Design of Solar Water Splitter

JIMMA UNIVERSITY
JIMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FINAL YEAR PROJECT
DESIGN OF SOLAR THERMOCHEMICAL WATER SPLITTER
Adviser: Mr. Dawit Kebede (MSc.)
Date: 07/06/2016
JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING i

Peer members
Name IDNo.
1. Gashaw Minaye 01844/04
2. Gadisa Muluneh 01834/04
3. Fuad Ebrahim 01824/04
4. Gadisa Muleta 01833/04
JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ii

Date: 10/6/2016
To: School of Mechanical Engineering
Jimma Institute of Technology
Jimma University
Declaration
We hereby declare that the research paper titled Design of solar thermochemical water splitter is
submitted by us is based on actual and original work carried out by us. Any reference to work done
by any other person or institute or any material obtained from other sources have been duly cited
and referenced. We further certify that the research paper has not been published or submitted for
publication anywhere else nor it will be send for publication in the future.
Advisor: Mr. Dawit Kebede (MSc) Examiner:
JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING iii

Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ vii
Nomenclature ................................................................................................................................. ix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 13
1.1 Background of the Study ........................................................................................................ 13
1.2 Motivation ............................................................................................................................... 14
1.3 Statement of Problem .............................................................................................................. 15
1.4 Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 16
1.5 Project Scope .......................................................................................................................... 16
1.6 Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 16
1.7 Significance of the Project ...................................................................................................... 17
1.8 Current Strategy Hydrogen Energy in Ethiopia ...................................................................... 18
1.9 Benefits of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitter .................................................................. 19
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 21
2.1 Hydrogen Production Technologies ....................................................................................... 21
2.2 Hydrogen Production from Fossil Fuels ................................................................................. 21
2.3 Hydrogen Production Using Renewable Energy Resources ................................................... 22
2.4 Review of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitting Technology ............................................. 28
2.5 Uses of Hydrogen ................................................................................................................... 32
2.6 Solar Concentrating Reflectors ............................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER THREE: COMPONENT DESIGN OF SOLAR THERMOCHEMICAL WATER
SPLITTER .................................................................................................................................... 42
3.1 Input Data................................................................................................................................ 42
3.2 Conceptual Design .................................................................................................................. 45
3.3 Design of beam down solar concentrator................................................................................ 47
3.4 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) or Secondary Concentrator ................................. 55
3.5 Design of Solar Reactor / Receiver ......................................................................................... 57
3.6 Thermodynamics of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitting ................................................. 58
3.7 Design of Heat Recovery Heat Exchanger ............................................................................. 64
3.8 Pipe Design ............................................................................................................................. 74
3.9 Insulation Design .................................................................................................................... 79
3.10 Selection of Storage Tanks ................................................................................................... 81
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................... 85
4.1 Summary of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitter Results ................................................... 85
CHAPTER FIVE: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS .............................................................................. 90
5.1 Economic Analyses of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitter ............................................... 90
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ............................................................................ 94
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 94
Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 95
References ..................................................................................................................................... 96
Appendix A: Detail drawing ......................................................................................................... 99
Appendix B: Property Tables...................................................................................................... 107
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List of Figures
Figure 2. 1: Hydrogen Production via Solar Energy ................................................................... 23

Figure 2. 2: Solar Electrolytic Method Hydrogen Production ..................................................... 24
Figure 2. 3: Principle of Photo-Electrolytic Hydrogen Production ............................................. 24
Figure 2. 4: Principle of Photo-Biological Hydrogen Production ............................................... 25
Figure 2. 5: General Schematic of the Two-Step Thermochemical Cycle for Water Splitting ... 30
Figure 2. 6: Internal Combustion Engine ..................................................................................... 32
Figure 2. 7: A Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell ................................................ 34
Figure 2. 8: Balloon Filled With Hydrogen ................................................................................. 36
Figure 2. 9: Parabolic Trough ...................................................................................................... 37
Figure 2. 10: Linear Fresnel Reflector ......................................................................................... 38
Figure 2. 11: Parabolic Dish Reflector (PDR) ............................................................................. 38
Figure 2. 12: Solar Tower Reflector ............................................................................................ 39
Figure 2. 13: Optical Configuration for the Beam down Central Receiver ................................. 40
Figure 3. 1: Pie Chart for Sunshine Hour .................................................................................... 44
Figure 3.2: Solar Intensity Data for Jimma (Source NASA) ....................................................... 45
Figure 3.3: Two Step Thermochemical Water Splitting Cycle ................................................... 46
Figure 3.4: Schematic of the Solar Tower Reflector or “Beam Down” System ......................... 48
Figure 3.5: Optical Configuration for the Beam down Central Receiver .................................... 50
Figure 3.6: Dimensions of Reflecting Mirror .............................................................................. 51
Figure 3.7: Geometrical definition of inclination angle n of single heliostat .............................. 53
Figure 3.8: Radial Staggered Field Layout, Where ∆Z Is Representing the Azimuthal Spacing
and ∆R Represents the Radial Spacing ......................................................................................... 54
Figure 3.9: Schematic of 2-D And 3 -D Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)................... 55
Figure 3.10: Mathematical Model of Compound Parabolic Concentrator .................................. 56
Figure 3.11: Zno/Zn 2-Step Thermochemical Cycle for the Solar Hydrogen Production from
Water ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 3.12: Energy Requirements for Zno(S) →Zn + 0.5 O2 .................................................... 61
Figure 3.14: Cross Section of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger................................................... 73
Figure 3.15: Square Tube Layout Pattern .................................................................................... 74
Figure 3.16: Pipe and Its Insulation ............................................................................................. 81
Figure 4. 2: plot of heat transfer analysis using ANSYS ............................................................. 88
Figure 4.2: temperature contour of shell and tube heat exchanger .............................................. 89
JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING vi

List of Tables
Table 1: comparison of various methods of hydrogen production technology............................ 27
Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Hydrogen Production Methods ................. 28
Table 3: Metal-Oxide Cycles ....................................................................................................... 30
Table 4: Comparison of Solar Concentrating Technologies ........................................................ 40
Table 5: Mean Monthly Sunshine Hour ....................................................................................... 43
Table 6: Monthly Mean Wind Speed (m/s) ................................................................................. 44
Table 7: Characteristics of a Typical CPC System ...................................................................... 56
Table 8: Constants Used to Calculate Tube Bundle Diameter..................................................... 73
Table 9: Thermal Properties of Insulating Materials ................................................................... 80
Table 10: Possible Storage Forms of Hydrogen .......................................................................... 83
Table 11: Hydrogen Gas Tank Materials ..................................................................................... 84
Table 12: Summary of Relevant System Design and Analysis Parameters for Beam down
Reflector ........................................................................................................................................ 85
Table 13: Summary of Energy Requirements and Thermodynamic Analysis of Solar
Thermochemical Water Splitting .................................................................................................. 86
Table 14: Geometric Dimensions and Parameters of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger ............... 87
Table 15: Bill of Material and Cost Analysis .............................................................................. 91
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all we would like to express our deepest gratitude to our beloved adviser Mr. Dawit
Kebede (Msc.) for his advice, support, encouragement and insight throughout this project. His
important comments and inspiration helped us to reach at this point. Finally we have a great thank
and respect for all our instructors who gave us the theoretical base during the course that we have
learned and the staff members of the department who have contributed to this work directly or
indirectly.
JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

viii
Nomenclature
Aaperture area of reactor aperture
I normal beam insolation
C solar flux concentration ratio
Irrreactor irreversibility associated with the solar reactor
Irrhydrolyzer irreversibility associated with the hydrolyzer
𝑛̇ molar flow rate of reactant
𝑄̇ aperture incoming solar power intercepted by the reactor aperture
𝑄̇ reactor,net net power absorbed by the solar reactor
𝑄̇ solar total solar power coming from the concentrator
𝑄̇ hydrolyzer heat liberated in the hydrolyzer
T nominal solar cavity-receiver temperature
Tstagnation maximum temperature of a blackbody absorber
Toptimum optimal temperature of the solar cavity receiver for maximum 𝜂exergy,idea
∆G Gibbs free energy change per mole of reactant
∆H enthalpy change per mole of reactant
∆S entropy change per mole of reactant
𝜌 Reflectivity
𝛈absorption solar energy absorption efficiency
𝛈Carnot efficiency of a Carnot heat engine operating between TH and TL
𝛈exergy exergy efficiency
𝛈exergy,ideal exergy efficiency of an ideal system
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STH “solar-to-hydrogen” conversion efficiency
𝜑rim rim angle of a parabolic concentrator
𝜎 Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67×10-8Wm-2K-4)
cp Specific heat capacity
THT Geometric tower height
RFI inner field radius
RFO outer field radius
∆R radial distance between rows of heliostat
∆Z azimuthal distance between consecutive heliostats
𝜃z solar Zenith Angle
𝜶s elevation, or solar altitude angle, 𝛼 s, is defined by the angle between

the horizontal and a line to the sun
Γ Latitude of location
Δ declination angle is in between -23.45° and 23.45°
T hour angle of the sun is in between -180° and 180° before solar noon
and after solar noon respectively
n the inclination angle of a single heliostat
𝜃 half-acceptance angle for CPC
L Heat exchanger length
do Tube outer diameter of heat exchanger
Ds Shell inner diameter
Do Shell outside diameter
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Nt Number of tubes
Nb Number of baffles
Sp Tube Pitch, is the shortest center to center distance between the

adjacent tubes
U over all heat transfer coefficient
LMTD logarithmic mean temperature difference
Mf The mass fraction is the ratio of the mass of a component to the mass
of the mixture
𝐶𝑝,𝑚 Specific heat of a gas mixture
∆𝑇𝑚 True mean temperature
𝑅𝑒 Reynolds number
σ hoop hoop stress (circumferential stress)
σL Longitudinal stress
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This paper gives a comprehensive review of the development of solar water splitting for generating
hydrogen fuel, particularly under thermochemical method. Solar thermochemical processes use
concentrated solar radiation as the main or sole source of high-temperature process heat. A solar
thermochemical water splitting plant consists of a beam down central receiver system comprising
a heliostat field focusing direct solar radiation on a receiver which is mounted on a ground. The
receiver includes a chemical reactor, hydrolyser and a heat exchanging device. It provides an
efficient route for storing intermittent solar energy in the form of chemical fuels such as hydrogen.
We analyzed that the most viable two step thermochemical water splitting cycle was Zn/ZnO cycle.
This two-step cycle encompasses: (1) The endothermic dissociation of ZnO to Zn and O2 using
concentrated solar energy as the source for high-temperature process heat; and (2) the non-
solar exothermic oxidation of Zn with H2O to generate H2; the resulting ZnO is then recycled to
the first step. Second-law (exergy) analyses were performed to establish theoretical maximum
solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiencies. From this analysis, maximum overall exergy
efficiencies of 27% and absorption efficiency of 53% were obtained for solar concentrations of
22000 suns.
The plant was designed to generate 520 cubic meter of hydrogen gas per day at 6 hour effective
sunshine hour and operated at rated input power of 450kw. Plant cost estimation was also
performed to estimate the projected costs of hydrogen to determine the viability of the Zn/Zno
thermochemical water splitter plant. Based on the literatures reported here, the development of
solar thermochemical water splitter has favorable long term prospects because it avoid or reduce
costs for CO2 mitigation and pollution abatement of fossil fuels. The products are renewable fuels
and no material consumptions for delivering this clean and sustainable energy of the future.
JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING xii

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study

As we know two of the most abundant resources on the surface of the earth are sunlight and water.
Yet we do not typically think of these resources as the solution to any upcoming energy crisis or
as the fuel that will bring clean air to our cities. We just cannot see ourselves driving into the local
gasoline station and filling our cars up with water or sunlight. Perhaps it is for this reason that these
resources do not capture our imagination as the mix of ingredients that could help us deal with two
of the most pressing problems that we will meet head on in the 21st century, namely: the impending
shortage of crude oil and environmental pollution [1].
Hydrogen is the ideal fuel for the future because it is clean, energy efficient, and abundant in
nature. While various technologies can be used to generate hydrogen, only some of them can be
considered environmentally friendly. Recently, solar hydrogen generated via thermochemical
water splitting has attracted tremendous attention and has been extensively studied because of its
great potential for low-cost and clean hydrogen production.
Hydrogen is an ideal energy storage medium or carrier because of the following reasons;
 First, it is the most abundant element and it exists in both water and biomass;
 Second, it has a high energy yield (122 kJ/g) compared to other fuels such as gasoline (40
kJ/g);
 Third, it is environmentally friendly because its end use will not produce pollutants,
greenhouse gases, nor any harmful effect on the environment.
 Last, but not least, hydrogen can be stored in gaseous, liquid or metal hydride form and
can be distributed over large distances through pipelines or via tankers.
JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 13

1.2 Motivation
Running out of energy resources such as petroleum and coal have led the world community to find
feasible alternatives. Energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kind of work by
human beings and nature. Everything in the world is the expression of flow of energy in one of its
forms. Since the industrial revolution, energy has been essential in the development of economic
and social fortune throughout the world. Coupled with the tendency towards growth in world
population and general standards of living, it is conceivable that the demand for energy will only
increase. The International Energy Agency (IEA) predicts that by the year 2030 there will be a
50% increase in the world’s energy consumption in comparison to current trends.
The development of energy technologies has allowed world civilizations to flourish to an
unprecedented extent. The consumption of world fossil fuels, however, has come at a price.
Greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere have risen, and noticeable climate changes have been
documented. In the past one hundred years global temperatures have been driven up by over 0.7°C
and sea levels have risen more than 20 cm. There is little doubt that emissions due to non-clean
energy sources have contributed to such effects. Furthermore, finite fossil fuels are being
consumed at a much quicker pace than they are produced. The current challenge, as well as the
challenge that lies ahead, is renovating our energy sources and how we utilize them. One must
consider renewable energy technologies in order to meet these challenges.
As the world population continues to grow at present trend the conventional sources of energy are
depleting and may be exhausted by the beginning of the next century. Therefore, solar energy and
other non-conventional energy sources are the best choice; those which are to be utilized in the
future.

1.3 Statement of Problem
Ethiopia imports fuel on average at the expense of 768 million USD (15.36 billion) per annum
and this takes up 77% of the total export earnings. The demand for fuel will increase as the
economic growth of the nation increases. It is inevitable that the energy demand will grow in a
much higher rate due to the following reasons.
 Population growth,
 Economic growth,
 Living standard growth,
 Technological growth.
The cumulative effect of the above four causes and others is going to entail a dramatically high
demand of energy. Energy is a prerequisite to economic stability and its supply at an affordable
cost for the both the developed and developing world cannot be guaranteed.
In a context of environmental crisis and depletion of conventional energy resources, the current
energy model based on fossil fuels is obsolete and needs to be redefined and redesigned. We get
hydrogen economy can be represent a good alternative. To get it, developing carbon-free
renewable hydrogen production processes will be crucial.
Most urgently, continued increased use of fossil fuels to satisfy the extra energy demand brings
unacceptable environmental consequences with the increased concentrations of CO2 in the
atmosphere that this produces. Filling the energy gap without disruptions of the supply while
reducing energy poverty in developing countries and without a dangerous continued increase in
atmospheric CO2 destabilizing the climate represents the most serious challenge to the continued
existence of man on planet Earth. The objective here is to lead the renewable energy market with
an innovative technology that does not consume fuel resources or produce greenhouse gas
emissions.

1.4 Objectives
1.4.1 General Objective
The general objective of this project is to design solar thermochemical water splitting to generate
hydrogen fuel.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives

 Design and analysis of beam down solar concentrator for solar reactor.
 Thermodynamic analysis of solar thermochemical water splitter.
 Design of waste heat recovery heat exchanger.
 Design and selection of pipe and pipelines for both makeup water and hydrogen gas.
 Selection and design of hydrogen storage tank and water tank.
 Economic analysis of solar thermochemical water splitter to generate hydrogen fuel.
1.5 Project Scope

The project scope covers:
 Comparison and selection of different solar collectors based on thermal performance.
 Design, analysis and of solar beam down concentrator.
 Design and simulation of waste heat recovery heat exchanger.
 Selection and design of hydrogen gas piping and storage and other accessories.
 Economic analysis of solar thermochemical water splitter.
Our project scope does not cover:
 Liquefaction of hydrogen gas
 Fabrication of solar thermochemical water splitter
1.6 Methodology
The methods employed to achieve the objectives of the research work are the following.
a) Literature survey
Literature survey of relevant materials on solar water splitting methods, basics of solar energy,
solar radiation concentrators and reflectors, hydrogen storage mediums and devices, insulation
materials and selection, etc, are collected and revised from books, journals, electronic Medias, and
catalogue to lay good scientific foundation of the thesis work.
b) Design and analysis.
The following procedures were adopted
 Gathering information through literature survey,
 Studying different solar water splitting technologies,
 Design of required components with full thermal and geometrical analysis.
c) Modeling and engineering drawing
We have employed different software packages for the purpose of modeling and detail
engineering drawing. These are, AutoCAD (2D modeling), SOLID WORK, AUTODESK
INVENTOR or CATIA V5 (3D modeling).
d) Summary of findings
The recommendation and conclusion are presented according to the design and the results
obtained. The result of design and simulation is discussed thoroughly and relevant conclusion
and recommendations are duly addressed in such a way that it would be a spring board for
future design and practical works.
1.7 Significance of the Project

The importance of the present study is to provide comprehensive information on the solar
hydrogen production potential of Ethiopia. From this point of view the study could be considered
as a reference for any solar hydrogen energy utilization technology, which is now considered as a
possible solution to the energy problems of the country. The world has already begun the transition
to cleaner fossil fuels containing less carbon and more hydrogen. As the world’s supply of fossil
fuels decreases, the shift to renewable energy sources will continue with a move to resources such
as hydrogen, which human beings previously were unable to harness. There are five key policy
reasons why this shift is necessary:
1) The environment. Emissions from vehicles are the largest source of air pollution.
2) Human health. More than 50,000 people per year may die prematurely from exposure to fine
particulates emitted by trucks and buses, power plants and factories.
3) Economics. The costs of producing oil continue to increase, as deeper wells are drilled farther
and farther from markets in harsh climates.
4) Energy Security. Military and political costs of maintaining energy security internationally
are becoming untenable.

5) Supply. World fuel supplies are finite, and this fossil fuels are running out for the future.
Hydrogen is not a primary energy like natural gas or oil, existing freely in nature. Instead,
hydrogen is an energy “carrier,” which means it is a secondary form of energy that has to be
manufactured. Although hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, practically all of
it is found in combination with other elements, for example, water (H2O), or fossil fuels such as
natural gas (CH4).
Hydrogen can be generated from many primary sources. Today, hydrogen is mainly extracted
from fossil fuels through a process known as “steam reforming”. However, most supporters of fuel
cells and renewable energy are uncomfortable with the idea of making hydrogen through steam
reforming because carbon dioxide (CO2) is a by-product of the process. To truly reap the benefits
of the environmentally friendly characteristics, environmentalists argue, hydrogen should be made
from clean water and clean solar energy.
1.8 Current Strategy Hydrogen Energy in Ethiopia

The demand for modern energy sources such as petroleum fuels is increasing with increase in
population and economic growth. Even though the share of petroleum fuels is about 7% of the
total consumption, the increasing demand for it and the associated price rise have hit the national
economy very hard. As a net importer of petroleum, Ethiopia is highly vulnerable to price shocks
and supply problems of oil in the world market. This is the basis for the government to include
other development programs proposed to ensure supply of modern energy services. But the energy
strategy issued by Ethiopian Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) in September 2007 has not
include hydrogen production technologies and hydrogen utilization.
As we know in our country most people use electric and different fuels as power source for
different purposes. Theses power sources are non-renewable and most of them are the reason for
global warming which is the current burning issue of our planet. This project is designed to
improve the habit of using natural and renewable resources which in turn helps to protect our planet
from being polluted and destroyed. Because hydrogen is a clean and sustainable energy for the
future and have many environmental and economic benefits compared to fossil fuels.
In fact, solar thermochemical water splitting technology in foreign country is widely used, but in
our country none of hydrogen production methods known till now. The aim of this project is to
introduce the technology of solar thermochemical water splitting to generate hydrogen fuel to

the society and to the government of Ethiopia. Ethiopian Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME)
should encouraging investors want to engaged in hydrogen production technologies for the future.
1.9 Benefits of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitter

1.9.1 Benefit to Society
Our project has numerous social benefits. These are:-
1. Source of sustainable energy
Solar energy and water can be a great source of sustainable energy. As sunlight and water are
almost always available in the day time, a large amount of consistent hydrogen energy can be
produced within a large area.
2. Lessening of Energy cost
In this project, sunlight and water are being used as the source of energy. As there is enough supply
of sunlight during day time, there should not be any scarcity of heat and row material for
production energy.
3. Environmental issues
Environmental pollution is reduced to a large extent in solar thermochemical water splitter plant
as there is no fuel combustion associated to this chemical plant. Moreover, it is free from toxic
pollutant.
4. Conclusion to energy crisis
Our project is proposing the solution to the scarcity of energy which is the main obstacle to the
development. Our aim is not only to produce hydrogen energy but also to limiting the cost of
production so that people using it can be benefitted.
1.9.2 Environmental Benefits

While addressing the energy security issue, we must also address our environmental viability. Air
quality is a major national concern. Personal vehicles and electric power plants are significant

contributors to the nation's air quality problems. Most states are now developing strategies for
bringing their major metropolitan areas into compliance with the requirements of the clean air [15].
Emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, has been cited as a major
global concern. Build-up of these gases in the atmosphere is thought to have detrimental effects
on the global climate. Although there is not yet agreement on what the exact impact will be, when
it will be realized, or how best to address the issue, there is agreement that emissions of these gases
needs to be reduced.
Hydrogen offers a unique opportunity to address this problem, since carbon emissions can be
decoupled from energy use and power generation. When used in a fuel cell, the only emission is
water vapor. Efficient hydrogen production technologies and the possibility of carbon
sequestration make natural gas and coal viable feedstock options, even in a carbon-constrained
environment. In the case of renewable and hydrogen energy, greenhouse gases can virtually be
eliminated [15].
1.9.3 Sustainability
World petroleum supplies at the current year of consumption will not last a baby born today past
his/her 40th birth day. Many believe the current consumption will not stay constant, but will rise
in the future shortening in the 40 years period. Hydrogen fuel is one way to help stretch this limited
supplies. Sustainability of solar thermochemical water splitting system is high relative to other
source of power.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter contains different literature reviews which are important for the study of solar
hydrogen production technologies. Terms are well defined, concepts are explained using examples
and diagrams.
2.1 Hydrogen Production Technologies

Currently, most of the world’s hydrogen is produced by a process called “steam reforming”. In
this process, methane is widely used as fuel since it has the highest hydrogen-to-carbon ratio
among hydrocarbons; hence, the by-products generated are minimized.
Biomass, such as crops, plants, and animal wastes, can also be used to produce hydrogen via
thermochemical and biological processes. There is a general perception that hydrogen is a clean
fuel, but this may not be necessarily correct. If hydrogen is produced from natural gas, coal, or
biomass, it will use a lot of energy, not to mention the substantial amount of CO2 that will be
generated as a by-product. Therefore, the best way of producing hydrogen is to utilize an
alternative energy, such as hydropower, wind energy, and solar energy, to carry out the water-
splitting reaction. Among these alternative energies, solar energy is the most promising approach
since region-related limitations are less rigorous as compared to wind energy and hydropower [38].
2.2 Hydrogen Production from Fossil Fuels

2.2.1 Steam Reforming (SR)
Steam reforming consists of decarbonisation of light hydrocarbons. This is an endothermic
catalytic reaction, where an organic molecule is mixed with water vapour and a catalyzer to obtain
hydrogen, assisted by thermal energy. The first step separates the organic molecule into hydrogen
and carbon monoxide (CO), at temperatures between 750-1000 °C and a pressure around 25 bar
[38]. The general reaction is:
CxHy + xH2O → xCO + (x + y/2) H2 (1)
2.2.2 Coal Gasification

Gasification consists on decarbonisation of heavy hydrocarbons, with the same general reaction as
for steam reforming (1). It can be done with different processes and fuels, but the most common
is the coal gasification, represented with the following reaction [38]:
C + H2O → CO + H2 (2)
It is an endothermic reaction, so external heat is needed as with steam reforming.
2.2.3 Thermal Decomposition (Cracking)

Thermal dissociation, or cracking, means a thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons. It is possible
to separate hydrogen and carbon by heating without oxygen, but very high temperatures are
needed. The general reaction for thermal dissociation is expressed as [38]:
𝑦
CxHy → xC + 2H2 (3)
And the specific one for methane is:
CH4 → C + 2H2 (4)
2.3 Hydrogen Production Using Renewable Energy Resources

The means by which sunlight can be used to produce fuels for the 21st century can be found in the
writings of two of the prominent scientists of the 19th century, Carnot and Gibbs. They created
the discipline of thermodynamics, which is the study of how energy can be converted from one
form to another, for example, from solar energy to chemical energy. In very simple terms,
Thermodynamics tells us that the higher the temperature at which we supply solar energy to our
process, the more creative we can be with what comes out as a final product.

Figure 2. 1 Hydrogen Production via Solar Energy
2.3.1 Water Electrolysis

Cells similar to the cells in a car battery are used to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water.
Each cell consists of two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte of water plus some chemicals that
conduct electricity well and is connected to direct current electricity supply. When enough
electricity is supplied between the electrodes to cause a current to flow, oxygen is produced at one
end (the anode) and hydrogen at the other (the cathode). Electrolysis is a chemical reaction in
which water is separated into oxygen and hydrogen when an electric current passes through
it, according to equation (5).
A major disadvantage of this technology is the impact of high electricity/electrolyser costs.
1
H2O → H2 + 2O2 (5)

Figure 2. 2 Solar Electrolytic Method Hydrogen Production
2.3.2 Photo Electrolysis (Photolysis)
Solar energy can be used for electrolysis through photovoltaic systems that produce
electricity. Instead of that, direct photo-electrolysis goes beyond, putting both processes together
in one single device called photo-electrochemical cells (PEC). In PEC, sunlight is used to split
water, as shown in Figure 2.3 [38].
Figure 2. 3 Principle of Photo-Electrolytic Hydrogen Production

2.3.3 Photo Biological Production (Biophotolysis)
Biophotolysis is a two-step hydrogen production process. First step (6), photosynthesis, is followed
by hydrogen production (7) catalyzed by hydrogenases in green algae or cyanobacteria. It also
needs, as photolysis, an important labor in research and development, but it could be a great long
term renewable solution to produce hydrogen [38].
1
Photosynthesis: H2O → 2O2 + 2H+ +2e- (6)
Hydrogen production: 2H+ +2e- → H2 (7)
Figure 2. 4 Principle of Photo-Biological Hydrogen Production
2.3.4 Thermal Dissociation (Thermolysis)

In this method water is heated to form steam and then steam is super-heated to about to about
2500℃ or more, at which stage the molecules of steam start splitting apart to form hydrogen and
oxygen. As the temperatures are further increased, the rate at which the steam the molecules of
steam split apart increases. The same effect can also be achieved by reducing the steam pressure.
Thus higher temperatures and lower pressures are the best ways to produce hydrogen using direct
heat method. Large concentrating mirrors would then be used to focus the solar energy on to
containers of water. At first glance, this appears to be a very attractive process. Its simplicity seems
to make the reactor engineering less involved, and as it occurs in a single step, very high theoretical
maximum efficiencies can be obtained [5].

Water thermolysis is the dissociation of water vapour in a single step reaction as equation 8.
1
H2O → H2 + 2O2 (8)
This is a conceptually simple reaction, but it needs very high temperatures above 2500-
3000 K to obtain an acceptable dissociation degree. As an example, at 3000 K and 1 bar, 64% of
water is dissociated. It is also important to consider that not only H2 and O2 are produced, but also
H, O and HO are following reactions.
Obtaining the high temperatures required for the process supposes a problem by itself, and also
pose other obstacles:
 Gaseous products can recombine and generate an explosive mixture. To avoid that, effective
methods for separating hydrogen from the other products have to be developed.
 There are severe material problems to construct a reactor that supports those high
temperatures. The lack of suitable materials can also lead to significant re-radiation, lowering
the efficiency.
While those obstacles are solved, we have been pushed on the direction of thermochemical
cycles.
2.3.5 Thermochemical Cycle

Water-splitting thermochemical cycles are through various reaction sequences in a closed cycle
that, ideally, only have H2 and O2 as net products. This configuration solves the problems raised
by direct water dissociation, as they require lower temperatures and avoid high-temperature gas
separation through producing H2 and O2 in different steps. There are lots of possible cycles
that can be classified into multi-step cycles (more than two) and two-step cycles (using metal oxide
redox reactions).
The first ones, multi-step thermochemical cycles, have the advantage of requiring lower
temperatures than the second ones. Most of them are characterized to work with temperatures
below 1200 K, so they are feasible to be implemented with both nuclear and solar heat
sources. The disadvantage of these processes is the low efficiency achieved, as there are
losses in each step during heat transfer and product separation.

To solve the low-efficiency issue, an interesting alternative is to use a more efficiently two-step
thermochemical cycle: by reducing the number of steps, higher efficiency rates are obtained. This
also implies the need of higher temperatures, between direct water splitting and multi-step cycles,
but still feasible for current solar thermal plants and material technologies.
Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each production methods, the solar
thermochemical water splitting system is the most suitable technique due to the following basic
advantages:
 No smoke production, free of air pollution and therefore safe to health and
environment,
 Does not cause resource depletion,
 Can be used anywhere, wherever there is radiation,
 Uses abundant, free and renewable energy source hence no exhaustion of the source,
 Requires initial investment only.
Tables 1 and 2 provide a summary of the various ways to produce hydrogen (48).
Table 1 comparison of various methods of hydrogen production technology
Method Process Implementation
Steam reforming  In the presence of nickel catalyst and @ 700-  Current major
of methane gas 1100℃ source of
hydrogen
CH4 +H2O → CO +3H2
 Next reaction at lower temperature
CH4 +H2O → CO +3H2
Hydrogen from  At high temperature and pressure  Current method

coal gasification of mass hydrogen
Coal + H2O → CO + H2
production

Electrolysis of  Electric current passed through the water  Not widespread
water use due to cost of
H2O (L) → H2(g) +1/2O(g)
electricity
Solar hydrogen  At high temperature  Not widespread

production use due to cost of
H2O (L) → H2(g) +1/2O(g)
renewable energy
Table 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Hydrogen Production Methods
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Steam reforming of  65-67% efficiency  Nonrenewable resource

methane  Least expensive method  Produces CO2 emissions
Coal gasification  Large supplies of hydrogen  Produces CO2 emissions

 Expensive resource  Carbon sequestration would raise
costs
Electrolysis of water  Depend on electricity  Input into production may require

source more energy than released
 Produces CO2 emissions if coal is
energy source
Solar hydrogen  No emissions  Initial investment is high

production  65% efficiency (expensive)
2.4 Review of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitting Technology

This project focuses on hydrogen fuel generation through a process with thermochemical water
splitting cycle and zero, or nearly-zero, greenhouse gas emissions. Fossil fuels have been discarded
from the beginning, even when, as we have seen, they may be a good solution in the middle term,
in a transition to a renewable hydrogen energy.

Instead of that, the chosen option has been:
 Water as a carbon-free feedstock

 Solar as a renewable energy source, focusing on solar thermal due to its great potential in
hydrogen production
The chosen process to study it in more detail is thermochemical water splitting, a chemical reaction
in which water is separated into oxygen and hydrogen when heated. This could be done in a two-
step reaction process [38]. Thermochemical cycles consist of a series of chemical reactions at
different temperatures in which thermal energy is transformed into chemical energy.
Requirement for a solar thermochemical water-splitting cycle (STWSC) for hydrogen production
is that [37]:
 the sum of enthalpies of reaction must equal or exceed the enthalpy of formation of water,
 Another requirement is that the minimum number of reactions is two.
There are hundreds of published STWSTCs, but only a few are economically and technologically
feasible.
Advantages over direct thermal dissociation of water include generally:
 lower operating temperatures,

 separate hydrogen and oxygen evolving steps, and,
 The absence of a high temperature gas separation step.
Disadvantages include:
 lower process efficiency as the number of reaction steps increases,

 the possible requirement for intermediate separation stages and,
 Involves chemicals other than water; therefore, reagents must be completely regenerated
and recycled within the system for a process to be entirely sustainable and renewable.
One major class of STWSC is the metal oxide cycle. The cycle consists of two steps as in figure
2.5: a high temperature endothermic oxidation step and an exothermic hydrolysis step.
The general reactions are as follow:

𝒚
Thermal reduction: MxOy = xM + 𝟐O2 (9)
Water splitting: xM + yH2O = MxOy + yH2 (10)
Figure 2. 5 General Schematic of the Two-Step Thermochemical Cycle for Water Splitting
Where, M represents a metal, such that it or its metal oxide can reduce water to generate hydrogen.
Several metal oxide cycles are tabulated in Table 3 [37]:
Table 3 Metal-Oxide Cycles
Metal/metal oxide Cycles Maximum temperature
Hg/HgO HgO → Hg + ½O2 600℃
Hg + H2O → HgO + H2
Cd/CdO CdO → Cd + ½O2 1400℃
Cd + H2O → CdO + H2
MnO/Mn3O4 2Mn3O4 → 6MnO + O2 1537 ℃
3MnO + H2O → Mn3O4 + H2
Zn/ZnO ZnO → Zn + ½O2 1500 - 2000℃

Zn + H2O → ZnO + H2
FeO/Fe3O4 Fe3O4 →3FeO + ½O2 1800 - 2200℃
3FeO + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
Mo/MoO2 MoO2 → Mo + O2 3713℃
Mo + 2H2O → MoO2 + 2H2
W/WO3 WO3 → W + 3/2O2 3910℃
W + H2O →WO3 + 3H2
 The Mo/MoO2 and W/WO3 cycles operate at temperatures comparable to direct thermal
decomposition of water, thus, making these cycles economically infeasible [37].
 The MnO/Mn3O4 cycle operates at lower temperatures, however due to thermodynamic
constraints; the amount of hydrogen produced is insignificant.
 The Hg/HgO and Cd/CdO cycles operate at low temperatures, however these two cycles use
heavy metals and are generally viewed as environmentally undesirable cycles. The Zn/ZnO
and FeO/Fe3O4 cycles are two feasible and experimentally-confirmed cycles. Chemicals
involved in these cycles are inexpensive.
However, the maximum temperatures of these cycles are still comparable to direct thermal
decomposition of water. Furthermore, zinc and oxygen are highly reactive in the presence of each
other, thus resulting in low hydrogen yield. Currently, research is being conducted to design better
reactors and quenching apparatus for the Zn/ZnO cycle to increase solar-to-chemical conversion
efficiency. Furthermore, research is also being conducted to partially substitute iron in Fe3O4 with
other metals (Mn, Co, Mg, Ni, Zn, etc) to form mixed metal oxides which may lower the maximum
temperate of the cycle. Steinfeld et al, suggest that the only feasible two-cycle metal-oxide pairs
are ZnO/Zn and Fe3O4/FeO [39].
We have seen that two-step thermochemical cycles are the most appropriate to combine with solar
thermal energy. To be more specific in this study, it is interesting to select a concrete one. Among
this cycles, metal oxide redox pair zinc oxide/zinc cycle is presumably the most suitable for solar

thermal implementations. It has been studied by several authors (Palumbo 1998, Steinfeld 2002
and others) and has great expectations for a middle term future. Although the required temperature
is high ( 2000 K), it is still acceptable with actual technology, and has a good global
efficiency. As a result, these are the two-step cycles to be reviewed in detail.
2.5 Uses of Hydrogen

2.5.1 For Clean Fuel
 Hydrogen can be used as the primary fuel in an internal combustion engine or in a fuel cell. A
hydrogen internal combustion engine is similar to that of a gasoline engine, where hydrogen
combusts with oxygen in the air and produces expanding hot gases that directly move the
physical parts of an engine. Since, it is one of the cleanest fuel because when it burns, the result
is simple water. This greatly helps to reduce the air pollution and global warming problems
(48).
Figure 2. 6 Internal Combustion Engine

 Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns pure hydrogen produces almost no
pollution. NASA has used liquid hydrogen since the 1970s to propel the space shuttle and other
rockets in to orbit. Hydrogen fuel cells power the shuttle’s electrical systems, producing a clean
byproduct-pure water, which is used for drinks in space.
2.5.2 For Electricity Production

Hydrogen can be converted to electricity using three different systems such as, gas turbines, steam
turbines and fuel cells. Gas turbines can be run on hydrogen gas instead of natural gas, generating

mechanical or electrical energy clearly and efficiently. Steam turbine could also be run on steam
produced cleanly by burning hydrogen in pure oxygen instead of coal, oil and other fossil fuels,
which can be operated in a conventional Rankine cycle [41].
There is also a third method of converting hydrogen in to electricity that is using fuel cell (reverse
process of electrolysis). A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat,
and water. Fuel cells are often compared to batteries. Both convert the energy produced by a
chemical reaction into usable electric power. However, the fuel cell will produce electricity as long
as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied, never losing its charge.
Fuel cells are a promising technology for use as a source of heat and electricity for buildings, and
as an electrical power source for electric motors propelling vehicles. Fuel cells operate best on
pure hydrogen.
A polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell produces an electrical current from hydrogen
fuel and oxygen in the air. Hydrogen is split into hydrogen ions and electrons by a platinum catalyst
at the anode. The PEM allows only the hydrogen ions to pass through to the cathode where these
ions react with oxygen to produce water. The electrons travel down a circuit creating an electrical
current. The fuel cells are arranged in stacks in order to provide enough electricity to power a
vehicle. The use of a fuel cell eliminates the nitrous oxide emissions. Furthermore, the fuel cell is
45-60% efficient (48).

Figure 2. 7 A Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
2.5.3 Industrial Applications
 The most important single use of hydrogen is in the manufacture of ammonia (NH3).
Ammonia is made by combining hydrogen and nitrogen at high pressure and temperature in
the presence of catalyst (Haber process). Ammonia is a very important compound and it is used
in making many products, the most important of which is fertilizer and paint [41].
 Welding companies use hydrogen for welding torches. These torches are utilized for steel
melting. This torches produce a temperature of a few thousands degree. At this temperature, it
is possible to cut through steel and other metals. These torches can also be used to weld two
metals.
 Hydrogen is used required as a reducing in chemical industries for metal extraction. Hydrogen
gas is passed over a hot metal oxide to produce pure metal. For example, molybdenum can be
prepared by passing hydrogen gas over hot molybdenum oxide.

 It also used in glass industry as a protective atmosphere for making glass sheets, while the
electronics industry, it used as a flushing gas in the process of manufacturing silicon chips.
 Food industries use hydrogen to make hydrogenated vegetable oil such as margarine and
butter. In this procedure, vegetable oils are combined with hydrogen, by using nickel as
catalyst, solid fat substances are produced.
 In petroleum industry, hydrogen is required for crude oil refinements.
2.5.4 In Chemical Compounds

 Hydrogen can also be used for a number of similar reactions. For example it can be combined
with carbon monoxide to make methanol-methyl alcohol, or wood alcohol (CH3 OH). Like
ammonia methanol has a great many practical uses in a variety of industries. The most
important use of methanol is in the manufacture of other chemicals, such as those from which
plastics are made and also used widely as solvent (to dissolve other materials) in industry.
Methyl alcohol is used in inks, varnishes and paints.
 Hydrogen gas is sometimes used directly to create an acid and base. For example, it is used in
the creation of hydrochloric acid: H2 + Cl2 →2HCl.
 Hydrogen peroxide is another vital compound and used in many ways. First and foremost it is
used for medication. It is primarily used for treating wounds and cuts and also a toenail fungus
disinfectant. Other non-medical applications include a pest controller in gardens, removing
stains on clothes and functioning as a bleaching agent for cleaning homes.
2.5.5 As Lifting Agent (Weather Balloons)

 Hydrogen can be used as lifting agent. Hydrogen can cause a balloon to lift of float upward in
air. It is about 14 times lighter than air,” according to the principle of chemistry.” Thus, a
balloon filled with hydrogen gas, weighs much less than the air it displaces. This creates a
buoyancy force that pushes the balloon upward, so it can lift very large loads. Scientists are
able to use it with weather balloons. Meteorologists’ weather balloons have this element
installed. This balloons are fitted with equipment to record information necessary to study the
climate.

Figure 2. 8 Balloon Filled With Hydrogen
2.6 Solar Concentrating Reflectors

With the ZnO/Zn cycle in mind, it is important to decide the solar technology to be used. For large
scale solar thermal implementations, this technology is known as Concentrating Solar Power
(CSP). Even when there are a lot of variants, all CSP systems are based on the same principle:
the use of hundreds of mirrors to concentrate direct sunlight and transform it into heat. The main
requirement for this purpose is a good solar irradiation. To consider that a place is suitable for this
kind of plants, it should be around 2000 kWh/m2 annually. This is a reference value that should be
taken in consideration when deciding the geographic location of this study [6, 38].
There are four categories of concentrating collectors, each of which is discussed below:
 Parabolic trough collectors (PTC)
 Linear Fresnel collectors (LFR)
 Solar towers (Heliostat field collectors)
 Parabolic dish reflectors (PDR)
2.6.1 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTC)

Parabolic trough collectors are made by bending a sheet of reflective material into a parabolic
shape, A metal black tube, covered with a glass tube to reduce heat losses, is placed along the focal

line of the receiver. It is sufficient to use a single axis tracking of the sun thus producing long
collector modules. The collector can be orientated in an east–west direction, tracking the sun from
north to south [4].
Figure 2. 9 Parabolic Trough

PTCs can effectively produce heat at temperatures between 50 and 400℃ and they are the most
mature solar technology to generate heat at temperatures up to 400℃ for solar thermal electricity
generation or process heat applications [3].
2.6.2 Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)

It is technology relies on an array of linear mirror strips that concentrate light on to a fixed receiver
mounted on a linear tower. The LFR field can be imagined as a broken-up parabolic trough
reflector. The main advantage of this type of system is that it uses flat or elastically curved
reflectors which are cheaper compared to parabolic glass reflectors. Additionally, these are
mounted close to the ground, thus minimizing structural requirements [6]. However, LFRs are less
efficient than troughs in converting solar energy and it is more difficult to incorporate storage
capacity into their design.

Figure 2. 10 Linear Fresnel Reflector
2.6.3 A Parabolic Dish Reflector (PDR)
This type of reflector is a point-focus collector that tracks the sun in two axes, concentrating solar
energy onto a receiver located at the focal point of the dish. The dish structure must track fully the
sun to reflect the beam into the thermal receiver [4, 6].
Figure 2. 11 Parabolic Dish Reflector (PDR)

The receiver absorbs the radiant solar energy, converting it into thermal energy in a circulating
fluid. Parabolic dish systems have a concentration ratio in the range of 600–2000 and can achieve
temperatures in excess of 1500℃ [6].
2.6.4 Solar Tower (Heliostat field collector)

It can be used for extremely high inputs of radiant energy to reflect their incident direct solar
radiation onto a common target as shown in Figure 17. This is called the heliostat field or central
receiver collector. By using slightly concave mirror segments on the heliostats, large amounts of
thermal energy can be directed into the cavity of a steam generator to produce steam at high
temperature and pressure [4, 6].

Figure 2. 12 Solar Tower Reflector
Central receivers have several advantages [4]:
 They collect solar energy optically and transfer it to a single receiver, minimizing thermal-
energy transport requirements.
 They typically achieve concentration ratios of 300 –1500 and are highly efficient, both in
collecting energy and in converting it.
 They can conveniently store thermal energy.
 They are quite large (generally more than 10 MW) and thus benefit from economies of
scale.
The average solar flux impinging on the receiver has values between 200 and 1000kW/m2. This
high flux allows working at relatively high temperatures of more than 1500℃ and integrates
thermal energy into more efficient cycles.
2.6.5 A Beam down Solar Tower/Central Receiver
The concept of a solar down beam tower was first proposed by Rabl [15] in 1976. It has three
main components: the primary field of heliostats that reflect incident sunlight, the tower reflector
(TR) that redirects focused light from the field, and the receiver/reactor located at the ground level
that converts focused light from the TR to heat that is used for thermal dissociation. An illustration
of a beam down central receiver is shown in Figure 2.13. In operation, energy from the primary

collectors (heliostats) is reflected toward an aim point, AP, located above the tower reflector. The
concentrated light is intercepted by the tower reflector and beamed down into the reactor, which
is located near ground level [15].
Rabl [15] also suggested the concept of a secondary receiver concentrator (RC) located at ground
level, in the form of a compound parabolic concentrator (CPC), to further focus and concentrate
the down beam rays. If the optical losses can be limited the concept of a TR system becomes
feasible.
Figure 2. 13 Optical Configuration for the Beam down Central Receiver
Table 4 Comparison of Solar Concentrating Technologies
Collector types Working Concentration Relative Relative

temperature (℃) (kw/m2) thermodynamic cost
efficiency
100-400 30-80 Low Moderate
300-1000 without 500-1000/1000- High Expensive

concentrator 1500
/1000-1800 with
concentrator

800-1800 1000-1200 High Expensive
800-2000 2000-4000 High Expensive
Advantages of beam down tower concentrator over conventional tower system:

 minimizing tower structural requirements and cost,
 Increase concentration ratio results in higher temperature due to using secondary
concentrator.
 No need of pumping the working fluid to the top of the tower.
 Since it is close to the ground, easy for assembling, maintaining, repairing and cleaning.
The choice of collector type depends on several factors such as
 Price
 Efficiency
 Operating temperature
 Location (available solar radiation, ambient temperatures)
 Suitability of the collector for the working conditions in service.
The best solar collector is one which serve the desired objective at the minimum cost. We selected
beam down solar concentrator for solar reactor and reviewed its structure, analysis, performance,
advantages, drawbacks and suitability for thermochemical water splitting system.

CHAPTER THREE
COMPONENT DESIGN OF SOLAR THERMOCHEMICAL WATER

SPLITTER
This chapter includes the design analysis and selection of all the main components of solar
thermochemical water splitter. These are;
 Design of beam down solar tower concentrator and its parts,

 Thermodynamic analysis of solar thermochemical water splitting system,
 Design of waste heat recovery heat exchanger,
 Pipes and piping design,
 Storage tanks selection.
3.1 Input Data

The following section is describes the input data that was used to carry out this project. This project
is conducted by mechanical engineering students at JIMMA UNIVERSITY. And the location is
suitable to run the project because of two reasons those are, JIMMA area receive sufficient amount
of sun radiation and easy to access the data.
 The maximum temperature required for the reactor =2000k

 The temperature required in the hydrolyzer is from waste heat recovery heat exchanger
 1 mol of ZnO produces 1 mol of H2
Demand
 The molar feed rate of ZnO to the solar reactor, 𝐧̇ , is set to 1 mol/s, and is equal to that of
H2O fed to the hydrolysis reactor. So that the molar feed rate of H2O to the hydrolyzer will
be 21.6 kmol, if it is fully functional in six hour per a day.
i.e. 1 mol =1 sec
N =6× 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄
N=21.6kmol
We know that the mass m of a substance is related to the number of moles N through the
relation m =NM, where M is the molar mass of substance (18kg/kmol for H2O).
m =21.6kmol× 18𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 =390kg H2O

Mass flow rate of water 𝒎̇ =1mol/s =0.018kg/s
And we know that 1kg of water is equivalent to 1 liter of water.
 The amount of water required to produce 1Nm3 of H2 will be;
0.0838𝑘𝑔𝐻2 1𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐻2 1𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐻2 𝑂 18𝑘𝑔𝐻 𝑂
Water consumption=1Nm3H2× × × × 1kmol𝐻2 𝑂
1N𝑚3 𝐻2 2kg𝐻2 1kmol𝐻2 2
= 0.754kgH2O
Thus, the amount of 1Nm3 H2 produced per day will be:
390𝑘𝑔𝐻 𝑂
=1Nm3 × 0.754kg𝐻2 𝑂 =520 Nm3
2
Assumptions
 All calculation will performed assuming a steady state condition,

 The reactor is assumed to be a perfect blackbody cavity –receiver,
 Component volume is constant under all condition,
 Fluid properties are evaluated at standard pressure and temperature,
 Mass flow rate is uniform in the given fluid circuit,
 To unit measures of hydrogen as a gas, it is usual to work with Nm3 instead of m3. It means
the volume occupied by the gas in normal conditions of temperature and pressure (NTP)
25℃ and 1 atmosphere,
 Diffuse radiation is neglected,
 Constant ambient temperature,
 The (cold) supply water temperature is 20°C,
 Neglecting salt concentration of the water.
3.1.1 Daily sunshine hours

From the metrological data of Jimma 2015, the following data were obtained.
Table 5 Mean Monthly Sunshine Hour
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
SUNHRS 6.82 8.16 7.97 7.8 7.52 6.2 2.8 4.6 8.25 8.2 7.7 7.81

To be clearer for design purpose the sun shine hour is put in the following graph.
In year 2015:
 90 days have sunshine hour greater than 9 hours

 205 days have sunshine hour greater than 6-9 hours
 70 days have sunshine hour less than 6 hours
Thus, solar thermochemical water splitter is not feasible for 70 days.
Figure 3. 1 Pie Chart for Sunshine Hour
Wind Speed
Table 6 Monthly Mean Wind Speed (m/s)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual average
Wind 3.1 3.0 2.8 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.1 2.6
speed
(m/s)
Solar intensity
Since there is data for Jimma concerning solar energy intensity, the data is taken from NASA.

Figure 3.2 Solar Intensity Data for Jimma (Source NASA)
We know that from figure above the annual solar radiation on horizontal is 5.29 kwh/m2/day. And
we assumes that this solar thermochemical water splitter is fully functional six hour per day.
1𝑑𝑎𝑦
I =5.29kwh/m2/day× = 882W/m2
6ℎ
3.2 Conceptual Design

If we concentrate the diluted sunlight over a small area with help of parabolic mirrors or heliostats,
and then capture that radiative energy with help of suitable receiver/reactor, we would be able to
obtain heat at high temperatures for driving a chemical transformation and producing a storable
and transportable fuel. One possible and certainly very attractive chemical process is the solar
production of hydrogen from water. At high-temperatures, and depending on the pressure, water
splits into hydrogen and oxygen.
If much cooler steam at 300-1000℃ is passed over metals (such as powdered iron, zinc or others),
the metal soaks up the oxygen, forming zinc oxide and leaving hydrogen. The zinc oxide can also
be then heated to make it release the oxygen leaving zinc again. By doing this over and over again,
with continuous supply of water, we could obtain a supply of hydrogen gas. The net reaction is the

splitting of one mole of water into one-half mole of O2 and one mole of H2. Hydrogen can be
further processed to make other fuels or it can be used directly for producing electricity or other
forms of power. Once the hydrogen is expended, it will convert back to water.
𝟏
1st step (solar): ZO = Z + 𝟐O2 (11)
2nd step (non-solar): Z + H2O = ZO + H2 (12)

The first, endothermic step is the solar thermal dissociation of the zinc oxide to the metal zinc. The
second, non-solar, exothermic step is the hydrolysis of the zinc to form H2 and the corresponding
zinc oxide.
The net reaction is H 2O + H2 + 0.5O2, but since H2 and O2 are formed in different steps, the need
for high-temperature gas separation is thereby eliminated.
Figure 3.3 Two Step Thermochemical Water Splitting Cycle

The water splitting reaction for the Zn/ZnO cycle presents fewer challenges. Steinfeld [39] has
shown that it has a reasonable rate at temperatures greater than 700 K, and as it is exothermic, it is
possible to run this process autothermally. In addition, if the water splitting reaction is run in-line
with the decomposition reaction, the inlet preheating of the steam and Zn can come from the
solar reactor waste heat [12].

3.3 Design of beam down solar concentrator
3.3.1 Theoretical Background
The “solar tower reflector” (also called “beam down optics”) is an optical concept proposed by the
Weizmann Institute of Science (WIS) in 1996. It is based on the Cassegrain configuration arranged
for solar tower system that makes use of a hyperboloidal reflector at the top of the tower to re-
direct concentrated sunlight collected by a heliostat field to a receiver located on the ground level
[11].
Advantages of beam down solar concentrator [11]:
 The main advantage of the beam‐down solar system is that instead of having the heat‐capturing
system up on a big tower, a secondary reflector directs the light coming from the heliostats
back down at the ground where it can be captured by a receiver system.
 In this way it is possible to reduce the parasitic energy losses due to the transport of the
reactants and products to and from the top of the tower to the storage system or the power
block.
 On the other hand, the secondary reflector tends, in general, to magnify the image of the
heliostats at the ground, and, therefore, a compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) must be
placed above the receiver to further concentrate the solar radiation. Thus, the concentration
ratio will be higher compared to conventional solar tower systems.
 The reflection of the solar radiation on both the secondary reflector and the inner surface of
the CPC leads to a loss of optical efficiency of about 20% with respect to a conventional solar
tower system.

Figure 3.4 Schematic of the Solar Tower Reflector or “Beam Down” System
3.3.2 Mathematical Background

A ray of light can be described mathematically as a straight line as follows:
x =xi +k.ux; y =yi +k.uy; z =zi +k.uz (13)
Where; (xi,yi,yz) are the coordinates of the origin of the ray (on the surface of the heliostat) and
(ux, uy, uz) are the components of the ray’s unit vector of direction. This ray is intersected with the
reflective surface (hyperboloid) having the following general equation [7]:
𝟐 𝟐
(𝒚𝒑 𝒕+𝒛𝒑 ) 𝒙𝟐𝒑 (𝟏+ 𝒕𝟐 )−(𝒚𝒑 −𝒛𝒑 𝒕) 𝒚 −𝒚
f(x,y,z) = − –t2 -1=0; t= 𝒛𝒐 −𝒛 𝒄
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒐 𝒄
(14)
Where; xp= x-xo, yp =y-yo, zp =z-zo, subscript o represents the quadric center and subscript c
represents the center of the secondary concentrator entrance, in the tower system coordinates,
(x,y,z), a and b being the hyperboloid semi axes.
The coordinates of the point of intersection between the ray and the reflector surface, (xs,ys,zs),
are obtained by solving the system of Eqs.(13) and (14) for the parameter k. The normal at the
point of the intersection to the particular surface is calculated by solving the following partial
derivatives [7]:

𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇 𝟏/𝟐
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒇 𝟐 𝝏𝒇 𝟐 𝝏𝒇 𝟐
nx = ‖𝒏‖ ; ny = ‖𝒏‖ ; nz = ‖𝒏‖ ; ‖𝒏‖ =[( ) + ( ) + ( ) ] (15)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
Finally, the reflected ray has the direction ur with the components;
𝑢𝑥𝑟 =ux -2sc.nx; 𝑢𝑦𝑟 =uy -2sc.ny; 𝑢𝑧𝑟 =uz -2sc.nz;
sc =nxux +nyuy +nzuz (16)
The intersection between the reflected ray and the entrance plane of the CPC is calculated
by substituting in the system of Eq. (13) the coordinates (xs,ys,zs) of the intersection point on the
reflector surface, the direction of reflected rays ur and solving for k the equation zc =zs+k 𝑢𝑧𝑟 ,
zc being the z coordinate of the CPC entrance. The coordinates xc and yc in the entrance
plane to the CPC are consequently calculated by Eq. (13) [7].
3.3.3 The Principles of a Beam Down Tower Reflector
A beam down central receiver has three main components:
 The primary field of heliostats that reflect incident sunlight,
 The tower reflector (TR) that redirects focused light from the field, (A curved tower
reflector, TR, is used to direct energy from the field to a reactor located near the ground),
 The receiver/reactor that converts focused light from the TR to heat that can be used for
power or fuel production. Energy reaching the reactor is further concentrated with a CPC
to achieve a greater concentration ratio.
In operation, energy from the primary collectors (heliostats) is reflected toward an aim point, AP,
located above the tower reflector. The concentrated light is intercepted by the tower reflector and
beamed down into the reactor located at the ground [11].

Figure 3.5 Optical Configuration for the Beam down Central Receiver
The angle of the center ray of reflected light from the outermost heliostat relative to the
𝑯𝑹
horizontal will be; 𝜽𝟏 =arctan(𝑹𝑭𝑶−𝑹𝑻𝑹) (17)
Where, RTR is the radius of the tower reflector measured from the tower centerline and assuming
no optical error in the field and HR is height of the reactor/ receiver.
The design process begins with the calculation of the general specifications of the collection
system, including the location and size of the tower reflector and reactor, as the outer radius of the
heliostat field and tower height are varied parametrically.
The analysis is constrained by a tower height range from 50-100 m, fixed position of the innermost
heliostats at 0.1 tower heights (0.1 THT) from the base of the tower, outer heliostat radius from
0.8-2.0 THT [11].

Now by take the geometrical tower height as 75m, we can calculate fixed position of the innermost
heliostats and outer heliostat radius.
Thus, RFI =0.1THT =0.1× 75 =7.5m from the base of the reactor.
RFO=1.4THT=1.4× 75 =105m from the base of the reactor.
Consider that the collector has an aperture area (or total heliostat area) Aa and receives solar
radiation and the net solar heat transfer 𝑸̇ is proportional to the total heliostat area Aa and the
proportionality factor I (W/m2) which varies with geographical position on the earth, the
orientation of the collector, meteorological conditions and the time of day. In the present analysis
I is assumed to be constant and the system is in steady state, i.e. 𝑸̇ = 𝛈I.Aa.
Where; 𝜂 is solar collector conversion efficiency = 40%
For concentrating systems I is the solar energy falling on the reflector =882W/m2.
We know that the total energy required for solar reactor is the enthalpy change ΔHrxn for the
reaction. 𝑄̇ reactor,net = 𝒏̇ ∆𝑯|reactants@TL → products@TH
𝑄̇ reactor,net =1mol/s ×450kJ/mol =450KW
Now calculate area of the reflector needed as;
𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟,𝑛𝑒𝑡 450000𝑊
A= = 0.40×882𝑊/𝑚2 =1276m2
𝜂𝐼
By taking single heliostat size will be 2m ×2m and thus, the number of heliostat is equal to the
ratio of total heliostat area to the area of single heliostat.
1276𝑚2
N= =319 heliostats
4𝑚2
Figure 3.6 Dimensions of Reflecting Mirror

3.3.4 Heliostat/ Reflecting Module Design
Reflective material
 silvered glass,
 aluminum,
 mirror,
 Polymer-based silver film, etc.
The reflective module of a heliostat is generally composed of one or more mirrors (also called
facets) arranged in a usually spherical pattern (canting) to concentrate the reflected light
onto the receiver surface. The size and the optical design of a heliostat are the main parameters
considered for specifying a heliostat. The elevation, or solar altitude angle, 𝛼 s, is defined by the
angle between the horizontal and a line to the sun. The elevation angle is a complement of the solar
zenith angle, and therefore can be calculated according to the equation (18):
𝜶s =90−𝜽z (18)
Cos𝜽z = sinγsinδ+ cosγcosδcost

Let 𝜃z -Zenith Angle
γ-Latitude of location ≈ 80
δ-declination angle is in between -23.45° and 23.45°
t -hour angle of the sun is in between -180° and 180° before solar noon and after solar noon
respectively. Thus, t -hour angle of the sun is zero at solar noon.
= sin8° sin0° + cos8° cos23.45°cos0°
= 0.139 x 0 + 0.990 x 0.917 x 1
= 0.908
𝜽z= cos– 1(0.908) = 24.7°
Thus, the incidence angle of the sun (𝛼𝑠 ) =90-24.7° =65.3°
The geometrical definition of the inclination angle n of a single heliostat is a function of the tower
height, its distance from the tower and the incidence angle of the sun (𝛼𝑠 ). Assuming ZS is the
heliostat vertical dimension and THT is the geometrical tower height above ground, the so-called
optical tower height may be defined as the elevation of the center of the receiver aperture area
above the pivot point of the heliostat (THT-ZS/2) [40].
𝑻𝑯𝑻−𝒁𝒔/𝟐
𝟏𝟖𝟎°−𝜶𝒔 −𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏[ ]
𝑹𝑭𝑰
n= (degrees) (19)
𝟐

𝟕𝟓−𝟐/𝟐
𝟏𝟖𝟎°−𝟖𝟐°−𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏[ ] 𝟏𝟖𝟎°−𝟔𝟓.𝟑°−𝟖𝟒.𝟕°
𝟕.𝟓
n= = =15°
𝟐 𝟐
Figure 3.7 Geometrical definition of inclination angle n of single heliostat
Heliostat layout configuration

Heliostat field performance is defined in terms of the optical efficiency, which is equal to the ratio
of the net power intercepted by the receiver to the product of the direct insolation and the total
mirror area. The optical efficiency includes the cosine effect, shadowing, blocking, mirror
reflectivity, atmospheric attenuation, and receiver spillage.
Another point to be considered in the layout is the heliostat dimensions. If the heliostats are spaced
too close together, their corners could collide, so mechanical limits preclude pedestal spacing
closer than the maximum dimension of the heliostat (i.e., the diagonal or diameter of the heliostat,
Dm). This causes a significant disadvantage when the aspect ratio (height/width) differs greatly
from one. There are many optimization approaches to establish the radial and azimuthal spacing

of heliostats and rows. One of the most classic, effective, and widespread procedures is the radial
staggered pattern, as shown in Figure below.
To avoid blocking losses, the distance ∆𝐑 between the heliostat rows must be calculated. Hence
the row spacing, ∆R, between heliostat mirrors is defined, according to the following equation
(20):
∆𝑅 1.009
= -0.063 +0.4803 𝜃 (20)
𝐷𝑚 𝜃
Typical radially staggered field spacing using square low-cost heliostats can be expressed by [40];
∆𝑍
= 2.170 -0.6589 𝜃 +1.247 𝜃 2 (21)
𝐷𝑚
𝑻𝑯𝑻−𝒁𝒔/𝟐
Where, 𝜃 = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 [ 𝑹𝑭𝑰
] in radians
75−2/2
=𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 [ ]=84.7°=1.48rad
7.5
Since the heliostat mirror is 2m×2m, the diagonal of square heliostat mirror is;
𝐷𝑚 =√22 + 22 =2.83m
∆𝑍 = 2.83×(2.170 -0.6589 × 1.48 +1.247 × 1.482 ) =6m
1.009
∆𝑅 = 2.83× ( -0.063 +0.4803 × 1.48) =3.76m=4m
1.48
Figure 3.8 Radial Staggered Field Layout, Where ∆Z Is Representing the Azimuthal Spacing and
∆R Represents the Radial Spacing
3.4 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) or Secondary Concentrator
The ratio required for ZnO/Zn cycle should be of 5000 suns or higher. To achieve this ratio, it is
necessary to add secondary concentrators in tandem with the heliostat field, which are
usually parabolic concentrators (or CPC’s).
Adding secondary concentrator in beam down solar concentrator:
 Increase the concentration ratio and results an increase of cost, but also improves the
efficiency of the process.
 Higher concentration ratios imply lower heat losses from smaller receivers and,
consequently, higher attainable temperatures at the receiver.
To some extent, the flux concentration can be further augmented with the help of non -imaging
secondary concentrators, e.g., a compound parabolic concentrator, which is usually referred to as
CPC. Figure 2.21 shows a schematic of a 2-dimensional CPC that can be applied to primary
concentrating trough systems, and also a 3 -dimensional CPC that can be applied to primary
concentrating tower and dish systems. With such an arrangement, the power flux concentration
can be increased by a factor 𝝆(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝍𝒓𝒊𝒎 )−𝟏 for 2D-CPC and by 𝝆(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝍𝒓𝒊𝒎 )−𝟐 for 3D-CPC,
where 𝜓𝑟𝑖𝑚 is the rim angle of the primary concentrating system and 𝜌 is the inner wall total
hemispherical reflectance of the CPC. The arrows represent concentrated solar radiation arriving
from the primary concentrator (from trough systems for the 2D -CPC and from tower or dish
systems for the 3-D CPC).
Figure 3.9 Schematic of 2-D And 3 -D Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

Figure 3.10 Mathematical Model of Compound Parabolic Concentrator
Where, 𝜃 =45°, half-acceptance angle for CPC
a′ =5cm (equal to the aparture diameter of the reactor)
a = aparture radius of CPC
L= height of CPC
And we know that, C2D-CPC= a/ a′ = 1/sin 𝜽
C3D-CPC= (a/ a′)2 = 1/sin2 𝜽
(𝒂′ )𝟐 (𝟓𝒄𝒎)𝟐
Thus, a =√𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 = √𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 =7cm
𝜽 𝟒𝟓°
(𝒂+ 𝒂′ ) (𝟓𝒄𝒎+ 𝟕𝒄𝒎)

L= = =12cm
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟒𝟓°
Table 7 Characteristics of a Typical CPC System
Parameter Value
UL: overall loss coefficient of collector per unit aperture area (W/m2℃) 1.5
𝜌R: reflectivity of walls of CPC 0.85
𝜃: half-acceptance angle of CPC 45°
Ratio of truncated to full height of CPC 0.67

3.5 Design of Solar Reactor / Receiver
Assumptions
 The solar reactor is a perfectly insulated blackbody cavity-receiver (no convection or

conduction heat losses; effective absorptivity and emissivity approaching unity) and
the only loss here is that re radiation loss,
 all products separate naturally without expending work; kinetic and potential energies
are negligible; and reactions go to completion.
 The solar reactor is operated in the range 1700–2000 K, as the thermal dissociation of ZnO
proceeds at reasonable rates at 2,000 K.
Material Selection
Since the material is filled inside the cavity, the reactor material must be chemically inert to the
reactive material. Alumina was chosen as the reactor material due to several reasons. It maximizes
the internal reflections due to its low emissivity. Also, it is capable of providing high service
temperatures of 2000°C and has a good resistance to thermal shock. SiC has a better thermal shock
capability than alumina but it reacts with reactants and products. Furthermore, alumina is
chemically inert to H2, O2 and steam. However, alumina was identified as the best option due to
their availability and chemical stability [38].
Types of reactor/receiver
There are two types of receiver namely:
I. The external receivers; are designed to absorb rays coming from all directions. They have
very simple designs. The size is determined by the amount of radiation it is meant to absorb
and the amount of heat loss. Common losses are by radiation and convention. They are shaped
either tubular or spherically [35].
II. The cavity receivers; are used in most of the commercial large scale solar plants. They have
an aperture through which internal reflection ensures that the majority of the radiation that has
entered the cavity is absorbed on the internal surface. Heat losses are minimal but more
expensive. Once, the heat is absorbed in the cavity, it is transferred to the working fluid. The
cavity blackbody can convert incident radiation to heat > 2,000k with an efficiency of 90%
[35].

The larger the ratio of the cavity diameter or depth to the aperture diameter, the closer the cavity -
receiver approaches a blackbody absorber. Smaller apertures also serve to reduce re-radiation
losses.
The design and material selection of reactor is governed by the reaction kinetics, chemical
compatibility of the reactant, thermal cycling rates and most importantly, the scalability of reactor
design. The reactor was chosen to be directly heated cavity receiver using quartz window at the
aperture to prevent the reactor from dust [38].
Maximum Service Temperature
The maximum service temperature of reactor was chosen to be 2200k. Although the maximum
operating temperature is 2000k, it was noted that there may be local hot spots in some zones based
on the angles at which light is incident from the simulator thus creating a zone of 200°C higher
than the average temperature on the reactor [38].
Aperture Radius Selection
The hyperbodial mirrors focus the radiation on a circular spot of 5cm radius. Thus the aperture of
the cavity was chosen as 5 cm. A diameter less than that would capture the rays only partially and
greater than 5cm would increase the reflections out of the aperture. The thickness of the cavity was
kept within 25.4 mm in order to avoid thermal shock [38].
3.6 Thermodynamics of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitting

Water splitting by redox reactions essentially is a closed loop process with water and heat energy
as inputs, and hydrogen and oxygen as outputs. For all of the aforementioned processes, the heat
to drive the chemical reaction can be provided through the concentration of direct solar irradiation
with optical systems, e.g., mirrors. Due to the high temperatures required for solar thermal water
splitting, only concentrating solar technologies working with a point focusing system can provide
the necessary process temperatures with high efficiency [34].
Because thermodynamics is the science that describes the conversion of one form of energy into
another form, it is germinal to the field of Solar Thermochemistry. Solar thermochemical processes
convert radiant energy into chemical energy. The two fundamental thermodynamic laws that give
practical information with regard to any solar thermochemical process are the 1st and 2nd laws.
Using the 1st law, one establishes the minimum amount of solar energy required to produce a
particular fuel or chemical species. The 2nd law indicates, among other things, whether or not the

chosen path for producing the fuel is physically possible. Both types of information are required
for a process designer. Figure 2.23 shows how ZnO/Zn 2-step thermochemical cycle for the solar
hydrogen production from water performed [34].
Reactants → products
Figure
Figure 3.11 Zno/Zn 2-Step Thermochemical Cycle for the Solar Hydrogen Production from
Water
 The total energy required is the enthalpy change ΔHrxn for the reaction. Of this total, an amount
of energy equal to the Gibbs free energy for the reaction, ΔGrxn, must be supplied as high-
quality energy in the form of work. The remainder, TΔSrxn, is the amount of energy that can be
supplied as process heat for the completely reversible process in the form of solar thermal
energy. ΔGrxn decreases with temperature.
 The reactants enter the solar reactor at TL and are further heated to the reactor temperature TH.
Chemical equilibrium is assumed inside the reactor. The net power absorbed in the solar reactor
should match the enthalpy change per unit time of the reaction,
𝑄̇ reactor,net = 𝒏̇ ∆𝑯|reactants@TL → products@TH

𝑄̇ reactor,net =1mol/s ×450kJ/mol =450KW
 Irreversibility in the solar reactor arise from the non-reversible chemical transformation and
reradiation losses to the surroundings at TL. It is found that
−𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑
Irrreactor = ( )+( ) +(𝑛̇ ∆𝑆|reactants@TL → products@TH )
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿
Where, 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑 =675.4kw

∆𝑆 = 150kJ/mol
−1125.4𝑘𝑤 675.4𝑘𝑤
Irrreactor = ( )+( ) +(1𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠 × 150𝑘𝑤/2000𝑘) =1.7783kw/k
2000𝑘 298𝑘
 The heat liberated is assumed be lost to the surroundings, as given by:

𝑄̇ hydrolyzer = − 𝒏̇ ∆𝑯|Zn + 𝐻2 O@298 → ZnO + H2 @298
𝑄̇ hydrolyzer= -1mol/s×(-62KJ/mol) = 62KW
Thus, the irreversibility associated with the hydrolyzer is:
𝑄̇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑧𝑒𝑟
Irrhydrolyzer = ( ) +(𝑛̇ ∆𝑆)|Zn + 𝐻2 O@298 → ZnO + H2 @298
𝑇𝐿
62𝑘𝑤
Irrhydrolyzer =( 298𝑘 ) +(150𝑘𝑤/298𝑘) = 0.711kw/k
The variations of ∆H°rxn, ∆G°rxn, and T∆S°rxn for with temperature are shown in Figure 2.24.
At 2235 K, ∆G°rxn = 0.Above 2235 K, ∆G°rxn<0 and the reaction proceeds spontaneously to the
right by supplying ∆H°rxn solar process heat [13, 34].

Figure 3.12 Energy Requirements for Zno(S) →Zn + 0.5 O2
Absorption efficiency (thermal efficiency)

It is defined as the ratio of the net rate at which energy is being absorbed (Qabs) to the solar power
coming from the concentrator (Qsolar). Solar energy absorption efficiency of the reactor, the 1st
law from the thermodynamic analysis of solar thermochemical processes is,
𝑸𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝜼absorption = 1-(𝑸𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓) (22)
Where; Qrad = Qsolar – Qabs is the reactor radiation heat losses.

At temperatures above about 1,000 K, the net power absorbed is diminished mostly by radiant
losses through the aperture. For a perfectly insulated blackbody cavity-receiver, it is given by
𝝈𝑻𝟒
𝜼absorption = 1- (23)
𝑰𝑪
Where, T is the nominal cavity-receiver temperature =2000k

𝛔 the Stefan–Boltzmann constant =5.67×10-8 W/m2k4
C is concentration ratio of solar reactor and the ratio required for ZnO/Zn cycle should be of 2200
suns or higher.
I incident normal beam insolation = 882W/m2
𝟓.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟖 ×𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒
𝛈absorption = 1- = 0.53 =53%
𝟖𝟖𝟐×𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎

Exergy efficiency (chemical efficiency)
The measure of how well solar energy is converted into chemical energy for a given process is
−𝒏∆𝑮/ ̇ 𝑻𝑳
the exergy efficiency, defined as: 𝜼exergy = ̇ (24)
𝑸𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓
𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 =I×A =882W/m2×1276m2 =1125.4KW

Qsolar is the solar power input, 𝐧̇ is the molar flow rate of the products, and ∆G is the maximum
possible amount of work (Gibbs free energy change) that may be extracted from the products as
they are transformed back to reactants at ambient temperature, TL = 298 K and ∆G =300KJ/mol
−𝟏𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐬×(−𝟑𝟎𝟎𝐤𝐉/𝐦𝐨𝐥)
𝛈exergy = =0.27=27%
𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟓.𝟒
The second law of thermodynamics is now applied to calculate the theoretical maximum exergy
efficiency 𝛈exergy, ideal. Since the conversion of solar process heat to chemical energy is limited by
both the solar absorption efficiency and the Carnot efficiency, the maximum ideal exergy
efficiency is given by [34];
𝜼exergy, ideal = 𝜼absorption × 𝜼carnot (25)
And the Carnot efficiency is given by: 𝛈carnot =1-TL/TH =1-298k/2000k = 0.85 = 85%
𝛈exergy, ideal = 0.53 × 0.85 = 0.45 = 45%
Because of the Carnot limit, one should try to operate thermochemical processes at the highest
upper temperature possible; however, from a heat-transfer perspective, the higher the temperature,
the higher the re-radiation losses.
The exergy efficiency is an important criterion for judging the relative industrial potential of the
solar process. The higher the exergy efficiency, the lower is the required solar collection area for
producing a given amount of solar H2, and, consequently, the lower are the costs incurred for the
solar concentrating system, which usually correspond to half of the total investments for the entire
solar chemical plant (Steinfeld, 2002). Thus, high exergy efficiency implies favorable economic
competitiveness.
“solar-to-hydrogen” conversion efficiency (STH)
To describe the true hydrogen production efficiency of a water-splitting reaction under solar
thermochemical method, a term called “solar-to-hydrogen” conversion efficiency (STH) is often
used [8]. The definition of STH conversion efficiency is shown in Equation 26:
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝑯 /𝒔×(∆𝑮)
STH = 𝑰(𝒘/𝒎𝟐𝟐).𝑨(𝒎𝟐) (26)

Where the denominator is the total power of incident solar radiation multiplied by the area
irradiated by the incident radiation, and the numerator is the product of the H2 evolution rate
(1mol/s) and the Gibbs free energy for generating one mole of H2 from water.
The decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen is a chemical reaction with large positive
Gibbs free energy (∆G = 237 kJ/mol). Thus,
𝟏𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝑯𝟐 /𝒔×(𝟐𝟑𝟕𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍)
STH = =21%
𝟖𝟖𝟐(𝒘/𝒎𝟐 ).𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟔(𝒎𝟐 )
Stagnation temperature:
The highest temperature an ideal solar cavity-receiver is capable of achieving, defined as the
stagnation temperature Tstagnation (maximum temperature of a blackbody absorber), is calculated by
setting ηexergy,ideal equal to zero, yielding
𝑰𝑪 𝟖𝟖𝟐×𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎
Tstagnation = ( 𝝈 )𝟎.𝟐𝟓 = (𝟓.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟖 )𝟎.𝟐𝟓 = 2418k
Optimum temperature:
Optimum temperature of the solar cavity receiver for maximum exergy efficiency. However, an
energy-efficient process must run at temperatures that are substantially below Tstagnation. There is
an optimum temperature Toptimum for maximum efficiency obtained by setting
𝝏𝜼𝒆𝒙𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚,𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍
=0 (27)
𝝏𝑻
Assuming a uniform power flux distribution, this relation yields the following implicit equation
for Toptimum [34]:
𝟑 𝑰𝑪
𝑻𝟓 optimum - 𝟒TL𝑻𝟒 optimum - TL 𝟒𝝈 =0 (28)
𝟑 𝟖𝟖𝟐×𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝟓 optimum - 𝟒 × 𝟐𝟗𝟖 × 𝑻𝟒 optimum - 𝟐𝟗𝟖 × =0
𝟒×𝟓.𝟔𝟕−𝟖
𝑻𝟓 optimum - 𝟐𝟐𝟑. 𝟓𝑻𝟒 optimum – 2.55 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 =0

The above equation was solved numerically and gives Toptimum =1255k.

3.7 Design of Heat Recovery Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger can be defined as any device that transfers heat from one fluid to another that
are at different temperatures.
Some of the specific applications of heat exchangers are:
 In space heating and air-conditioning,
 power production,
 waste heat recovery, and
 Chemical processing.
Heat exchangers may be classified according to [19]:
 Flow arrangement,
 Parallel flow,
 Counter flow,
 Cross flow.
 Construction type
 Shell and tube heat exchanger,

 Plate heat exchanger,
 Run around coil heat exchanger.
 Number of fluid passes,
 Two pass,
 Three pass, …
 Compactness
 Gas to liquid,
 Liquid to liquid,
 Phase change.
The main purpose of this heat recovery system is cooling the product gases and heating the feed
water in order to get hydrogen from thermochemical water splitting autothermally. So, in order

to recover the heat from the product gases and to avoid recombination, it is better to use heat
exchanger.
We know that Zn melts at 692 K and has a boiling point of 1180 K. Therefore after reduction, the
product gas stream (Zn (g) + 1/2O2) has to be quenched in order to separate O2 from Zn to avoid
recombination.
Gaseous products Zn (g) and O2 exit the cavity through the shell of the heat exchanger, referred to as
the “quench unit”. Zinc, even if it is used as a galvanizing metal against corrosion, is metastable at
room temperature. Like aluminum and other non-noble metals, zinc is inert to oxygen at room
temperature because of the formation of a 'protecting skin" (thin metal oxide layer on its surface)
preventing the particle from bulk oxidation.
The quenching process consists of:
 Recovering heat to vapourize water for hydrolysis and,
 Cooling the gaseous products below the Zn saturation and solidification points to avoid
recombination.
After quenching/ freezing products gas below the nucleation point for the particles (1180 K),
sensible heat can be recovered from the process in heat exchanger. This sensible heat can be used
to preheat the feed water before it inters to the hydrolyser, and reducing the overall thermal load
for the process. This heat includes the sensible heat of the unreacted ZnO, and the sensible
heat/heat of fusion for the Zn products.
Thus, heat exchangers are devices that facilitates the exchange of heat between these two fluids
that are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. In heat
exchanger design, there are three types of flow arrangements: counter-flow, parallel-flow, and
cross-flow. In the counter-flow heat exchanger, both fluids entered the exchanger from opposite
sides. In the parallel-flow heat exchanger, the fluids come in from the same end and move parallel
to each other as they flow to the other side. The cross-flow heat exchanger moves the fluids in a
perpendicular fashion [17, 19].
The most effective configuration from a heat transfer standpoint is a counter flow design (also
called counter current). In a counter flow arrangement the hot fluid and cold fluid move in opposite
directions, such that , at one terminal point; the hot side inlet temperature (hottest) is in contact
with the cold side outlet temperature (hottest) and at the other terminal point; the cold side inlet
temperature (coldest) is in contact with the hot side outlet temperature (coldest). Counter flow

designs are most valuable when there is a temperature cross. A temperature cross occurs when
the desired outlet temperature of one fluid is between the inlet and outlet temperatures
of the other fluid [17, 19].
Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and conduction
through the wall separating the two fluids. In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to
work with an overall heat transfer coefficient U that accounts for the contribution of all these
effects on heat transfer. The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat
exchanger depends on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies
along the heat exchanger. In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is usually convenient to work with
the logarithmic mean temperature difference LMTD, which is an equivalent mean temperature
difference between the two fluids for the entire heat exchanger [17, 19].
Figure 3.13 shell and tube heat exchanger
Advantages of shell and tube heat exchanger:
 Large surface area in a small volume.

 Good mechanical layout.
 Uses well established fabrication methods.
 Can be constructed from a wide variety of materials.
 Easily cleaned and maintained.

 Well established design procedures.
Selection of tube material
To transfer heat well, the tube material should have good thermal conductivity. Because heat is
transferred from a hot to a cold side through the tubes, there is a temperature difference through
the width of the tubes. Because of the tendency of the tube material to thermally expand differently
at various temperatures, thermal stresses occur during operation. This is in addition to any stress
from high pressures from the fluids themselves. The tube material also should be compatible with
both the shell and tube side fluids for long periods under the operating conditions (temperatures,
pressures, pH, etc.) to minimize deterioration such as corrosion [23,25].
All of these requirements call for careful selection of strong, thermally-conductive, corrosion-
resistant, high quality tube materials, typically metals, including;
- Copper alloy, - Stainless steel,
- Carbon steel, - Non-ferrous copper alloy,
- Nickel, and - Titanium.
Poor choice of tube material could result in a leak through a tube between the shell and tube sides
causing fluid cross contamination and possibly loss of pressure [25].
3.7.1 Design of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Assumption
Use of log mean temperature difference for evaluation of heat transfer relation is valid based on
certain simplifying assumptions about the heat exchangers analyzed here; these are [19]:
 The heat exchanger can be modeled as steady-flow devices.

 The mass flow rate of each fluid remains constant, and the fluid properties such as
temperature and velocity at any inlet or outlet remain the same.
 No heat is generated or lost via chemical or nuclear reactions, mechanical work, or other
means
 Axial heat conduction along the tube is usually insignificant and can be considered
negligible

 Overall heat transfer coefficient is a constant at all locations of the heat exchanger.
 There is no fouling.
 The outer surface of the heat exchanger is assumed to be perfectly insulated, so that there
is no heat loss to the surrounding medium, and any heat transfer occurs between the two
fluids only.
Under these assumptions, the first law of thermodynamics requires that the rate of heat transfer
from the hot fluid be equal to the rate of heat transfer to the cold one. Since the rate of heat transfer
requires phase change process, the total heat loss is the sum of sensible heat and latent heat.
𝑸̇ = 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 + 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 (29)

The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-change process is called the latent
heat. More specifically, the amount of energy absorbed during melting is called the latent heat of
fusion and is equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing/quenching. Similarly,
the amount of energy absorbed during vaporization is called the latent heat of vaporization and
is equivalent to the energy released during condensation [49].
Latent heat of quenching of zinc gas, hzn = 118kJ/kg
Latent heat of vaporization of water, hw =2260kJ/kg
The specific heat of a gas mixture can be expressed as;
𝐶𝑝,𝑚 = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑚𝑓𝑖 𝐶𝑝,𝑖
𝐶𝑝,𝑧𝑛 =0.39J/kg.k 𝐶𝑝,𝑂2 = 1.125kJ/kg.k
Where, 𝒎𝒇𝒊 is the ratio of the mass of a component to the mass of the mixture is called the mass
𝑚
fraction mf: 𝑚𝑓𝑖 = 𝑚 𝑖
𝑚
0.065 0.016
mfzn = 0.081 = 0.8 𝑦𝑂2 = 0.081 =0.2
𝐶𝑝,𝑚 = mfzn× 𝐶𝑝,𝑧𝑛 + 𝑚𝑓𝑂2 × 𝐶𝑝,𝑂2 = 0.8× 0.39kJ/kg.k + 0.2×1.125KJ/kg.k = 0.537kJ/kg.k
The relations given above are exact for ideal-gas mixtures, and approximate for real-gas mixtures.
Ideal-gas mixtures gases that comprise a mixture are often at a high temperature and low pressure

relative to the critical-point values of individual gases. In such cases, the gas mixture and its
components can be treated as ideal gases with negligible error.
 First consider the energy balance to find out the values of some unknown temperature
values. Certainly some inputs like hot fluid inlet and outlet temperatures, cold fluid inlet
temperature, and mass flow rates of the two fluids are needed to serve the purpose. The
energy balance equation may be given as:
The heat loss during quenching process of hot gases (Zn & O2) will be calculated as;
Q̇1 = 𝑚̇ℎ Cp,m (Thi − Tho ) +𝑚̇𝑧𝑛 hzn= 0.081kg/s*0.537KJ/kg.k (2000-298) + 0.065kg/s*118kJ/kg
𝐐̇𝟏 =81.67kw
And the heat transferred to the cold cooling water is
Q̇2 = 𝑚̇Cps (Tco − 100) + 𝑚̇Cpw (100 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 ) + 𝑚̇hw
Where, the first term is sensible heat of liquid phase, the second term is sensible heat of vapour
phase and hw is latent heat of vaporization of water.
Thus, by equating the rate of heat lost by the hot fluid stream and gained by the cold fluid stream
equal we can find the outlet temperature of cooling water: 𝐐̇𝟏 =𝐐̇𝟐

81.67𝑘𝑤 = 0.018 ∗ 1.97 ∗ (Tco − 373) + 0.018 ∗ 4.2 ∗ (373 − 293) + 0.018 ∗ 2260
𝐓𝐜𝐨 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟗𝒌 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟔 ℃
 Then we consider the LMTD to design shell and tube heat exchanger dimensions:
∆T2 − ∆T1
LMTD =
∆T
ln (∆T2 )
1
Where; ∆T1 = Thi − Tco = 2000 − 1359= 641
And ∆T2 = Tho − Tci = 298 − 293 =5
5−641
Therefore, LMTD = 5 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏℃
ln( )
641
Selection of fluids for tube and the shell side
The routing of the shell side and tube side fluids has considerable effects on the heat
exchanger design. Some general guidelines for positioning the fluids are given below;
Tube side fluid
 Corrosive fluids are usually best in tubes

 Hotter fluid
 Less viscous fluid
Shell side fluid
 Viscous fluids go on the shell side, since this will usually improve the rate of heat transfer.
 Cooling fluid.
Therefore, due to the above guidelines for this design the tube side fluid is the product gases and
shell side is cooling water.
The correction factor could be found using P and R empirical parameters and they can be defined
as:
T1 − T2 Tci − Tco 293 − 1359

R= = = = 0.626
t 2 − t1 Tho − Thi 298 − 2000

t 2 − t1 Tho − Thi 298 − 2000
P= = = = 0.997
T1 − t1 Tci − Thi 293 − 2000
But, when a phase change is involved, as in condensation or boiling (evaporation), the fluid
normally remains at essentially constant temperature and the relations are simplified. For this
condition, P or R becomes zero and we obtain: F=1.0 for boiling or condensation
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 × 𝐹
∆𝑇𝑚 = 131 × 1 = 131℃
The next step is to calculate the heat transfer area required of the heat exchanger:
𝑄 81670𝑤
𝐴 = 𝑈∆𝑇 = 410𝑤/𝑚2 .℃∗131℃ = 1.52m2
𝑚
Where;
 A = Outside tube surface area

 Q = heat exchange between tube and shell side
 U = Overall heat transfer coefficient; 410w/m2.℃
 ∆𝑇𝑚 = True mean temperature = 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 × 𝐹
Hence, heat transfer area; 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝟐
Tube outside Diameter and length
 The most common plain tube sizes have 15.88, 19.05, and 25.40 mm (5/8, ¾, 1 inch) tube
outside diameters.
 From the heat transfer viewpoint, smaller-diameter tubes yield higher heat transfer
coefficients and result in a more compact exchanger.
 However, larger-diameter tubes are easier to clean and more rugged.
 For mechanical cleaning, the smallest practical size is 19.05 mm and 1m long tube.
Area of one tube (neglecting thickness of tube sheets);
A = 𝜋 do L = 𝜋 × 0.01905 × 1= 0.0598m2
heat transfer area 𝐴 1.52

Number of tube = =𝜋 do L = 0.0598 = 25.4 ≈ 26
area of one tube

The bundle diameter Db, can be obtained from the empirical equation
1⁄
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 ( )
𝐾1
1⁄
26 2.207
𝐷𝑏 = 0.01905 ∗ (0.215) = 0.167m
Where, Db = bundle diameter [mm], Nt = number of tubes, do = tube outside diameter [mm]. The
values of the constants K1 and n1 are in Table 8.
For fixed typical shell clearance is 14mm
Ds = Db + clearance =167+14mm =181mm
𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑠 + 2 ∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑜 = 181 + 2 ∗ 23 = 207𝑚𝑚 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝒎
Where;
 Nt is the number of tubes

 Db is the bundle diameter
 Ds is shell internal diameter
 Do is shell outside diameter
 do is the tube outside diameter
Baffles are used to support tubes, enable a desirable velocity to be maintained for the shell side
fluid, and prevent failure of tubes due to flow-induced vibration. Baffles are used to increase the
fluid velocity by diverting the flow across the tube bundle to obtain higher transfer co-efficient.
The distance between adjacent baffles is called baffle-spacing. We can simply take the baffle
spacing equal to the shell diameter 181mm [23, 25].

Figure 3.14 Cross Section of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐮𝐛𝐬 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
No of baffle required = = =5.5≈6
𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝟏𝟖𝟏𝒎𝒎
Tube pitch is the shortest center to center distance between the adjacent tubes. The tubes are
generally placed in square or triangular patterns (pitch) as shown in the Figure 1.5. Square pattern
tube layout is preferable due to mechanical cleaning.
Sp =Sn =1.25do =1.25×0.01905 = 0.0238m = 23.8mm
Table 8 Constants Used to Calculate Tube Bundle Diameter

Figure 3.15 Square Tube Layout Pattern
3.8 Pipe Design

Material Selection
The selection of materials for piping applications is a process that requires consideration of
material characteristics appropriate for the required service. Material selected must be suitable for
the flow medium and the given operating conditions of temperature and pressure safely during the
intended design life of the product.
Galvanized steel is the best recommended for both cold and hot water because:
 More resistance to corrosion.

 Good thermal conductivity.
 More rigid.
 Cost effective.
Correct pipe sizes will ensure adequate flow rates at appliances and avoid problems.
• Oversized Pipe
 Additional & unnecessary installation costs

 Delays in obtaining hot water at outlets
 Increased heat losses from hot water pipes
• Undersized Pipe
 Inadequate delivery from outlets

 Variation and fluctuation in temperature & pressure at outlets

 Increase in noise levels
3.8.1 Hot Water Pipe Design

The design of a pipe involves the determination of inside diameter of the pipe and its wall thickness
as discussed below:
a) Inside diameter of heat pipe; the inside diameter of the pipe depends upon the flow rate of
𝜇𝑅 𝜋𝐷 2
hot water. Q=AV; V= 𝜌𝐷𝑒 and A = 4
Where, D= inside diameter of the pipe,

V= velocity of hot water flowing
Q=quantity of hot water carried per second
𝜌 =density of water @500k ≈1000-0.0178|𝑇℃ − 4℃|1.7 ± 0.2% =825kg/m3 [42].
𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds number 2300 for laminar flow
𝜇 = viscosity of water @500k
𝜇 273𝑘 273𝑘 2
ln ≈ -1.704-5.306 +7.003( ) ; 𝜇𝑜 =1.788× 10−3 kg/(m.s) [42].
𝜇𝑜 𝑇𝑘 𝑇𝑘
𝝁=0.1448× 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 kg/(m.s)

𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟖𝒌𝒈/𝒔
But Q=𝟖𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 = 21.8× 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝜋𝐷 2 𝜇𝑅𝑒
Q= × ;
4 𝜌𝐷
4𝜌𝑄 4×825×21.8×10−6
Thus, D = 𝜋𝜇𝑅 = =0.057m=57mm
𝑒 𝜋×0.1448×10−3 ×2300
b) Wall thickness of the pipe: after deciding the inside diameter of the pipe, the thickness of the
wall (t) in order to withstand the internal fluid pressure (p) may be obtained.
𝑷𝑫
t= +C
𝟐𝝈𝒕
Where, 𝜎𝑡 = allowable stress 40mpa for steel pipes

We find that for steel pipe, C=3mm, from table 8.2 [43]
0.04905𝑚𝑝𝑎×57𝑚𝑚
Thus, t= + 3mm =3.5mm
2×40𝑚𝑝𝑎
Therefore, the outer diameter of the pipe will be Do =D+2t =64mm

3.8.2 Cold Water Pipe Design
Similarly, the cold water pipe we can calculate the diameter and thickness of the pipe with the
same material.
I. Inside diameter of pipe; the inside diameter of the pipe depends upon the flow rate of cold
𝜇𝑅 𝜋𝐷 2
water. Q=AV; V= 𝜌𝐷𝑒 and A = 4

V= velocity of cold water flowing
Q=quantity of cold water carried per second
𝜌 =density of cold water 1000kg/m3
𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds number 2300 for laminar flow
𝜇 = viscosity of cold water =0.799× 10−3 kg/(m.s)
Q= × ;
4 𝜌𝐷
4𝜌𝑄 4×1000×18×10−6
Thus, D = 𝜋𝜇𝑅 = =0.01267m=13mm
𝑒 𝜋×0.799×10−3 ×2300
II. Wall thickness of the pipe: after deciding the inside diameter of the pipe, the thickness of the
wall (t) in order to withstand the internal fluid pressure (p) may be obtained.
𝑷𝑫
t= +C
𝟐𝝈𝒕
Where, 𝜎𝑡 = allowable stress 40mpa for steel pipes

We find that for steel pipe, C=3mm, from table 8.2 [43]
0.04905𝑚𝑝𝑎×13𝑚𝑚
Thus, t= + 3mm =3.0079mm =3mm
2×40𝑚𝑝𝑎
Therefore, the outer diameter of the pipe will be Do =D+2t =19mm
3.8.3 Hydrogen Gas Piping Design

Piping Materials
With regard to piping material selection for gaseous hydrogen service there are two main
considerations, aside from the basic criteria for determining ASME pressure classification and
pipe material. Those two considerations are hydrogen attack and the high degree of concern with
regard to leak potential.

Carbon steel is acceptable for use in hydrogen service when operating temperatures remain below
500°F (468°c). Hydrogen attack occurs when hydrogen is contained under high partial pressure in
combination with high temperatures. When the partial pressure of hydrogen is expected to
be approximately 200 PSI, at temperatures above approximately 500°F, carbon steel is not
recommended [45].
Hydrogen has problems with both hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion. Hydrogen has an
active electron, and therefore behaves somewhat like a halogen. For this reason, hydrogen pipes
have to resist corrosion. The problem is compounded because hydrogen can easily migrate into
the crystal structure of most metals. For metal piping at pressures up to 7,000 psi (48 MPa), high-
purity stainless steel piping with a maximum hardness of 80 HRB is preferred.
Low melting point materials
Low melting point materials (for example, aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, and solders with a
melting point temperature less than 1000 °F (537.8 °C) have reduced strength at elevated
temperatures. Aluminum and copper alloys are relatively immune to hydrogen embrittlement, but
are not used frequently in high pressure service because of their low strength levels [44].
Plastic materials
Plastic piping shall not be used in hydrogen service except when used under controlled conditions
for low-flow and low pressure laboratory applications. The permeability of the plastic material
shall be reviewed to ensure suitability for the application [44].
Additional requirements for high pressure service
Seamless pipes and tubes are preferred. Unannealed welded pipes are susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement crack propagation (from welding flaws) at the weld and weld heat-affected zone
(HAZ) and therefore are not recommended for high pressure hydrogen service. When using
flexible metal hoses, care should be taken to avoid high velocities and materials susceptible to
hydrogen cracking [44].
Since hydrogen, with a molecular weight of 2, has such a high propensity to leak, with
potentially devastating results, it is imperative that a piping system be designed to limit those

leak points, and to provide a high degree of assurance for those possible leak points that cannot
be avoided [45].
In an effort to limit potential leak points it is suggested that a piping system be entirely welded
with the exception of flanged joints at equipment and/or valving. Threaded joints should typically
be avoided with pipe to pipe joints butt welded. Carbon steel should be post-weld heat treated.
After welding, pipe within the heat-affected zone (HAZ) becomes susceptible to hydrogen
attack, even at ambient temperatures. And while hydrogen attack mainly occurs at elevated
temperatures this step will reduce, if not eliminate, that possibility entirely.
Design of Hydrogen Pipe
 Pipe internal diameter; the inside diameter of the pipe depends upon the flow rate of
𝜇𝑅 𝜋𝐷 2
hydrogen gas. Q=AV; V= 𝜌𝐷𝑒 and A = 4
And we know that the volume flow rate of hydrogen gas in the pipe will be:
𝒎̇ 𝟓𝟐𝟎×𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟖𝒌𝒈𝑯𝟐 /𝟔×𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
Q= 𝝆 = = 0.024m3/s
𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

V= velocity of flowing gas
Q=quantity of gas carried per second
𝜌 =density of hydrogen gas 0.08375kg/m3
𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds number 2300 assuming laminar gas flow
𝜇 = viscosity hydrogen gas =8.813× 10−6 kg/(m.s)
Q= × ;
4 𝜌𝐷
4𝜌𝑄 4×0.08375×0.024
Thus, D = 𝜋𝜇𝑅 = =0.126m=126mm
𝑒 𝜋×8.813×10−6 ×2300
Pipe Design Formula. The design pressure for steel gas piping systems or the nominal wall
thickness for a given design pressure is determined by the following formula [21]:
P=2StFET/D (30)
Where, P = permissible design pressure, (20mpa) for steel pipes
S = yield strength, 200mpa (table 2.5 of [43])
D = nominal outside pipe diameter=0.126m, previously calculated
t = nominal pipe wall thickness
F = design factor. Value depends on location class =0.80, (Tables C6.2 and C6.3) [21]
E = longitudinal pipe joint factor =1.0 for seamless pipes (Table C6.5) [21]
T = temperature derating factor =1.0 for steel pipes (Table C6.5) [21]
𝑃𝐷 20𝑚𝑝𝑎×0.126𝑚
Thus, nominal pipe wall thickness t =2𝑆𝐹𝐸𝑇 = 2×200𝑚𝑝𝑎×1.0×0.80×1.0 = 6mm
3.9 Insulation Design

Components that need insulation are;
 Hot water pipe,

 Waste heat recovery heat exchanger,
 Thermochemical solar reactor and,
 Hydrolyser.
The following are some common design criteria used in insulation system design for piping
applications:
 Controlling heat loss,
 Economic optimization or energy conservation,
 Providing personnel protection,
 Limiting or retarding surface condensation,
 Providing process control,
 Providing fire protection,
 Providing freeze protection.
3.9.1 Insulating Materials Selection

Most insulation is used to prevent the conduction of heat. In some cases radiation is a factor. A
good insulator is obviously a poor conductor. Less dense materials are better insulators. The
denser the material, the closer its atoms are together. That means the transfer of energy of one
atom to the next is more effective. Thus, gases insulate better than liquids, which in turn insulate
better than solids.
An interesting fact is that poor conductors of electricity are also poor heat conductors. Wood is a
much better insulator than copper. The reason is that metals that conduct electricity allow free

electrons to roam through the material. This enhances the transfer of energy from one area to
another in the metal. Without this ability, the material-like wood-does not conduct heat well.
There are different types of insulation materials among those; polyurethane foam, fiber glass,
cellular glass, foamed plastic and calcium silicate etc are the most commonly used materials.
I. Rigid polyurethane foam
Rigid polyurethane foam is a closed-cell plastic. It is used as factory made thermal insulation
material in the form of insulation boards or block foam, and in combination with various
rigid facings as a constructional material or sandwich panel. In modest material thicknesses,
rigid polyurethane foam offers optimal thermal insulation coupled with an exceptional space-
utility advantage.
II. Fiberglass insulation
Fiberglass insulation is fibrous glass, made either plain or with a heat resistant binder in order for
the fiberglass to hold its shape. Fiberglass is the most popular insulation, and it comes in many
forms. It is most commonly used for pipe lines, it is molded and shaped into semicircular sections
and into different shapes. The binder is the critical factor for the ultimate temperature for which
it can be used. Fiberglass is recommended for temperatures up to 422℃ (𝟔𝟗𝟓𝒌). A high
temperature, flexible blanket can be used with temperatures up to 530℃.
Table 9 Thermal Properties of Insulating Materials
Insulating material Maximum allowable Thermal conductivity

temperature (℃) (w/m.k)
Fiberglass 422 0.04
polyurethane foam <130 0.03
Glass wool >200 0.048
Polystyrol foam <80 0.034
3.9.2 Hot Water Pipe Insulation

The insulation material should be dimensionally and chemically stable at high temperatures, and
resistant to weathering and dampness from condensation. In transporting pipe there is an adiabatic

section to be properly insulated to act as a heat proof. The insulation is based on the critical radius
of insulation. The best recommended insulating material for this application is fiber glass.
Figure 3.16 Pipe and Its Insulation

Having:-
 Pipe outer radius, ro=32mm

 Critical radius of insulation, rcr
 Thermal conductivity of insulation, k = 0.04 w/mk.
 Convective heat transfer coefficient of surrounding medium, h =25.4 w/m2-k
The Critical radius of insulation, rcr for cylindrical body is given by
rcr= ro + K/h= 32mm+0.04/25.4= 33.6mm
So thickness of insulation for adiabatic section of the pipe can be 1.6mm size.
3.10 Selection of Storage Tanks

3.10.1 Design of water tank
The water tank is single thin cylinder with minimum capacity of the demand of hydrogen per a
day (520m3/day). Thus, the minimum capacity of tank is 390L (kg).
1m3 =1000 L
X = 390L; X= 390/1000 =0.39 m3
This is the minimum water storage tank requirement per a day. But we select the capacity of the
tank to be 10 m3 (10,000L), so that the tank will be filled with in three weeks of time interval.

3.10.2 Hydrogen Tank and Storage Technologies
For large scale storage of solar hydrogen, unused caverns resulting from mining can be used. On
small scale, hydrogen can be transported and distributed as a gas in a tanker truck, but for industries
requiring lots of energy, pipelines are the most economical way to transport and distribute large
quantities of hydrogen.
Hydrogen storage is the key to the dissemination of fuel cell power systems and the advent of the
hydrogen economy. We must however distinguish between stationary transportation and
applications. Hydrogen storage is a common practice in industry and is governed by well-defined
safety standards. Hydrogen can easily be stored in large amounts in vessels or in underground
caverns.
However, for mobile applications, to achieve a driving range comparable to modern diesel or
gasoline vehicles, a breakthrough in on-board vehicle hydrogen storage technology is still
required. The overarching technical challenge for hydrogen storage is how to store the amount of
hydrogen required for a conventional driving range within the vehicular constraints of weight,
volume, efficiency, safety and cost.
Low-cost, energy-efficient off-board storage of hydrogen will also be needed throughout the
hydrogen delivery system infrastructure, at hydrogen production sites, hydrogen refueling stations,
and stationary power sites. These are less restrictive in terms of weight and volume, but “footprint”
and filling/unfilling time limitations may arise.
The available technological options include the following:
 compressed hydrogen,
 liquid hydrogen,
 in a chemical compound
 metal hydride hydrogen storage
I. Since the cost of liquefaction is high, the bulk storage of hydrogen can be made in the form of
compressed gas in underground caverns, where it can be stored like natural gas.

II. Hydrogen in a chemical combination with other elements like methane and ammonia is more
amenable to storage.
III. Liquid hydrogen has a mass energy density three times greater than oil. Its use is attractive for
heavy surface transport and aircraft. For energy storage, liquid hydrogen is not so attractive
because of its low density. Ammonia and methane, as liquids, are more efficient in this aspect.
IV. The principal disadvantage of gaseous hydrogen as storage medium is that it takes up large
space, it is explosive and it is not leak-proof.
Compressed gas cylinders: are the most common technology used in the demonstration of fuel
cell vehicles. A pressure of 350 bar is considered sufficient for most city buses and urban utility
vehicles, whereas a minimum of 700 bar is necessary for passenger cars (due to their requirements
in operating range and consumer space). The recent development of high-pressure tanks (700 bar)
allows fuel and storage energy densities comparable to liquid hydrogen, but which are still lower
than for gasoline and diesel.
Table 10 Possible Storage Forms of Hydrogen
Storage form Advantages Disadvantages
Compressed gas  reliable  Higher capital and operating cost

 indefinite storage time  Heat can cause container rupture
 easy to use
Liquid  high density at low  high cost
pressure  low temperature needed
 escape can cause fire or
asphyxiation
Metal hydride  high volume efficiency  expensive materials

 easy recovery  heavy storage tanks
 very safe

3.10.3 Tank Material Selection
Three isotopes of hydrogen are known, hydrogen or protium (H), deuterium (D), and the unstable
tritium (T). All the isotopes of hydrogen form covalent molecules like H2, D2, and T2,
respectively, because of the single electron in the atom. Hydrogen has an ambivalent behavior
towards other elements, occurring as an anion (H−) or cation (H+) in ionic compounds, forming
covalent bonds, e.g. with carbon, or even behaving like a metal to form alloys or intermetallic
compounds at ambient temperature.
Table 11 Hydrogen Gas Tank Materials
Type Material Approximate maximum pressure

I Metal tank (steel/aluminum) aluminum 175 bars (17.5 MPa), steel
200 bars (20 MPa)
II aluminum with filament windings like 263 bars (26.3 MPa),
glass fiber or carbon fiber
III composite material, fiberglass or 305 bars (30.5 MPa)
carbon fiber
IV Composite tanks such as carbon fiber 661 bars (66.1 MPa).
with a polymer liner (thermoplastic)
 Hydrogen storage tank is single thick cylinder with minimum capacity of the demand of
hydrogen per a day (520m3/day) at NTP. But hydrogen should be stored either of the above
storage options and we select for our analysis compressed gas storage tank.

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Summary of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitter Results

An application of beam down solar tower reflector technology for solar hydrogen production
has been proposed. The various parameters influencing the optimization of the beam down
reflector system have been discussed. The performance of the beam down is critical in order to
achieve a cost-efficient system, and for this secondary concentrator or compound parabolic
concentrator is used at the top of reactor/ receiver locater at the ground to further increase the
performance or concentration ratio.
Table 12 Summary of Relevant System Design and Analysis Parameters for Beam down
Reflector
Parameter Value
Tower height (THT) 75m
Tower reflector radius (RTR) 5m
Heliostat size 2m×2m
Total reflector Area 1276m2
Number of heliostats 319
Inner field radius (RFI) 7.5m
Outer field radius (RFO) 105m
Solar zenith angle 𝜃𝑍 24.7°
Inclination angle n of a single heliostat 15°
Azimuthal spacing of heliostat ∆Z 11m
Radial row spacing of heliostat ∆R 4m
Reflectivity 94%

Operating temperature 2000k
Thermochemical reactor aperture radius 5cm
Aperture window reflectivity 5%
Mirror cleanness 95%
The higher the exergy efficiency, the lower is the required solar collection area for producing a
given amount of solar fuel and, consequently, the lower are the costs incurred for the solar
concentrating system, which usually correspond to half of the total investments for the entire solar
chemical plant. Thus, high exergy efficiency implies favorable competitiveness.
Table 13 Summary of Energy Requirements and Thermodynamic Analysis of Solar

Thermochemical Water Splitting
Assumptions TL = 298 K, TH= 2000 K,
p=1 bar, C=2200suns, 𝑛̇ =1 mol/s
Qsolar 1125.4KW
Qrerad 675.4kw
Qreactor,net 450KW
Irrreactor 1.7783kw/k
Qhydrolyzer 62KW
Irrhydrolyzer 0.711kw/k
𝛈absorption 53%
𝛈Carnot 85%
𝛈exergy,ideal 45%
𝛈exergy 27%

Solar to H2 conversion efficiency (STH) 21%
Tstagnation 2418k
Toptimum 1255k
Table 14 Summary of Geometric Dimensions and Parameters of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Heat exchanger pipe length, L 1000mm

Tube outer diameter, do 19.05mm
Shell inner diameter, Ds 181mm
Shell outside diameter, Do 207mm
Number of tubes, Nt 26
Number of baffles. Nb 6
Pitch, Sp 23.8mm
Heat transfer area of heat exchanger 1.52m2
Tube layout Square
Flow arrangement Counter flow
Number of fluid pass One pass
4.2 Thermal Analysis of Heat Exchanger
The 3D modeling of waste heat recovery heat exchanger is designed using CATIA software. All
the drawing dimensions are in mm and it is saved in IGES format and it can be imported to ANSYS
to perform steady state thermal analysis.
Input parameters:
Product gases temperature (Zn +1/2O2) =2000k
Inlet water temperature = 20℃ =293k
Emissivity = 0.92
Radiation = 882 W/m2

Figure 4. 2 plot of heat transfer analysis using ANSYS

Figure 4.2 temperature contour of shell and tube heat exchanger

CHAPTER FIVE
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
5.1 Economic Analyses of Solar Thermochemical Water Splitter

Hydrogen is an alternative fuel must be technically feasible, economically viable, easily convert
to another energy form when combusted, be safe to use, and be potentially harmless to the
environment. Since hydrogen does not exist freely in nature, it can be produced from a variety of
sources such as steam reformation of natural gas, gasification of coal, and electrolysis of water.
From chapter two different solar hydrogen production methods were compared with other
production technologies selected, namely: steam methane reforming, and coal gasification. Solar
hydrogen production methods specifically ZnO/Zn thermochemical water splitting shows
distinctly lower or no greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than fossil-based production methods. For
example, using solar hydrogen in fuel cell cars reduces life cycle GHG emissions by 70%
compared to advanced fossil fuel. Solar hydrogen production allows a reduction of fossil energy
requirements by a factor of up to 10 compared to using conventional technologies. Despite high
infrastructure demands and production cost, solar energy stored in H2 and used in automobiles was
found to be a promising option for substituting fossil-based fuels in sustainable future
transportation systems [18].
Economic analyses have been carried out to determine the long-term potential of the Zn/ZnO-
cycle realized in a solar beam down tower system. The cost of H2 ranged between 0.10 and 0.15
$/kWh (based on its LHV), and thus might become competitive with other paths for producing
solar H2 from H2O. Credit for pollution abatement and CO2 mitigation can accelerate the
deployment of the solar thermochemical technology. A comparison of H2 produced via steam
methane reforming and the Zn/ZnO cycle concluded that a significantly higher carbon tax is
required to make the Zn/ZnO competitive than is likely to be implemented. Therefore, the
economic viability of the Zn/ZnO cycle must also include competitive, incentive policies that lead
to early implementation of solar H2 plants. On the other hand, the Zn/ZnO cycle can be applied to
split H2O and produce H2, thereby laying the path to the solar production of future fuel for fueling
the transportation sector and other energy consuming infrastructure. Hydrogen gas can used in
traditional gasoline-powered internal combustion engines (ICE) with minimal conversions.
However, vehicles with polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells provide a greater

efficiency. Hydrogen gas combusts with oxygen to produce water vapor. Even the production of
hydrogen gas can be emissions-free with the use of renewable energy sources [18].
The current price of hydrogen is about $8 to $12 (160-240 Birr) per kilogram is equivalent
to gasoline at $1.60 to $4.80 (32-96) per gallon. However, in fuel cell vehicles, such as
the 2009 Honda FCX Clarity, 1 kg provides about 68 miles of travel [18]. Ongoing research and
implementation toward a hydrogen economy is required to make this fuel economically feasible.
The current focus is directed toward hydrogen being a clean alternative fuel that produces
insignificant greenhouse gas emissions. If hydrogen is the next transportation fuel, the primary
energy source used to produce the vast amounts of hydrogen will necessarily be a renewable, clean
source.
5.2 Cost Analysis of solar thermochemical water splitter
Economic assessments indicate that solar thermochemical processes for the production of
hydrogen and other solar fuels have the potential of becoming economically competitive with
alternative paths for producing solar fuels, such as via electrolysis using solar-generated electricity.
This study further indicate that the heliostat field is responsible for about half of the total
investment costs for the entire chemical plant. However, for a fixed product throughput, the solar
reactor’s efficiency dictates the size of the heliostat field. Thus, reaching high solar reactor
efficiencies and reducing the cost of the heliostats per unit area will have a significant impact on
reducing the unit cost of the solar fuel. Application of credits for CO2 mitigation and pollution
avoidance will further enable the solar thermochemical technologies to compete favorably with
fossil-fuel-based processes. Currently, the most expensive component of the entire hydrogen
production plant is the solar beam down heliostat field.
Table 15 Bill of Material and Cost Analysis

No. Part name QTY Dimension Material Unit cost Total cost
(𝐿 × 𝑤 × 𝐻) (Birr) (Birr)
1 Reflecting 1276m2 2m× 2𝑚 × Aluminum sheet 1500 1,914,000
mirror/module 0.002𝑚
2 Reflector support 319 0.15m× Cast steel 500 159,500
structure 0.15𝑚 ×1.5m
3 Tower 3 0.15m× Cast steel 1800 5400
0.15𝑚 ×75m
4 Secondary reflector 1 5m× 5𝑚 × Aluminum sheet 3200 3200
0.002𝑚
5 Compound parabolic 1 15cm× 50𝑐𝑚 Aluminum sheet 200 200
concentrator (CPC)
6 Reactor/receiver 1 - Alumina 3500 3500
7 Hydrolyser 1 - Alumina (Al2O3) 4000 4000
8 Heat exchanger 1 - - 8300 8000
9 Water storage tank 1 10m3 Mild steel 14000 14000
10 Hydrogen storage 1 10 m3 Composite plastic 13000 13000
tank
11 Hydrogen pipe 1 ∅126mm Steel 750 650
12 cold water pipe 1 ∅20mm Galvanized steel 350 250
13 Hot water pipe 1 ∅57mm Galvanized steel 250 200
14 Flow control valves 2 - Steel 60 120
15 Joints and fittings 6 - Steel 35 410
16 Foundation work - - Concrete 18000 24000
17 Insulating material - - Fiber glass 450 680
Total 2,151,110
 In order to know whether solar thermochemical splitter plant is economical feasible or not,
plant cost estimation and costs of hydrogen fuel were performed. We know that the minimum
amount of hydrogen gas produced was 520 Nm3 (520× 0.0899 = 46.8𝑘𝑔) per day with

average sunshine hour of six hour. And the price of hydrogen is 160-240Birr per kilogram. i.e.
46.8kg ×200Birr/kg =9,360 Birr per day. Thus, the money that we get from this chemical plant
annually is 9,360× 365 = 3,416,400Birr.
 The only cost of this solar thermochemical water splitter plant is cost of installation because:
 less maintenance cost because there is no moving mechanical parts,
 no material consumption that is sunlight and water are cost less ZnO recycles in
process,
 no conventional energy consumption such as electricity,
 less labor costs
 This cost is 2,151,110 Birr and payback period of the plant is eight months (240 days) of
working hour.

CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Conclusion
Energy is a vital need in all aspects and due to the increasing demand for energy coupled
with its in efficient consumption, the environment has been polluted either directly or indirectly.
To prevent this from becoming a global disaster, it is inevitable to strengthen efforts of energy
generation and utilization using sustainable means and progressively substituting the fossil
fuels for renewable sources of energy.
In the past, the limiting factors of renewable energy have been the storage and transport of that
energy. With the use of fuel cells and hydrogen technology, electrical power from renewable
energy sources can be delivered where and when required, cleanly, efficiently and sustainably.
Thus, hydrogen could be the fuel of the future because it is the vital solution for energy crisis and
to environmental pollution (GHG).
We have outlined the systematic approach to realize the science and technology required to
produce H2 in two-step H2O splitting thermochemical cycles via Zn/ZnO redox reactions. Second-
law analyses indicate the potential of achieving high solar-to-chemical energy conversion
efficiencies and, consequently, economic competitiveness with other routes for producing
solar fuels from H2O.
 Thus, solar thermochemical water splitter has favorable long term prospects because it avoids
or reduce costs for CO2 mitigation and pollution abatement. The products are renewable fuels
and material commodities for delivering clean and sustainable energy services. So that further
research and development toward optimization and scale-up of the solar thermochemical
process and reactor technology is warranted. As already presented in this work, Ethiopia has
giant amount of renewable and sustainable energy resources such as sunlight and water if used
in the right way. It is concluded that hydrogen energy, is a feasible alternative for Ethiopia in
future.

Recommendations
 Finally we recommend that due to time some part of the project should be continued by
interested groups so that it will be complete and very helpful for the countries prosperity. These
includes:
 Work on liquefaction of hydrogen gas so as to store hydrogen as liquid,
 Design of two axis tracking mechanism,
 Design and selection of hydrogen gas compressor to store hydrogen as compressed gas.
 People spent lots of money and time to dig out fossil fuels from the earth’s crust but water and
sunlight are always around us without the limitation of geographical location. So people should
capture these inexhaustible energy to generate hydrogen energy, which is clean, energy
efficient and environmentally friendly because its end use will not produce pollutants,
greenhouse gases, nor any harmful effect on the environment.
 For the future the Ethiopian ministry of energy and mining should give great attention to the
development and installation of solar thermochemical water splitter and encourage local and
foreign investors to do more on this area.
 The transportation sector of the country is also one of the most important sectors to consider
whenever energy consumption is discussed as the majority of petroleum import and a
considerable CO2 emission in the country is associated with it. The sector also poses an
economic challenge to the country as up to 77 % of Ethiopia’s total export earnings goes
directly to meet Nation’s fuel demand. As a result it is very important to find a way to deal
with the situation and reduce the social, environmental and economic challenges of the country
by developing different sustainable energy supply systems such as hydrogen energy.
 While the conventional energy and biofuel industry is under different criticisms for its
negative impacts on the environment and most importantly on energy and food security
issues, the Ethiopian energy industry finds itself planning to boost its engagement in
the renewable hydrogen energy production of hydrogen.

References
[1] Mekuria Lemma, “Contribution of Energy Efficiency towards poverty alleviation”; Ethiopian
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Cycle Based on Zn/ZnO Redox Reactions, 12 November 2010.
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[34] Aldo Steinfeld & Robert Palumbo, Solar Thermochemical Process Technology,
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Appendix A: Detail drawing

100
101
102
103
104
105
106
Appendix B: Property Tables
Table 1: Hydrogen properties [38]
Properties Value Units

Name Hydrogen -
Symbol H -
Atomic number 1 -
Atomic weight 1.00797 -
Electron configuration 1s1 -
Melting point -259.2 ℃
Boiling point -252.7 ℃
Density (NTP) 0.08375 Kg/m3
Viscosity (NTP) 8.813× 10−5 g/cm.sec
Specific volume (NTP) 11.94 m3/kg
Thermal conductivity (NTP) 0.1825 w/m.k
Enthalpy (NTP) 3858.1 KJ/kg
Entropy (NTP) 53.14 kJ/kg.k
Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp (NTP) 14.29 kJ/kg.k
Specific heat at constant volume, Cv (NTP) 10.16 kJ/kg.k
Auto ignition temperature 585 ℃
Lower heating value (LHV) 120.21 MJ/kg
Higher heating value (HHV) 142.18 MJ/kg
Source: Adapted from: U.S. DOE. Hydrogen Analysis Resource Centre.
Table 2: Hydrogen-Energy equivalence
Hydrogen-Energy equivalence
H2 (kg) H2 (gas) [Nm3] H2 (liquid) [liter] Energy [MJ] Energy [kw.h]
1 11.12 14.12 120 33.33
0.0899 1 1.27 10.8 3
0.0708 0.788 1 8.495 2.359
0.00833 0.0926 0.1177 1 0.278

107
0.03 0.333 0.424 3.6 1
Source: Adapted from AEH2 [44]
Zinc property table
Properties Value Unit

Name Zinc -
Symbol Zn -
Electron configuration 4S2 -
Phase solid -
Atomic number 30 -
Atomic mass 65.38 -
Density 7.14 g/cm3
Thermal conductivity 116 w/m.k
Melting point 692.68 K
Boiling point 1180 K
Latent heat of fusion 118/7.32 kJ/kg/kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization 115 kJ/mol
Specific heat capacity, Cp 0.39 kJ/kg.k
Molar heat capacity, C 25.2 J/mol.k

108

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JIMMA UNIVERSITY

JIMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING i

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ii

To: School of Mechanical Engineering

Jimma Institute of Technology

Advisor: Mr. Dawit Kebede (MSc) Examiner:

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING iii

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING iv

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING v

Figure 2. 1: Hydrogen Production via Solar Energy ................................................................... 23

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING vi

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING vii

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

I normal beam insolation

C solar flux concentration ratio

Irrreactor irreversibility associated with the solar reactor

Irrhydrolyzer irreversibility associated with the hydrolyzer

𝑛̇ molar flow rate of reactant

𝑄̇ aperture incoming solar power intercepted by the reactor aperture

𝑄̇ reactor,net net power absorbed by the solar reactor

𝑄̇ solar total solar power coming from the concentrator

𝑄̇ hydrolyzer heat liberated in the hydrolyzer

T nominal solar cavity-receiver temperature

Tstagnation maximum temperature of a blackbody absorber

∆G Gibbs free energy change per mole of reactant

∆H enthalpy change per mole of reactant

∆S entropy change per mole of reactant

𝛈absorption solar energy absorption efficiency

𝛈Carnot efficiency of a Carnot heat engine operating between TH and TL

𝛈exergy exergy efficiency

𝛈exergy,ideal exergy efficiency of an ideal system

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ix

𝜑rim rim angle of a parabolic concentrator

𝜎 Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67×10-8Wm-2K-4)

cp Specific heat capacity

THT Geometric tower height

RFI inner field radius

RFO outer field radius

∆R radial distance between rows of heliostat

∆Z azimuthal distance between consecutive heliostats

𝜃z solar Zenith Angle

𝜶s elevation, or solar altitude angle, 𝛼 s, is defined by the angle between

Δ declination angle is in between -23.45° and 23.45°

n the inclination angle of a single heliostat

𝜃 half-acceptance angle for CPC

L Heat exchanger length

do Tube outer diameter of heat exchanger

Ds Shell inner diameter

Do Shell outside diameter

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING x

Sp Tube Pitch, is the shortest center to center distance between the

U over all heat transfer coefficient

LMTD logarithmic mean temperature difference

𝐶𝑝,𝑚 Specific heat of a gas mixture

∆𝑇𝑚 True mean temperature

σ hoop hoop stress (circumferential stress)

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING xi

JIT, SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING xii

1.1 Background of the Study