CONTENTS

Chapter Name Page. No

No.
1 INTRODUCTION 01-01
1. 1 Sequence And Series 01
1.2 Fibonacci Sequence 01
2 HISTORY OF FIBONACCI 04-04
2.1 About Fibonacci The Man 04
2.2 The life of Fibonacci 04
5 FIBONACCI SEQUENCE 07-13
5.1 The Fibonacci sequence in nature 08
5.1.1 Plants 09
5.1.2 Animals 11
5.1.3 Architecture 12
5.1.4 Art 13
5.1.5 Music 13
6 GOLDEN RATIO IN FIBONACCI 14-16
6.1 Using The Golden Ratio to Calculate Fibonacci 14
Numbers

7 GOLDEN ANGLE IN FIBONACCI 17-19

7.1 Golden Spiral In Fibonacci 18
7.2 Golden rectangle 19
8 APPLICATIONS OF FIBONACCI SEQUENCE 20-33
8.1 Fibonacci Sequence –Useing In Music 20
8.1.1 Stradivari 22
8.2 Fibonacci Coding 23

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1. INTRODUCTION
Sequence and series Is one of the basic topics in Arithmetic. An itemized collection of elements
in which repetitions of any sort are allowed is known as a sequence, whereas series is the sum of
all elements. An arithmetic progression is one of the common examples of sequence and series.


In short, a sequence is a list of items/objects which have been arranged in a sequential way.

A series can be highly generalized as the sum of all the terms in a sequence. However,
there has to be a definite relationship between all the terms of the sequence.
The fundamentals could be better understood by solving problems based on the formulas. They are
very similar to sets but the primary difference is that in a sequence, individual terms can occur
repeatedly in various positions.

Sequences and Series

A sequence is an arrangement of any objects or a set of numbers in a particular order followed by
some rule. If a1, a2, a3, a4,……… etc. denote the terms of a sequence, then 1,2,3,4,…..denotes the
position of the term.
If a1, a2, a3, a4, … is a sequence, then the corresponding series is given by SN = a1+a2+a3 + .. + aN
1.1. Types of Sequences: Some of the most common examples of sequences are

 Arithmetic Sequences
 Geometric Sequences
 Harmonic Sequences
 Fibonacci Numbers

1.1.1. Arithmetic Sequences:

A sequence in which every term is created by adding or subtracting a definite number to the
preceding number is an arithmetic sequence.

1.1.2. Geometric Sequences:

A sequence in which every term is obtained by multiplying or dividing a definite number with the
preceding number is known as a geometric sequence.

1.1.3. Harmonic Sequences:

A series of numbers is said to be in harmonic sequence if the reciprocals of all the elements of the
sequence form an arithmetic sequence.

1.1.4. Fibonacci Numbers:

Fibonacci numbers form an interesting sequence of numbers in which each element is obtained by
adding two preceding elements and the sequence starts with 0 and 1. Sequence is defined as, F0 = 0
and F1 = 1 and Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2

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1.2 Fibonacci Sequence:

The Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it:

 the 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1),

 the 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
 the 5 is (2+3),
 and so on!

Example: the next number in the sequence above is 21+34 = 55

It is that simple!

Here is a longer list:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765, 10946,
17711, 28657, 46368, 75025, 121393, 196418, 317811, ...

Can you figure out the next few numbers?

1.2.1 Makes A Spiral

When we make squares with those widths, we get a nice spiral:

Do you see how the squares fit neatly together? This spiral is found in nature!
For example 5 and 8 make 13, 8 and 13 make 21, and so on.

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1.2.2 The Rule of Fibonacci Sequence:

The Fibonacci Sequence can be written as a "Rule" (see Sequences and Series).

First, the terms are numbered from 0 onwards like this:

n= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ...

xn = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 ...

So term number 6 is called x6 (which equals 8).

Example: the 8th term is
the 7th term plus
the 6th term:

x8 = x7 + x6

So we can write the rule:

The Rule is xn = xn−1 + xn−2

where:

 xn is term number "n"

 xn−1 is the previous term (n−1)
 xn−2 is the term before that (n−2)

Example: term 9 is calculated like this:

x9= x9−1 + x9−2

 = x8 + x7

 = 21 + 13

 = 34

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2. HISTORY OF FIBONACCI
Fibonacci was not the first to know about the sequence, it was known in India hundreds of years
before!

2.1 Fibonacci The Man

His real name was Leonardo Pisano Bogollo, and he lived between 1170 and 1250 in Italy.

"Fibonacci" was his nickname, which roughly means "Son of Bonacci".

As well as being famous for the Fibonacci Sequence, he helped spread Hindu-Arabic

Numerals (like our present numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) through Europe in place of Roman
Numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, etc). That has saved us all a lot of trouble! Thank you Leonardo.

Fibonacci Day: Fibonacci Day is November 23rd, as it has the digits "1, 1, 2, 3" which is part of
the sequence. So next Nov 23 let everyone know!

2.2 The life of Fibonacci:

Leonardo Pisano, called Fibonacci (Fibonacci stands for filius Bonacii) was born in Pisa around 1170. His
father, Guglielmo dei Bonacci, a wealthy Pisan merchant and representative of the merchants of the
Republic of Pisa in the area of Bugia in Cabilia (in modern north-eastern Algeria), after 1192 took his son
with him, because he wanted Leonardo to become a merchant.
He thus got Leonardo to study, under the guidance of a Muslim teacher, who guided him in learning
calculation techniques, especially those concerning Indo-Arabic numbers, which had not yet been
introduced in Europe. Fibonacci's eduction started in Bejaia and continued also in Egypt, Syria and
Greece, places he visited with his father along the trade routes, before returning permanently to Pisa
starting from around 1200. For the next 25 years, Fibonacci dedicated himself to writing mathematical
manuscripts: of these, Liber Abaci (1202), thanks to which Europe became aware of
Indo-Arabic numbers, Practica Geometriae (1220), Flos (1225) and Liber Quadratorum (1225) are
today known to us. Leonardo's reputation as a mathematician became so great that Emperor Federico II
asked an audience while in Pisa in 1225. After 1228, not much is known of Leonardo's life, except that
he was awarded the title of"Discretus et sapiens magister Leonardo Bigollo" in recognition of the great
progress he made to mathematics. Fibonacci died sometime after 1240, presumably in Pisa.

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3 The Fibonacci sequence in nature

Observing the geometry of plants, flowers or fruit, it is easy to recognize the presence of
recurrent structures and forms. The Fibonacci sequence, for example, plays a vital role in
phyllotaxis, which studies the arrangement of leaves, branches, flowers or seeds in plants, with
the main aim of highlighting the existence of regular patterns. The various arrangements of
natural elements follow surprising mathematical regularities: D'arcy Thompson observed that
the plant kingdom has a curious preference for particular numbers and for certain spiral
geometries, and that these numbers and geometries are closely related.

We can easily find the numbers of the Fibonacci sequence in the spirals formed by individual
flowers in the composite inflorescences of daisies, sunflowers, cauliflowers and broccoli.

In the sunflower, individual flowers are arranged along curved lines which rotate clockwise and counterclockwise. Credits: The
Fibonacci sequence in phyllotaxis - Laura Resta (Degree Thesis in biomathematics)

It was Kepler who noted that on many types of trees the leaves are aligned in a pattern that
includes two Fibonacci numbers. Starting from any leaf, after one, two, three or five turns of the
spiral there is always a leaf aligned with the first and, depending on the species, this will be the
second, the third, the fifth, the eighth or the thirteenth leaf.

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Arrangement of leaves on a stem. Credits: The Fibonacci sequence

in phyllotaxis - Laura Resta (Degree Thesis in biomathematics)

Another simple example in which it is possible to find the Fibonacci sequence in nature is
given by the number of petals of flowers. Most have three (like lilies and irises), five
(parnassia, rose hips) or eight (cosmea), 13 (some daisies), 21 (chicory), 34, 55 or 89
(asteraceae). These numbers are part of the famous Fibonacci sequence described in the
previous paragraph.

Iris, 3 petals; parnassia, 5 petals; cosmea, 8 petals

3.1. The rabbits of Fibonacci

Liber Abaci, in addition to referring to Indo-Arabic numbers, which subsequently took the place
Roman numerals, also included a large collection of problems addressed to merchants,
concerning product prices, calculation of business profit, currency conversion into the various
coins in use in the Mediterranean states, as well as other problems of Chinese origin. Alongside
these commercial problems were others, much more famous, which also had a great influence on
later authors. Among them, the most famous, source of inspiration for many mathematicians of
later centuries, is the following: “How many pairs of rabbits will be born in a year, starting from
a single pair, if each month each pair gives birth to a new pair which becomes reproductive from
the second month?”. The solution to this problem is the famous "Fibonacci sequence": 0, 1, 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, 13, 21,34,55,89... a sequence of numbers in which each member is the sum of the
previous two.

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An important characteristic of the sequence is the fact that the ratio between any number and
the previous one in the series tends towards a well-defined value: 1.618… This is the golden
ratio or golden section, φ (Phi), that frequently occurs in nature.
When Fibonacci illustrated this sequence, as a solution to a "recreational mathematics"
problem, he did not give it particular importance. Only in 1877 the mathematician Édouard
Lucas published a number of important studies on this sequence, which he claimed to have
found in Liber Abaci and which, in the honour of the author, he called "Fibonacci sequence".
Studies subsequently multiplied, and numerous and unexpected properties of this sequence
were discovered, so much so that since 1963, a journal exclusively dedicated to it, "The
Fibonacci quarterly", has been published.

3.2. Plants:

One place where Fibonacci numbers consistently appear is in the leaf arrangement on plants, a
field of study known as phyllotaxis. As leaves go up a plant stem, they follow a spiral
arrangement. Starting at one leaf, let x be the number of turns of the spiral before a leaf is
reached that is directly above the first leaf. Let y be the number of leaves encountered along the
spiral between the first leaf and the last leaf in this arrangement, not counting the first. This
ratio of x/y is known as the divergence of the plant (Devlin, 2011, p. 146).

(Askipedia).

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In this phyllotactic ratio, the numerator and denominator are very often Fibonacci numbers. For
example, leaves are generated after about 3/8 of a revolution for poplar, willow, and pear trees, 1/3 for
beech and hazel, 2/5 for oak, cherry, and apple, 1/2 for elm and lime, and 5/13 for almond. Other
phyllotactic ratios include 3/5, 5/13, and 8/13 (Adam, 2003, p. 217). Also, the total number of leaves
or petals is often a Fibonacci number. To name just a few, primroses, larkspur, and buttercups have
five petals, delphiniums have eight, marigolds have thirteen, asters and chicory have twenty-one, and
various types of daisies can have thirteen, twenty-one, thirty-four, fifty-five, or eighty- nine petals
(Devlin, 2011, p. 145). The Fibonacci numbers are present in the leaf or petal arrangement of most
plants. It has been speculated that the reason these numbers are often present in such arrangements
could be to maximize the amount of light received or the space allotted for each leaf or petal on the
plant. A stem growing upwards will generate leaves, which branch out at regular angular intervals,
spiraling up the stalk. If the leaves on a stem all grew with angular intervals that were multiples of
360°, then they would be growing, one directly above the other. The top few leaves would then block
the lower leaves and prevent them from receiving as much sunlight and moisture (Adam, 2003, p.
217).
Fibonacci ratios also appear in the spiral patterns of many plants. When a growing plant shoot is
examined, the very tip of the shoot is called the apex, and clustered all around the apex are tiny lumps
known as primordia. As the plant grows, these primordia move away from the apex and eventually
become petals or leaves. These primordia, which are arranged in a spiral, determine the growth pattern
of the plant. Ones which appear earlier will migrate farther away from the apex. When the angles
between successive primordia are measured with the center of the apex as the vertex, the angles
between any two successive primordial, known as divergence angles, are basically equal. As it turns
out, the measurement of those angles is approximately 137.5°, which is the golden angle. This
arrangement results in two interconnected spirals, one of which winds clockwise, and the other
counterclockwise (Stewart, 1998, pp. 124-126). The spiraling scales on pinecones provide a clear
example. A careful examination will show that there are actually two sets of spirals. One set goes from
left to right, and the other set goes from right to left. One of these sets of spirals rises steeply up the
side of the pinecone, and the other rises much more gradually. The number of steep and the number of
gradual spirals up the side of the pinecone are almost always Fibonacci numbers, and often they are
consecutive in the Fibonacci sequence. For example, some pinecones have three gradual and five steep
spirals, while others have eight gradual and thirteen steep spirals. A similar sort of spiraling occurs in
the outer petals of artichokes and various other flower buds.
Like pinecones, there is one set of spirals going steeply in one direction and another set of spirals
going gradually in the other direction, and the number of spirals in each set is a Fibonacci number
(Garland, 1987, pp. 9-10). The same can also be found true of pineapples. A pineapple is covered in
hexagonally shaped scales, known as bracts. These bracts form spirals in three different directions,
each passing through opposing sides of the hexagon. Five spirals rise gradually in one direction, eight
spirals rise at a medium rate in a second direction, and thirteen spirals rise steeply in the third
direction, giving three consecutive Fibonacci numbers for the three different sets (Posamentier &
Lehmann, 2007, pp. 63-64).
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Additionally, the leaf stubs on the trunks of palm trees also form spirals, and the number of leaf
stub spirals is almost always a Fibonacci number. Depending on the kind of palm tree, there can be
one, two, three, five, eight, thirteen, or twenty-one spirals present (Posamentier & Lehmann, 2007, p.
73).
A similar Fibonacci spiraling tendency also surfaces when examining the centers of flowers, the spines
of various types of cacti, and the leaves on certain succulents. In this case, one set of spirals can be
found going in a clockwise direction, and a second set is found going in a counterclockwise direction.
The number of spirals going clockwise and the number of spirals going counterclockwise are
consecutive Fibonacci numbers
This is most clearly shown in the sunflower. The seeds at the center of the flower head spiral clockwise
and counterclockwise. While the numbers of spiral sets depends on the age and development of the
sunflower, they are always Fibonacci numbers. The two numbers can vary from 13 and 21, to 34 and
55, to 89 and 144 (Posamentier & Lehmann, 2007, pp. 67-69). It was discovered that if the divergence
angle was less than 137.5°, it would result in gaps in the seed head of the sunflower, and only one
direction of spirals would be apparent. Similarly, if the divergence angle was greater than 137.5°, gaps
would again appear in the seed head, and this time, spirals would only be visible winding in the other
direction. It turns out that only at the golden angle can the seeds on the seed head be packed without
gaps and both directions of spirals appear (Stewart, 1998, pp. 126-127). When the divergence angle
equals the golden angle, it results in “the most efficient packing,…that makes the most solid and robust
seed head.” (Stewart, 1998, p. 127).
When a budding rose is viewed from above, we see that the petals are unfolding in a spiraling
pattern. If the angles between any two successive petals are measured, it is found that the angles are
about 137.5°, the golden angle (Hemenway, 2005, p. 135). For centuries, scientists and mathematicians
have tried to discover the reasons behind the common appearance of Fibonacci numbers in plant growth
and development. In 1992, Yves Couder and Adrien Douady, two French mathematicians, traced the
cause of the Fibonacci numbers appearances to inherent constraints on plant development. Their work
showed that “the apparent mathematical patterns in plants do indeed arise from universal laws of the
physical world. They are not merely genetic accidents reinforced by evolution” (Stewart, 1998, p. 123).

The golden spiral, found in pinecones, flower seed heads, and pineapples, can be found in
countless other places in nature as well. The curl of a growing fern follows the pattern of a logarithmic
spiral, starting out tightly furled, but loosening as it grows. This same spiral can be traced in ocean
waves curling forward upon themselves before crashing on the shore. The spiral form within a galaxy
conforms to a golden spiral as well, as does the spiraling shape of a storm (Garland, 1987, pp. 30-31).

3.3. Animals:
Fibonacci numbers also manifest themselves in the animal kingdom.
This sequence of numbers, which first made its appearance in a problem about the regeneration of
rabbits, also shows up in the regeneration of other living creatures
numbers can be discovered by an inspection of the family tree of the male bee. There are three types of
bees living in a bee hive: the queen, who produces eggs; the male bees, who do no work; and the
female bees, who do all the work (Posamentier & Lehmann, 2007, p. 59). The female bees develop
from fertilized eggs, meaning they have both mothers and fathers. The male bees, on the other hand,
develop from unfertilized eggs, meaning they have only mothers but no fathers. They do, however,
have grandfathers, as each female bee has a father (Garland, 1987, p. 13). So one male bee has one
mother, two grandparents, three great-grandparents, five great-great-grandparents, and eight great-
great-great-grandparents. The number of bees in each preceding generation is a Fibonacci number
One of the most intriguing appearances of the Fibonacci sequence in the animal kingdom is in the spiral
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which indicates animal growth. One of the best examples of the golden spiral can be found in the shell
of the chambered nautilus. As the nautilus grows larger, the chamber in which it lives must necessarily
become larger as well, while still maintaining the same shape. As the shell increases in size, the radius
of each successive chamber increases in size as well, yet the angles of intersection between each radius
and the outer wall of the shell stay the same. This results in chambers that are shaped similarly, but
sequentially increase in size, thus creating an equiangular spiral that exhibits Fibonacci proportions.
This spiral can be found in many other places throughout the animal kingdom such as parrot beaks,
elephant tusks, the tail of a seahorse, and the horns of bighorn sheep. Other manifestations of the spiral
include spider webs, cat claws, the growth patterns of many seashells, and an insect’s path as it
approaches a light source. All these spirals possess the basic characteristics of the golden spiral, as they
all increase in size while still maintaining the same shape, and most exhibit the Fibonacci proportions in
their spirals (Garland, 1987, pp. 16, 31).
Fibonacci numbers and the golden ratio also play a part in nature exhibited by pentagons. If the
measure of a side of a pentagon is a Fibonacci number and the measure of an interior diagonal is the
next Fibonacci number in the sequence, then the pentagon is a regular pentagon. The higher the
numbers, the closer the ratio between them is to the golden ratio. Additionally, where the interior
diagonals of the pentagon intersect, they segment each other into two consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
For example, in a pentagon with side lengths of 89 and diagonals of 144, two intersecting diagonals
will divide each other into segments of 55 and 89. These pentagons appear in many places in nature,
often manifested as a star-like shape. The center design of a sand dollar bears the shape of a pentagon,
as do the shapes of many starfish, the seed placement in the cross section of an apple, and the forms of
many flowers (Garland, 1987, pp. 17-18).
These examples illustrate only a few instances where Fibonacci numbers are found in nature.
The manifestations of the Fibonacci numbers and the golden ratio are seemingly endless. When one
begins looking for these occurrences, they suddenly can be found everywhere. Snowflakes are
constructed according to the golden ratio. Pine needles often grow in groups of 2, 3, or 5. The number
of segments in most plant pods is a Fibonacci number (Garland, 1987, p. 18). These manifestations
occur far too often to be pure chance or coincidence. Instead they indicate the mathematical nature of a
world formed with order and precision.
3.4. Architecture:
One of the earliest examples can be found in the Great Pyramid at Giza. Let b be the base of a
triangle which goes from the midpoint of a side of the pyramid to the center of the square base. Let a be
the diagonal up the side of the pyramid from the same midpoint of the side to the very top of the
pyramid. For the Great Pyramid, the approximate lengths of a and b are 612.01 feet and approximately
377.9 feet,
Whether this indicates that the ancient Egyptians knew about the golden ratio, or simply that they chose
those dimensions because they were visually appealing is a point of great debate. Another well-known
example of the golden ratio in architecture is the Parthenon of ancient Greece. Located on the Acropolis
in Athens, the Parthenon was built as a temple to house the statue of the Greek goddess Athena. The
dimensions of the front of the building fit into a golden rectangle, and the structure of the building lends
itself to being partitioned off into all sorts of golden rectangles. Much of the ornamentation involves the
golden ratio in its measurements. Exactly how much of this was intentional on the part of the ancient
architects remains uncertain (Posamentier & Lehmann, 2007, pp. 232-234). The designs of many
buildings built during the Renaissance involve Fibonacci
89 numbers or the golden ratio. For example, the
Cathedral in Florence involves the Fibonacci numbers 55, 89, and 144, as well as 17, which is half of 34,
and 72, which is half of 144. The strongest example can be found in the windows,
which have proportions of 89 and 55. = 1.6181818 … , which is very close to the golden ratio
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3.5 Art:

The golden ratio also figures quite prominently in works of art, both in sculptures and in paintings. In
the case of the statue Apollo Belvedere, the measurements from his feet to his navel and from his navel
to the top of his head form the golden ratio, as do the measurements from his navel to his shoulders and
from his shoulders to the top of his head. The entire figure of the statue Aphrodite of Melos is divided
into the golden ratio by her navel. Again, how much of this was intentional by the sculptors is uncertain
(Posamentier & Lehmann, 2007, pp. 245-246). The golden ratio can be found in art everywhere, from
the Middle Ages paintings of Madonna to ancient Chinese bowls to Syrian floor mosaics to Indian
statues of Buddha (Garland, 1987, pp. 27-29). Leonardo da Vinci, a man of science as well as a brilliant
painter, utilized the golden ratio in the majority of his work. In his well-known sketch of the Vitruvian
man, the ratio of the side of the square which corresponds to the man’s arm span and height to the
radius of the circle which contains his outstretched arms and legs is the golden ratio (Posamentier &
Lehmann, 2007, p. 257). In the Mona Lisa, a golden rectangle can be used to enclose the space from the
top of her head to the top of her bodice. Dividing this rectangle into a square results in a square that
precisely encloses her head, with her left eye at the center (Atalay, 2006, pp. 176-177).These are but a
few of countless examples of how the golden ratio, Fibonacci numbers, and golden rectangles are
involved in the construction and architecture of buildings, as well as in the structure of sculptures and
paintings, both ancient and modern.
3.6 Music:
Fibonacci numbers are clearly illustrated when looking at the keyboard of a piano. The first six
numbers in the Fibonacci sequence can be found by looking at just one octave of keys. Each octave is
composed of 13 keys, 8 of which are white and 5 of which are black, and the black keys are partitioned
into groups of 2 and 3 (Garland, 1987,p. 33). The violins made by Antonio Stradivarius are the most
sought after of all violins, and today they can cost several million dollars. The proportions and
components of these instruments have been carefully studied by those who wish to replicate them, and
it turns out the violin is divided into proportions of 2, 3, 5, 8, and 13 (Posamentier & Lehmann, 2007, p.
291). The true relationship between music and Fibonacci numbers can only be found when the actual
musical compositions are examined. In many of Chopin’s preludes, the climax of the music is located
very near the place where the golden ratio would divide the length of the piece. This is especially true
of his Prelude No. 1 in C major, which has 34 measures. The climax of this piece occurs in measure 21,
and the ratio of the two comes close to the golden ratio, as 34/21=1.619…. Something similar happens in
his Prelude No. 9 in E major. This piece contains 48 beats, and the climax occurs on beat 29. The ratio
of these two numbers also comes close to the golden ratio, as 48/29=1.655…. This occurs in a number
of preludes, although there are also many in which it does not happen (Posamentier & Lehmann, 2007,
pp. 272-273). The first movement of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony is divided into the golden ratio by
the opening five measures, which repeat 372 measures later, and again after 228 measures. There are
377 measures before the middle repetition and 233 measures after the middle repetition, providing a
ratio of 377/233=1.618… Out of Mozart’s seventeen piano sonatas employing what is known as the
sonata-allegro form, six are exactly divided into the golden ratio, and eight are very close. Since a total
of 82% of his sonatas are divisible by the golden section, it would seem that the use of the golden ratio
was very important to Mozart in his compositions (Posamentier & Lehmann, 2007, pp. 277-278).
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4. GOLDEN RATIO & GOLDEN ANGLE IN FIBONACCI

And here is a surprise. When we take any two successive (one after the other) Fibonacci Numbers,
their ratio is very close to the Golden Ratio "φ" which is approximately 1.618034...

In fact, the bigger the pair of Fibonacci Numbers, the closer the approximation. Let us try a few:

A B   B/A
2 3   1.5
3 5   1.666666666...
5 8   1.6
8 13   1.625
... ...   ...
144 233   1.618055556...
233 377   1.618025751...
... ...   ...

We don't have to start with 2 and 3, here I randomly chose 192 and 16 (and got the sequence 192, 16,
208, 224, 432, 656, 1088, 1744, 2832, 4576, 7408, 11984, 19392, 31376, ...):

A B   B/A
192 16   0.08333333...
16 208   13
208 224   1.07692308...
224 432   1.92857143...
... ...   ...
7408 11984   1.61771058...
11984 19392   1.61815754...
... ...   ...

It takes longer to get good values, but it shows that not just the Fibonacci Sequence can do this!

4.1 Using The Golden Ratio to Calculate Fibonacci Numbers

And even more surprising is that we can calculate any Fibonacci Number using the Golden Ratio:

xn = φn  − (1−φ)n√5

The answer comes out as a whole number, exactly equal to the addition of the previous two terms.

Example: x6
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x6 = (1.618034...)6 − (1−1.618034...)6√5

When I used a calculator on this (only entering the Golden Ratio to 6 decimal places) I got the
answer 8.00000033 , a more accurate calculation would be closer to 8.

Try n=12 and see what you get.

You can also calculate a Fibonacci Number by multiplying the previous Fibonacci Number by the
Golden Ratio and then rounding (works for numbers above 1):

Example: 8 × φ = 8 × 1.618034... = 12.94427... = 13 (rounded)

Some Interesting Things:

Here is the Fibonacci sequence again:

n= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ...
xn = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 ...

There is an interesting pattern:

 Look at the number x3 = 2. Every 3rd number is a multiple of 2 (2, 8, 34, 144, 610, ...)
 Look at the number x4 = 3. Every 4th number is a multiple of 3 (3, 21, 144, ...)
 Look at the number x5 = 5. Every 5th number is a multiple of 5 (5, 55, 610, ...)

And so on (every nth number is a multiple of xn).

1/89 = 0.011235955056179775...

Notice the first few digits (0,1,1,2,3,5) are the Fibonacci sequence?

In a way they all are, except multiple digit numbers (13, 21, etc) overlap, like this:

0.0
0.01
0.001
0.0002
0.00003
0.000005
0.0000008
0.00000013
0.000000021
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    ... etc ...

0.011235955056179775...  =  1/89

 Terms Below Zero:

The sequence works below zero also, like this:

n . .
− − − − − −
. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 .
6 5 4 3 2 1
= . .
x
. .
n − − −
. 5 2 1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 .
  8 3 1
. .
=

(Prove to yourself that each number is found by adding up the two numbers before it!)

In fact the sequence below zero has the same numbers as the sequence above zero, except they follow
a +-+- ... pattern. It can be written like this:

x−n = (−1)n+1 xn

Which says that term "−n" is equal to (−1)n+1 times term "n", and the value (−1)n+1 neatly makes the
correct +1, −1, +1, −1, ... pattern.

4.2. GOLDEN ANGLE IN FIBONACCI

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The golden angle is the angle which divides a complete circle of 360° into central angle portions
corresponding to the golden ratio. This golden angle, represented by the symbol ƒ, is found when 360°
is multiplied by the reciprocal of phi, and that result is then subtracted from 360°

This golden angle is approached when 360°, multiplied by the ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci
numbers, is subtracted from 360°. As with the golden ratio, this approximation of the golden angle
becomes more accurate as the Fibonacci numbers used grow larger.
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4.2.1. Golden Spiral In Fibonacci

The golden spiral, also known as a logarithmic spiral, is a spiral whose form remains the same,
even as it continues to grow in size. When the length increases, the radius also increases proportionally, so
the actual shape of the spiral is unchanged. This spiral is also referred to as an equiangular spiral because
its curve intersects each radius vector from the center of the spiral at the same constant angle (Huntley,
1970, p. 168). This golden spiral’s construction can be approximated using both a golden rectangle and
Fibonacci squares. To construct it with a golden rectangle, a golden rectangle is divided up by cutting off
successive squares. For example, a rectangle of length 89 and width 55, which is composed of two
Fibonacci numbers and is very close to a golden rectangle, can be sectioned into a square with a side
length of 55 and a rectangle with side lengths of 55 and 34. The new rectangle is divided into a square
with a side length of 34 and a rectangle with side lengths of 34 and 21. This new rectangle is divided into
a square with a side length of 21 and a rectangle with side lengths of 21 and 13. This pattern continues,
and when quarter-circle arcs are drawn between opposing corners of each square, they form a spiral, as
shown in the figure below (Posamentier & Lehmann, 2012, pp. 104-105). Alternatively, the spiral can
also be approximated using squares with side lengths of the sequential Fibonacci numbers. It begins with
a square of length 1. Another square of length 1 is attached to that. A square of length 2 is attached to the
sides of the previous two squares where it fits, as 1 + 1 = 2. Then a square of length 3 is attached to the
squares of lengths 1 and 2, where 1 + 2 = 3. A square of length 5 is attached to the squares of lengths 2
and 3, a square of length 8 is attached to the squares of lengths 3 and 5, and so forth. Quarter-circle arcs
are then drawn to sequentially connect the opposing corners of the squares, as can be seen in the figure
below
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4.2.2 Golden rectangle:

Throughout the course of history, there is a rectangle whose proportions are found most pleasing to the
eye. It is neither too fat nor too skinny, neither too long nor too short. People will subconsciously
choose this rectangle over another one with different proportions. This rectangle, considered the most
perfectly shaped rectangle, is known as the golden rectangle (Garland, 1987, pp. 19-20). This rectangle
is one in which the ratio of length to width is the golden ratio and follows the formula w/s=s/(w+s)
In the late 1800s, Gustav Fechner, a German psychologist, invested a good deal of time into
researching the subject. He measured thousands of common rectangles, from playing cards and books
to windows and writing pads, and he ultimately found that in most of them, the ratio of length to width
was close to phi. Fechner also conducted a study in which he asked a large number of people to choose
the rectangle out of a group of rectangles was the most pleasing to the eye. His findings showed that
the largest percentage of people preferred the rectangle with a ratio of 21:34. These numbers are
consecutive Fibonacci numbers, and their ratio approaches the reciprocal of phi. The rectangle most
preferred by people was a golden rectangle.

Let us draw a rectangle in which the sides are to each other as neighboring Fibonacci numbers. If we
divide this rectangle into squares, we will see that the side of each square is also equivalent to a
Fibonacci number, and the two smallest squares are of the same size. This rectangle is remarkably
similar to what is known as a “golden section rectangle,” in which the ratio of the sides of the rectangle
are equal to α. Using Figure 5, we will now prove that if we inscribe the largest possible square within
the golden section rectangle, the resulting space will again be a golden section rectangle.
Since it was our first stipulation, obviously
AB /AD = α,
And
AB =AD = α,

Golden Rectangle with Inscribed Square

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5. APPLICATIONS OF FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

5.1 Fibonacci Sequence – Useing In Music:

The Fibonacci Sequence appears frequently in music and art. Picture: Getty Images / Classic FM

Geniuses from Mozart to Leonardo da Vinci have used the Fibonacci Sequence. But what is it and
why does it make great music:

The Fibonacci Sequence has been nicknamed ‘nature’s code’, ‘the divine proportion’, ‘the golden ratio’,
‘Fibonacci’s Spiral’ amongst others.

What exactly is the Fibonacci Sequence:

Simply put, it’s a series of numbers:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610…

The next number in the sequence is found by adding up the two numbers before it. The ratio for this
sequence is 1.618. This is what some people call ‘The Divine Proportion’ or ‘The Golden Ratio’.

When you make squares out of those values, it makes a nice-looking spiral:
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The Fibonacci Spiral. Picture: Classic FM

The bass clef and Fibonacci spiral. Picture: Classic fM

This sequence, pattern and spiral crop up in many things you might have never noticed. It is used in art
and music; just look at how Leonardo da Vinci employed it in one of his most famous paintings, the
Mona Lisa:

The Fibonacci Sequence in music:

The Fibonacci Sequence plays a big part in Western harmony and musical scales. Here are the facts:

 An octave on the piano consists of 13 notes. Eight are white keys and five are black keys.

 A scale is composed of eight notes, of which the third and fifth notes create the foundation of a basic
chord

 In a scale, the dominant note is the fifth note, which is also the eighth note of all 13 notes that make
up the octave.

 Eight divided by 13 equals 0.61538... the approximate Golden Ratio)

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5.2. Stradivari:

Hailed as the master of violin making, Antonio Stradivari has made some of the most beautiful and
sonorous violins in existence. To save the sound of a Stradivarius, this entire Italian city is keeping
quietThere's a reason a Stradivarius violin would cost you a few million pounds to buy – and its value
is partly down to the Fibonacci Sequence and its Golden Ratio.

The Golden Ratio can be found throughout the violin by dividing lengths of specific parts of the violin.
Some people think this is one of the reasons it sounds so good.As well as being used to craft violins, the
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Golden Ratio that comes from the Fibonacci Sequence is also used for saxophone mouthpieces, in
speaker wires, and even in the acoustic design of some cathedrals.

References