to increase the treble, you can slide the capacitor to the very right
position of the potentiometer. This is accomplished by short-circuiting the resistor
placed on the feedback loop, removing the capacitor completely. This results in the
amplification of the higher frequencies in the pickup signal.
119
The Distortion Circuit
Distortion is an effect a musician can use to add a "fuzzy" tone to their guitar's
sound, typically by increasing their gain.
In our project here, we'll create a clipping circuit by using two diodes. First, it's
important to note that there are actually two types of clipping: hard and soft. Soft
clipping, sometimes called overdrive, occurs when the gain and the input signal level
are inversely proportional to each other. Hard clipping, on the other hand, denotes
restricting the signal level within a given range. This is also known as distortion.
In the clipping process, we'll produce new frequencies that weren't part of the
original audio signal. Such frequencies can be harmonics or inharmonics where the
former denotes whole number multiples of the original signal's frequencies and the
latter denotes more complex scenario where newer subharmonics are produced via
intermodulation.
120
The Volume Stage
All we have left to do here is to amplify the distortion of the circuit output. We'll use
the audio amp ICs TDA2030/TDA2050/LM386 for this final portion of the project,
which connects to the speaker.
You'll notice in the schematic below that we're including an LED so we can indicate
when the amp is on or off.
Here's the schematic at hand:
121
Thank you
Disclaimer:
This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose of RMK Group of
Educational Institutions. If you have received this document through email in error, please notify the
system manager. This document contains proprietary information and is intended only to the
respective group / learning community as intended. If you are not the addressee you should not
disseminate, distribute or copy through e-mail. Please notify the sender immediately by e-mail if you
have received this document by mistake and delete this document from your system. If you are not
the intended recipient you are notified that disclosing, copying, distributing or taking any action in
reliance on the contents of this information is strictly prohibited.
122

Ec8452 Ec-Ii Unit-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ec8452 Ec-Ii Unit-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ec8452 Ec-Ii Unit-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

UNIT-I FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND

7 UNIT I FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY 11

7.1 Lecture Plan 12

7.2 Activity based learning 13

7.3 Lecture Notes 14

 General Feedback Structure 15

 Basic Feedback Concept 20

 Properties of Negative Feedback 26

 Effect of Negative Feedback on Input and Output

 Frequency Compensation 100

7.4 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO) 105

7.6 Supportive online Certification Courses 112

7.8 Contents beyond the Syllabus 114

8 Assessment Schedule 116

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 117

10 Mini Project Suggestions 118

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY

WAVE SHAPING AND MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS

POWER AMPLIFIERS AND DC CONVERTERS

To give a comprehensive exposure to all types of amplifiers and oscillators

To study about feedback amplifiers and oscillators principles

To study about turned amplifier.

To understand the analysis and design of LC and RC oscillators, amplifiers,

EC8251 Electronic Devices

EC8452 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS II LTPC 3003

UNIT I FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND STABILITY

Feedback Concepts – gain with feedback – effect of feedback on gain stability,

UNIT III TUNED AMPLIFIERS

UNIT IV WAVE SHAPING AND MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS

Pulse circuits – attenuators – RC integrator and differentiator circuits – diode

UNIT V POWER AMPLIFIER AND DC CONVERTORS

Power amplifiers- class A-Class B-Class AB-Class C-Power MOSFET-Temperature

Upon completion of the course, the student should be able to:

CO1: Analyze different types of amplifier with negative feedback

CO2: Design & Analysis of transistorized RC oscillators & LC oscillators

CO3: Analyze transistorized tuned amplifiers

CO4: Analysis of wave shaping circuits

CO5: Design & Analysis of multivibrators

CO6: Analysis of power amplifiers

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES(PO) PSO*

*Program Specific Outcome

Feedback concepts- Online

Balance a smooth stick on your outstretched forefingers as shown in (Figure a) to

Most physical systems incorporate some form of feedback. The technique

Feedback can be either negative (degenerative) or positive (regenerative). In

Extend the bandwidth of the amplifier

All the properties mentioned above are obtained at the expense of

Fig. 1.1.General Structure of the feedback amplifier

It is this subtraction that makes the feedback negative. Negative feedback

The gain of the feedback amplifier is obtained by combining equations (1) to

The quantity Aβ is called the loop gain. For the feedback to be

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS

The amplifiers are classified into following four categories.

3. Trans conductance Amplifier

4. Trans resistance Amplifier

This classification is based on the magnitudes of the input and output

Voltage amplifiers amplify an input voltage signal and provide an output

Fig. 1.2.Thevenin’s equivalent circuits of a voltage amplifier