IRC:SP:106-2015

ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
ON LANDSLIDE MITIGATION MEASURES
FOR INDIAN ROADS

Published by:

INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

Kama Koti Marg,
Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi-110 022
January, 2015

Price : ` 800/-
(Plus Packing & Postage)
IRC:SP:106-2015

First Published : January, 2015

(All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication shall be reproduced,

translated or transmitted in any form or by any means without the
permission of the Indian Roads Congress)

Printed by India Offset Press, Delhi-110 064

1000 Copies

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 IRC:SP:106-2015

Contents

S. No. Description Page No.

Personnel of the General Specifications and Standards Committee i-ii
Definition 1
Introduction 6
1. Overview of Landslided Hazards In India 8
2. Landslide Features and Geometry 11
3. Classification 16
4. Landslide Hazard Mapping, Vulnerability and Risk Assessment 23
5. Methods of Scientific Investigation of Slopes and Landslides 37
6. Instrumentation, Monitoring, Forecasting and Early Warning of 43
Landslides
7 Landslide Risk Reduction through Improved Planning, Design and 58
Construction Practices
8. Technology for Landslide Prevention and Remediation 72
9. References 87
Annexure 1 100
 IRC:SP:106-2015

Personnel of the general Specifications

and Standards Committee

(As on 8th August, 2014)

1. Das, S.N. Director General (Road Development), Ministry of Road

(Convenor) Transport & Highways, New Delhi
2. Varkeyachan, K.C. Addl. Director General, Ministry of Road Transport &
(Co-Convenor) Highways, New Delhi
3. Chief Engineer (R) S, R & T (Rep. by Shri S.K. Nirmal), Ministry of Road Transport &
(Member Secretary) Highways, New Delhi

Members
4. Dhodapkar, A.N Chief Engineer (Retd.), MORTH, New Delhi
5. Datta, P.K. Director-Corporate Development, M/s Trans Asia
Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
6. De, D.C. Executive Director, Consulting Engineering Services
(India) Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi
7. Duhsaka, Vanlal Chief Engineer, PWD Highways, Aizwal
8. Joshi, L.K. Former Secretary, Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, New Delhi
9. Kadiyali, Dr. L.R. Chief Executive, L.R. Kadiyali & Associates, New Delhi
10. Kumar, Ashok Chief Engineer (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport
& Highways, New Delhi
11. Kumar, Dr. Kishor Chief Scientist , Geotechnical Engineering Division,
CRRI, New Delhi
12. Mandpe, P.S. Chief Engineer (NH), PWD Maharashtra
13. Narain, A.D. Director General (RD) & AS (Retd.), MOST, Noida
14. Pandey, I.K. Chief General Manager (Tech.), National Highways
Authority of India, New Delhi
15. Patwardhan, S.V. Advisor, Madhucon Projects Limited, New Delhi
16. Puri, S.K. Director General (RD) & Spl. Secretary, MoRT&H
(Retd.), New Delhi
17. Rajoria, K.B. Engineer-in-Chief (Retd.), Delhi PWD, New Delhi
18. Rao, P.R. Vice President, Soma Enterprises Ltd., Gurgaon
19. Raju, Dr. G.V.S. Engineer-in-Chief (R&B), Admn. & National Highways,
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
20. Selot, Anand Former Engineer-in-Chief, PWD Madhya Pradesh
21. Sharma, D.C. Sr. Principal Scientist and Head Instrumentation
Division, CRRI, New Delhi

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22. Sharma, D.D. Chairman, M/s D2S Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi
23. Sharma, Rama Shankar Chief Engineer (Retd.), MoRT&H, New Delhi
24. Sharma, S.C. Director General (RD) & AS (Retd.), MOST, New Delhi
25. Shrivastava, Palash Director, IDFC, New Delhi
26. Singh, NirmalJit Director General (RD) & Spl. Secretary, MoRT&H
(Retd.), New Delhi
27. Sinha, A.V. Director General (RD) & Spl. Secretary, MoRT&H
(Retd.), New Delhi
28. Sinha, N.K. Director General (RD) & Spl. Secretary, MoRT&H
(Retd.), New Delhi
29. Tamhankar, Dr. M.G. Director-Grade Scientist (SERC-G) (Retd.), Navi
Mumbai
30. Tandon, Prof. Mahesh Managing Director, Tandon Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
31. Vasava, S.B Chief Engineer & Addl. Secretary (Panchayat), Roads
&Building Deptt. Gandhinagar, Gujarat
32. Velayutham, V. Director General (RD) & Spl. Secretary, MoRT&H
(Retd.), New Delhi
33. Verma, Maj. V.C. Director, Marketing, Oriental Structural Engineers
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
34. Rep. of NRRDA (Pateriya, Dr. I.K.) Director (Technical ), NRRDA
NBCC Tower, Bhikaji Cama Place, New Delhi
35. The Dy. Director General (Lal, B.B.) Chief Engineer, DDG D&S Dte.
Seema Sadak Bhawan, New Delhi
36. The Chief Engineer (NH) PWD, Jaipur (Rajasthan)
37. Rep. Chief Engineer (Basu, Kaushik) Chief Engineer (Mechanical),
(Mechanical), MORTH MoRTH, New Delhi

Ex-Officio Members
1. President, (Bhowmik, Sunil), Engineer-in-Chief,
Indian Roads Congress PWD (R&B), Govt. of Tripura
2. Honorary Treasurer, (Das, S.N.), Director General (Road Development),
Indian Roads Congress Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
3. Secretary General, Sajjan Singh Nahar
Indian Roads Congress

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Engineering Guidelines on Landslide Mitigation

Measures For Indian Roads

definition

Abandoned: Inactive landslide no longer affected by its original causes.

Acceptable Risk – A risk for which, for the purposes of life or work, we are prepared to accept
as it is with no regard to its management. Society does not generally consider expenditure in
further reducing such risks justifiable.
Accumulated Mass; Accumulation: Volume of displaced material that lies above the original
ground surface of a landslide.
Active: Landslide that is currently moving, first-time movement or reactivated.
Activity: Stage of development of a landslide, including the state of activity, distribution of
activity, and style of activity.
Advancing: Activity the rupture surface extends in the direction of movement.
ALARP: As Low as Reasonably Practicable; with reference to risk.
Analysis: Process to determine the nature and level of hazard and risk; typically includes
scope definition, identification and estimation.
Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP) – The estimated probability that an event of specified
magnitude will be exceeded in any year.s
Assessment: Overall process of hazard or risk identification, analysis and evaluation.
Complex: Activity where a landslide exhibits at least two types of movement (fall, topple,
slide, spread, or flow) in sequence.
Composite: Activity where a landslide exhibits at least two types of movement (fall, topple,
slide, spread, or flow) in different parts of the displaced mass at the same time.
Confining: Activity where there is a scarp but no rupture surface visible at the foot of the
displaced mass.
Consequence: Probability of total loss or damage, or a proportion of loss or damage, to an
element at risk; combination of spatial probability, temporal probability and vulnerability.
Control: Process of decision making for managing hazard or risk, and implementation or
enforcement of hazard or risk mitigation measures and re-evaluation of the effectiveness
from time to time, using the results of hazard of risk assessment as one input.
Criteria: Terms of reference against which the significance of a hazard or risk are
evaluated.

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Danger (Threat): Natural phenomenon that could lead to loss, disadvantage, damage, injury
or loss of life; does not include any forecasting; also see Hazard.
Disaster: A serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human,
material or environmental losses, which exceed the ability of affected society to cope using
only its own resources.
Dormant: Inactive landslide that can be reactivated by its original or other causes.
Early Warning: Provision of timely and effective information, through identified institutions,
that allows individuals exposed to a hazard to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and
prepare for effective response.
Elements at Risk: population, buildings and engineering works, economic activities, public
utilities, other infrastructure, and environmental values in an area affected, or potentially
affected by a landslide.
Enlarging: Activity where the rupture surface of a landslide is extending in two or more
directions.
Erosion: Process of weathering and transport of soil and rock from their natural environment
or source. Agents of erosion include wind, water, ice, gravity and living organisms
(bioerosion).
Estimation: The determination of hazard or risk.
Evaluation: Using values and judgments in the decision process, either explicitly or implicitly,
to determine the importance of the estimated hazard or risks, and there by identify alternatives
to manage the hazards or risks.
Event: Occurrence or change of a particular set of circumstances; a landslide is an example
of an event.
Frequency: Probability or likelihood of occurrence of a repeating event, such as a landslide,
expressed as the number of occurrences per unit time; also a measure of past occurrences
per unit time; also see Probability and Likelihood.
Hazard: Condition with the potential for causing an undesirable consequence; source of
potential harm; also see Danger; or
Inactive: Landslide that has not moved within the last 12 months; can be sub-divided into
dormant, abandoned, stabilized, relict, and repaired.
Individual Risk: Risk of the fatality or injury to an identifiable individual who lives or otherwise
occupies an area affected, or potentially affected, by a landslide.
Intensity: Set of spatially distributed parameters related to the destructive power of
landslide; can be described quantitatively or qualitatively; can include maximum velocity,
total displacement, differential displacement, depth of moving mass, peak discharge per unit
width, kinetic energy per unit area.

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Inventory: Study of the location, classification, volume, activity, date of occurrence and other
characteristics of landslide within an area.
Involuntary Risk: Risk that typically is imposed on an individual or society.
Landslide: Down slope movement of a mass of soil (earth or debris) or rock down a slope.
Level of Hazard or Risk: Magnitude of a hazard or risk, expressed in terms of probability or
likelihood (for hazard) and in terms of probability or likelihood and consequences (for risk).
Likelihood: Chance of an event occurring; a qualitative description of probability of a
landslide.
Management: Process of hazard or risk assessment and control or treatment.
Marginal: Inactive landslide, between preparatory and active, where a trigger can initiate
movement.
Mitigation: Strategy to reduce the effect of a landslide.
Monitoring: Continual or frequent checking, critically observing or determining the status of
activity of a landslide to identify change.
Multiple: Activity where a landslide shows repeated development of the same type of
movement.
Partial Risk: Combination of the probability of a (hazardous) landslide and probability of the
landslide affecting the site of an element at risk at the site when the landslide occurs; does
not consider vulnerability; P(HA) = P(S:H) x P(T:S).
Passive: From of mitigation that requires no design engineering; includes avoidance, land
use regulations, education and warning systems.
Preparatory: Inactive land area where destabilizing processes are insufficient to cause a
landslide.
Preparatory Causes: Reasons(s) that a landslide occurred at a particular location and time;
mechanism(s) that put a landslide into a preparatory state of activity; can include geological
factors (e.g. sensitive material, joints and fissures), geomorphological factors (e.g. slope
angle, erosion), physical factors (e.g. rainfall, earthquake) and factors associated with human
activity (e.g. addition of a load or excavation).s
Probability:
a) Estimate of the degree of certainty between 0 (impossible) and 1 (certain) of
an event occurring; also see Likelihood and Frequency; can be statistical or
subjective; or
b) Probability of occurrence of a landslide; can be statistical or subjective;
P(H).

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Qualitative Risk Analysis: Analysis that uses descriptive words or numeric rating scales to
describe likelihood, vulnerability and consequences.
Quantitative Risk Analysis: Analysis based on numerical values of probability, vulnerability
and consequences.
Reactivated: Landslide that is again active after being inactive.
Rapid: Slope movement with velocity greater than 1.8 m/hour (0.5 mm/sec).
Relict: Inactive landslide that developed under climatic or geomorphological conditions
considerably different from those at present.
Remediation: Strategy by which the effects of a landslide are reduced.
Repaired: Inactive landslide that has been temporarily protected from its original cause(s) by
artificial remedial measures.
Retrogressing: Activity where the surface of rupture extends in the direction opposite to the
movement of the displaced material.
Residual: Hazard or risk remaining after mitigation.
Risk: A measure of the probability and severity of an adverse effect to individuals or
populations, property or the environment.
Run-Out: Maximum travel distance of a landslide.
Run- Up: Maximum height reached by a landslide mass.
Single: Activity where a landslide exhibits only one type of movement (fall, topple, slide, flow,
spread).
Slope Instability: The predisposition of a slope to mass movement. The condition may
be recognized by analysis of stress within the slope, by various slope characteristics or by
analysis of historical records of slope development.
Slope Stability Analysis: Analysis of static and dynamic stability of engineered and natural
slopes of soil and rock.
Slump: A short, downslope movement of a coherent mass of loosely consolidated soil or
rock; not a recommended term.
Societal Risk: Risk of the multiple injuries or fatalities, financial, environmental, and other
losses from a landslide, the burden of which society has to carry.
Soil: Aggregate of solid, typically inorganic particles that either was transported or was formed
in situ by weathering of rock; subdivided into earth and debris.
Spatial Probability: The potential of a landslide affecting the site of an element at risk;
P(S:H).
Stabilized: Inactive landslide that has been permanently protected from its original causes
by artificial remedial measures.

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State of Activity: Terms that described the timing of landslide movements ( active, reactivated,
suspended, inactive, dormant, abandoned, stabilized, relict, preparatory, marginal, and
repaired).
Style of Activity: Terms that described the manner in which different movements contribute
to a landslide.
Subsidence: Vertical downward movement of the ground surface; frequently occurs in karst
terrains or can be related to mining activities.
Successive: Activity where a landslide exhibits the same type of movement as a nearby,
earlier landslide but does not share displaced material or a surface of rupture.
Susceptibility: Qualitative or quantitative analysis of the classification, volume, and spatial
distribution of landslide that exist or potentially can occur in an area; can also include a
description of the velocity and intensity of the existing or potential landslide; a time frame is
explicitly not taken into account.
Suspended: Landslide that has moved within the last 12 months but is not active at
present.
Temporal Probability: Probability that an element at risk is at the site when the site is
affected by a landslide; P(T:S).
Tolerable Risk: Risk within a range within which society can live in order to have and secure
certain benefits; a range of a risk regarded as non-negligible but needing to be kept under
review and reduced further if possible.
Translational: Type of landslide that moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation
or backward tilting.
Trigger: Cause that puts a slope into a marginal state of activity leading to a landslide.
Velocity: Rate of movement of a landslide that can range from extremely slow (<16 mm/ year
or 0.5 x 10-6 mm/second) to extremely rapid (>5 m/second).
Voluntary Risk: Risk that an individual or society typically takes willingly.
Vulnerability – The degree of loss to a given element or set of elements within the area
affected by the landslide hazard. It is expressed on a scale of 0 (no loss) to 1 (total loss).
For property, the loss will be the value of the damage relative to the value of the property; for
persons, it will be the probability that a particular life (the element at risk) will be lost, given
the person(s) is affected by the landslide.
Widening: Activity where the rupture surface extends into one or both flanks of a landslide.
Zoning: Division of land into somewhat homogeneous areas or domains, and their ranking
according to degrees of actual or potential landslide susceptibility, hazard or risk or applicability
of certain landslide-related regulations.

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INTRODUCTION

India, a country blessed with widely diverse physiographic, geological and climatological
aspects, has a history of multi-hazard events like earthquakes, landslides, floods etc. Extreme
weather events such as cloudbursts followed by heavy flash flood and landslides have lately
become a frequent phenomena compare to the yester years. Many a times these events
of hazards transform into disasters/catastrophes/calamities as happened during June 2013
in Uttarakhand. During June 16th-17th of 2013 heavy rain resulting in flash flood, breach of
glacial lakes, heavy erosion etc. have caused wide spread damages and deaths of over 5000
innocent people. It was again realized that communication, particularly road communication
is the one which is wanted most during such tragedies. Unfortunately it is the one which is
also most severely effected.
The increasing pressure of urbanization due to rising population has forced humans to reach
unstable slopes or make slopes unstable by their illegitimate intrusion in the territory of
nature. Every year we get to hear about the incidences of landslides from some or other parts
of India which cost us thousands of human lives and huge monetary losses by destruction
of infrastructures and settlements. Highways which are primary surface communication
means for catering all the needs of the inhabitants, tourists, pilgrims and armed forces in the
border areas are among the most widely suffered infrastructure. The severity of this hazard
is not obscured but still there are no guidelines regarding landslide management in the
country.
These guidelines on “Management of Landslides on Indian Roads and Highways” are
designed to help professional such as engineers, geotechnical engineers and geologist to
have a good understanding of landslide hazard so that they can take appropriate steps at
desired time to manage them in proper way. This document is compiled after comprehensive
study of literature pertaining to landslides from all over the world including India. Best technical
aspects suitable for Indian condition are considered. The guidelines are divided into eight
chapters covering every aspect of the landslide mitigation and management strategy and to
get a deep understanding of the hazard. Every aspect is described in simple language. The
topics covered in the eight chapters are landslides features and geometry; classification of
the phenomena; landslide hazard mapping; vulnerability and risk assessment; methods of
scientific investigation of landslides; instrumentation, monitoring, forecasting and early warning
of landslides; landslide risk reduction through improved planning, design and construction
practices and technology for landslide prevention and remediation. These guidelines provide
assistance to study landslide hazards in two situations, one when alignment is set to be
constructed and second where road already exists.
The Disaster Management Committee (G-6) felt the necessity to draft this document and
constituted a sub-group comprising of Dr. Kishor Kumar, Dr. P.K. Champti Ray; Ms. Minimol
Korulla; Dr. Surya Prakash and Ms. Dola Roy Choudhari. The draft document prepared by
the sub-group was discussed by the Committee in series of meetings. The G-6 Committee
approved the draft document in its meeting held on 26th May, 2014 for placing before the
General Specifications & Standards Committee (GSS).

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The Composition of Disaster Management Committee (G-6) is as given below:

Velayutham, V. -------- Convenor
Kumar, Dr. Kishor -------- Co-Convenor
Sharma, D.D. -------- Member Secretary

Members
Meena, P.R. Vittal, U.K. Guru
Jaigopal, R.K. Karandikar, V.S.
Gupta, Mukesh C Tadvi , R.H.
Behera, Laltendu Bagish, Dr B.P.
Momin, S.S. Dhodapkar, A.N.
Sharma, Arun Dash, Bimal C
Gupta, Prof. Kapil Rao, Dr. P.S.K. M.
Rajulu, A. Rep. of NDMA
Sharma, Hari Om Rep. of E-in-C Branch, New Delhi
Subbarao, Dr. Harshavardhan Rep. of Chief Engineer (NH, R&B),
Sakamma, Smt. S. PWD, Goa
Bhattacharjee, Bharat Kumar Rep. of DGBR
Rep. HRS, Chennai

Corresponding Members
Bhandari, Dr. R.K. Yadav, A.B.
Rep. of Chief Engineer (NH), Odisha
(Paul, Dr. N.C.)

Ex-Officio Members
President, (Bhowmik, Sunil), Engineer-in-Chief,
Indian Roads Congress PWD (R&B), Govt. of Tripura
Honorary Treasurer, (Das, S.N.), Director General (Road
Indian Roads Congress Development), Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways
Secretary General, Sajjan Singh Nahar
Indian Roads Congress
The same draft was placed before the General Specifications and Standards Committee (GSS)
during its meeting held on 8th August, 2014 and GSS Committee approved this document
subject to modifications in light of comments of members offered during the meeting. The
Executive Committee in its meeting held on 18th August 2014 approved the same document
for placing it before the Council. The IRC Council in its 203rd meeting held at New Delhi on
19th & 20th August, 2014 approved the draft of IRC:SP “Engineering Guidelines on Landslide

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Mitigation Measures for Indian Roads” after taking on board the comments offered by the
Members during the meeting and authorized the Convenor of GSS Committee to finalize the
document for publishing.

1 OVERVIEW OF LANDSLIDE HAZARDS IN INDIA

Slope instability occurs in many parts of peninsular and extra-peninsular India and offer
impacts on settlements, highway, dams, irrigation facility and other development. This has
been recognised by most of the Government and Private authorities of hill state and coastal
regions which has led to preparation of guidelines on landslides by a panel of specialists of
the country and selected by NDMA in the year 2006-2009. These guidelines however are
prepared for administrative purpose and do not include technical matters which can guide the
user agencies about the stability assessment prior to allowing the development.
In India, the response to landslide hazard is still fragmented, reflecting the diverse nature
of the hazard, incomplete database, jurisdictional overlaps, diverse and competing stake
holders and the multi disciplinary nature of the issue.

1.1 Landslide Scenario in the Country

Landslides present a threat to life and livelihood throughout the world ranging from minor
disruption to social and economic catastrophic[108]. Landslides are distributed in all geographic
regions of the country not confined to the only hilly or mountainous areas but also in coastal
areas and offshore too. 22 states and 2 union territory of the country are affected by
landslides (Fig 1.1), although they differ from the scale of severity of disaster. Generally, the
areas uninhabited and away from human
intervention are found unaffected or less
affected by such phenomena. While, the
areas where human intervention increased
vulnerability to landslide occurrences has
also increased. As the population has
increased quite rapidly over the last century,
people had to venture in new areas, not
inhabited earlier. These areas have not
generally been considered based on their
vulnerability to landslide disasters. As a result
landslide occurrences in these areas have
become common phenomena. These areas
which have already experienced landslides are
generally vulnerable to repeated recurrences.
Most of the highways and roads planned
Fig 1.1 Landslide affected areas in
and constructed without consideration of
the probability of landslide recurrence have suffered due to repeated recurrence of such
phenomena resulting in frequent interruption of traffic, road damage, loss of life and hardship
to the commuters.

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Every time the tragedy strikes, huge amount of budgetary funds are pumped into the
rehabilitation and restoration works without giving a least thought to pre-disaster planning.
By the time the tragedy stricken areas are rehabilitated, monsoon reappears again and this
vicious process repeats again and again. The restoration and rehabilitation process never gets
completed and an unimaginable sum of tax payers’ money washes off without much fruitful
results. The cost on direct losses such as the costs of repair and maintenance, restoration,
rehabilitation or the replacement of the damaged properties is met out of maintenance budget
allocated for the whole year excluding such exigencies; as a result, overall maintenance of
the roads is also affected. The frequent and long duration blockade of national highways
in critical landslide locations create social unrest amongst the communities living at both
the sides of the blockade location because of their inability to attend the social obligations,
hardship in reaching the destinations through the tougher and longer alternate routes, inability
to provide medical aids to the critical patients, steep hike in prices of the commodities, inability
to run their business etc. These scenes with series of sufferings are repeated during every
monsoon.
The failure to lessen the problem, pertaining to landslides, is primarily due to the ever
increasing pace of development in the terrain prone to geological hazard and failure of the
respective authorities to recognise such hazards and apply appropriate methods for their
prevention/mitigation even though there is a overwhelming evidence that landslide hazard
mitigation purpose serve both public and private institutes by saving many times the cost of
implementation.

1.2 Purpose of Guidelines

The above examples illustrate the wide distribution of the landslide and their destructive
potential. Not every landslide results in catastrophic, but even small landslides have the
potential to cause damage and loss of life. The proposed guidelines aim to demonstrate as
how the loss of life and damage from landslide can be reduced following good practices of
land use planning.
Since no new land formation can take place, we have to live with whatever we have with wise
and judicious use and prevent the gradual or fast degrading land due to landslides and other
mass movements by adopting certain measures and guidelines. Guidelines, particularly for
the areas where planning is under progress and development is due to take place would be
more important because in most of the area severity of naturally caused landslide has not
increased. What has increased is the extent of human occupation of these lands and the
impact of human activities on the environment.
The frequency of landslide events has got increased many folds, all over the hilly areas of the
country, and there is practically not a single day when a landslide does not happen in some
or other parts of the country. Recent examples of loss of life and property worth billions tell

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the tale of the devastation caused by landslides. Many landslide damages that have occurred
might have been prevented or avoided if accurate landslide hazard information had been
available and used. In order to cope with the demand of modern industrialized need of the
country large number of the developmental projects for communication, highways, dams,
reservoirs have been launched and are in different stages of development and many more
will be launched. Planners and executors of innumerable developmental schemes should
desire and demand an advance, as far as accurate and understandable information for slope
instability assessment prior to execution of such developmental program. Population, living in
vulnerable areas also needs adequate information about the hazard, risk and consequences
of such hazard, how the local communities could be made aware of landslide hazards in their
respective areas, and trained in the management of landslides to avert disasters? In view of
these there is a need for guidelines for management of landslides in hill areas. However, the
present guidelines are to be exclusively used for the highways/road only. The guidelines will
have following purpose:
● To establish a uniform terminology and classifications of landslides
● Define a general framework for landslide management on Indian Highways-
based on national and international experience.
● Provide guidance on methods which should be used to carry out the
investigation, mapping, analysis and mitigation.

1.3 Whom the Guidelines

These guidelines are prepared primarily to assist the local authorities (planner) involved in the
constructions and maintenance of the roads. However will also be of interest to developers,
engineering geologist, geotechnical engineers who specialise in landslide hazard and risk
assessment.
In case the new development the planners should be interested in early consultation with the
engineering geologist and geotechnical engineers for assessment of the slope conditions
prior to the development. Obviously, a planner is not expected to make technical judgement
about the landslide hazard and risk, but should understand the process by which a landslide
specialist provides advice. By seeking appropriate advice the planner can get information
about the kind of measures and methods to prevent, minimise or avoid the negative impact
of the landslides.
In case of the aleady developed area the concerned authorities, engineers should know as
how to assess the hazard and associated risks from the existing landslides and what could
be the best economically viable remedial measure for preventing/mitigating the impact of
such hazards.
From these guidelines, the planner will gain a basic knowledge of the concepts and issues to
be considered when incorporating landslide hazard information and assessment into planning

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process. It is envisaged that these guidelines will be regularly reviewed and updated as
knowledge, technical standards and practices evolve.

The landslide guidelines a produced based on the extensive literature review from within
and outside the country. A few selected guidelines of other countries have also been
reviewed and used for preparation of the present document. The bibliography of the
referred literature is given at the last of the document while references in the running text
are avoided.

2 LANDSLIDE FEATURES AND GEOMETRY

The significance of identifying landslide features is that they provide clues on the nature
of motion in the past as well as current and therefore, indicate potential hazards along the
transportation routes and where protective measures are necessary.

2.1 Definition
Landslide definition has been covered widely in world literature including books and individual
papers and to reproduce the same may not be worth. However, it would be appropriate to
discuss the basic definition indicating the concepts of such a phenomenon before discussing
the features etc. The landslide phenomenon has been defined by number of ways but the
basics remain same in all.
“A landslide can be portrayed as an episode of downward and outward displacement/
movement ranging from very slow to rapid in velocity, of any kind of slope forming materials
(rock, soil or their combination) under the influence of gravity.”

2.2 Landslide Features

The landscape is read for signs that tell of past processes. The identification of features on
the terrain or slope forms an integral part in the prediction of potential instability. Features
observed in the field during mapping give direct evidence of activity/processes the slope has
undergone and in a way; features can indicate whether a landslide is active or inactive, old
or new etc. Recognition of these features makes it possible to identify landslides from aerial
and ground inspections. Several diagnostic landslide features tell of past movement on the
terrain. For example as indicated in Fig 2.1. Fig 2.1 shows that the features which could be
identified in the field directly by the working engineers before, during and after construction.
Important concepts to consider include[30]:
● The un-failed slope can be termed the original ground surface.
● The mass that moves is called the displaced material. It may be intact or it
may be in deformed state debris.
● The displaced mass overlies two zones: i.e. zone of depletion and zone of
accumulation. The depletion zone may lie below the original ground surface

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and is defined by the zone of rupture or shear plane. The accumulation zone
is the area where the displaced mass lies above the surface and includes
areas to which the displaced material has moved (Figs.2.1 and 2.2).
Ground features associated with slope instability are given in Table 2.1 and Fig 2.3.[30, 48]
Table 2.1 Guide to Read and Classify Landslide Features

Features associated with

landslides are:
● extensional features like
scarps
● tension cracks;
● shear features (shear zones)
● shortening features like toes,
transverse ridges and snouts
on the ground, signs of slope
instability include:
● Cracking
● hummocky terrain
● undrained crescent-shaped
depressions and ponds
● scarps and benches
● crooked fences, trees or
lamp posts leaning uphill or
downhill
● uneven road surfaces
● swamps or wet ground in
elevated positions
Fig. 2.3 Ground Sign of Slope Instability
● plants like rushes growing on
a slope, and water seeping
from the ground

Some of the important notable features are indicated in Table 2.2.

2.2.1 Landslide Dimension
The quantities Ld, Wd, Dd, Lr, Wr, Dr (Fig. 2.4 and Table 2.3) are introduced because,
with an assumption about the shape of the landslide, their products lead to estimates of the
volume of the landslide that are useful in remedial work.
The volume of the slide mass is given as the product of various dimensions as:
VolIs = 1/6πDrxWrxLr
The volume of displaced material is estimated as:
VolIs = 1/ 6πDdxWdxLd
This helps in quick assessment of volume for decision making.

12
 
Table 2.2 Definitions of Landslide Features[30, 49, 54, 107, 154, 165]
Feature Name Definition
No.
1 Crown The practically undisplaced material still in place and adjacent to the highest parts of
the main scarp.
2 Main scrap Steep surface on undisturbed ground at the upper edge of landslide, caused by
movement of displaced material (13, stippled area) away from undisturbed ground; It
is visible part of surface of rupture.
3 Top Highest point of contact between disturbed material (13) and the main scarp (2).
4 Head Upper part of landslide along contact between displaced material and main scarp (2).
5 Minor scrap Steep surface on displaced material of landslide produced by differential movements
with displaced material.
6 Main body Part of displaced material of landslide that overlies surface of rupture between main
scarp (2) and toe of surface of rupture (11).
7 Foot Portion of landslide that has moved beyond toe of surface of rupture (11) and overlies
original ground surface (20). Fig. 2.1 Block Diagram of Idealized Complex Earth
8 Tip Portion on toe (9) farthest from top (3) of land slide. Slide-Earth Flow

9 Toe Lower, usually cured margin of displaced material of a landslide, most distant from the
main scarp (2).

13
10 Surface of Rupture Surface that forms lower boundary of displaced material (13) below original ground
surface (20), mechanical idealization of surface of rupture is called slip surface.
11 Toe of surface of Intersection between lower part of surface of rupture (10) of a landslide and original
rupture ground surface (20).
12 Surface of separation Part of original ground surface (20) now overlain by foot (7) of land slide.
13 Displaced material Material displaced from its original position on slope by movement of landslide
14 Zone of depletion Area of landslide with in which displaced material (13) lies below original ground
surface (20).
15 Zone of accumulation Area of landslide with in which displaced material (13) lies above original ground
surface (20).
16 Depletion Volume bounded by main scarp (2), depleted mass (17), and original ground
surface (20). Fig. 2.2 Definition of Key Landslide Features
(For Detailed Description Refer to Table 2.1)
17 Depleted mass Volume of displaced material (13) that overlies surface of rupture (10) but underlies
original ground surface (20).
18 Accumulation Volume of displaced material (13) that lies above original ground surface (20).
19 Flank Un-displaced material adjacent to the sides of surface of rupture.
20 Original ground Surface of slope that existed before land slide took place.
surface
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IRC:SP:106-2015

Table 2.3 Dimensional Features of Landslides[165]

S. No. Name Definition

1 Width of displaced Maximum breath of displaced mass

mass, Wd perpendicular to the length Ld

2 Width of surface of Maximum width between flanks of

rupture, Wr landslide perpendicular to the length, Lr

3 Total length, L Minimum distance from tip of landslide

to crown

4 Length of Minimum distance from tip to top

displaced mass, Ld

5 Length of surface Minimum distance from toe of surface of

of rupture, Lr rupture to crown

6 Depth of displaced Maximum depth of displaced mass

mass, Dd measured perpendicular to plane
containing Wd and Ld

7 Depth of surface of Maximum depth of displaced mass Fig. 2.4 Landslide features (Referred to
rupture, Dr measured perpendicular to plane Table 2.2): upper portion, plan of typical
containing Wd and Ld landslide in which dashed line indicates
trace of rupture surface on original ground
8 Length of centre Distance from crown to tip of landslide surface; lower portion section in which
hatching indicates undisturbed ground
line, Lcl through points on original ground surface and stippling shows extent of displaced
equidistance from lateral margins material.
of surface of rupture and displaced
material

2.2.2 Slope Surface Appearance

2.2.2.1 Terrain/morphologic features indicating landslide
The features of any landslide in the field will be reflective of the type of landslide and its
age[30]. For example, a rotational slide will be characterized by a steep, near vertical head
scarp, gentle mid-slopes and a convex toe (Example Fig. 3.3 of chapter classification of
guidelines). A slope undergoing rock fall will have scree (or debris) at the base of the slope
which can range in size from small, sand-like particles up to large boulders. Rocks or an
accumulation of debris at the base of the slope indicates activity from above. Fresh activity
will be characterized by sharp edges and features, as well as distinct color changes where
materials have parted from the parent rock or slope. Older failures may have very degraded
features included rounded head scarps and worn edges and will be reflective of the on-going
weathering and erosional processes which continually modify the landscape. Diagnostic
features of different types of landslides are briefly described/illustrated in many textbooks.
Table 2.4 summarizes diagnostic geomorphic features used to identify landslides & provides
the significance.

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Table 2.4 Field Matrix for Identifying Features of Landslide

Diagnostic Geomorphic Feature on Slope Likely Significance of Feature with Respect to:
i) possible age and/or character of slope movement
Fresh scars recent or ongoing movement of part of the slope
Tension cracks, crescent-shaped or curved scarps or recent or ongoing continuous or intermittent slope
depressions; shallow, linear depressions: step-like benches movement
or small scarps
Fresh rock or soil surfaces recent or ongoing slope movement
Groups of toppled, jack-strawed, leaning, ‘drunken’ trees, recent or ongoing slope movement
pistol grip
Split trees recent or ongoing differential slope movement
Disrupted roads, fences, or other linear features recent or ongoing differential slope movement
Group of re-curved ‘pistol butt’ trees recent or ongoing slow slope movement; can also indicate
deep snow cover
Revegetated scars or partially revegetated strips; linear older slope movement; inactive/dormant
strips of even-aged vegetation or trees
ii) evidence/possible landslide type
Fresh accumulation of rock or soil on lower slope or at base rock or soil fall, topple or slide
of step slope
Linear or fan shaped tracks of angular blocks below steep rock fall or debris flow
slopes
Hummocky ground, sag ponds earth flow; can also result from erosion of displaced material
of other landslide types
Rock or soil piled on the upslope side of trees channelized debris flow
Colluvial fan or debris piles at mouth of gully channelized debris flow
Trim lines, levees along gully; no or new vegetation in gully channelized debris flows; levees are definitive, lack of
bottoms vegetation is suggestive
Vegetation in gully much younger than the adjacent forest; channelized debris flow
poorly developed soils on gully sides relative to adjacent
slopes
iii) evidence/other possible significance
Mixed or repeated soil profiles present in natural or artificial slope movement; repeated soil profiles indicates thrusting or
exposures shearing
Buried soil profiles present in natural or artificial exposures displaced material from landslide has buried undisturbed
material
Poorly developed soils relative to other comparable slopes possibly the result of slope movement
Terracettes across slopes shallow slow deformation of slope; may indicate seasonally
saturation or permafrost thaw
Bulging in the lower portion of a slope incipient larger slope movement
Displaced or disrupted stream channel slope movement into stream channel
Numerous springs along toe of slope disruption of drainage due to slope movement

2.2.2.2 Morphological changes of landslide features with time

The geomorphic features being recorded during the field mapping portion are not all the
same age. They may be currently active, inactive but young and inactive but mature. The
field engineers/geologists can visualize these changes and accordingly classify the terrain
as given in Table 2.5. This gives an understanding of the history of morphological changes
with time.

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Table 2.5 Description of Morphological Feature Changes with Time

Age Head Scarp Internal Morphology Vegetation Toe Estimated
Class and Drainage Absolute Age
Active Sharp, Undrained Depressions, Absent or Sparse on Forces Axial Drainage Activity Within
Unvegetated Lakes, Hummocky Scarps and Internal to Opposite Side of Historic Time,
Topography, Angular Scarps, Tilted “jack- Valley, Dams Drainage, Less Than 100
Internal Blocks Separated strawed” Trees Common Covers Modern Flood years old
by Unvegetated Cracks Plain, Not Modified by
Streams
Inactive- Sharp to Undrained and Drained Younger than Adjacent Same as Above, But 100 - 5000
Young Smooth, Partly Depressions, Ponds and Terrain or Different Type May be Modified by years old
Vegetated Marshes, Internal Cracks or Density Modern Channel
Vegetated
Inactive- Smooth, No Drainage Depressions, Same Age as Adjacent Cut by Modern Flood 5000 - 10,000
Mature Dissected, But Smooth Rolling Terrain, But May be Plain, Stream Not years old
Vegetated Topography, Shear Zones Different Density Constricted
Become Drainage

The identification of features makes it easy to understand the terrain, type of denudational
processes including landslides and also the probability of the terrain to be affected by like
processes after construction of roads, based on which one can plan a strategy for type
of survey, mapping, investigation etc, for selecting an alignment/correcting the new one/
landslide mitigation etc.

3 classification
Since the type of landslide will determine the potential speed of movement, likely volume
of displacement, distance of run-out, as well as the possible effects of the landslide and the
appropriate mitigation measures to be considered, it is important to classify them appropriately
as per established international practices.

3.1 Classification Schemes

Landslides come in a great variety of shapes and sizes[107]. Some are very large and cause
great devastation while others are very small and cause little or no damage at all. They can
be single events of slope instability, or they can be complex in nature with multiple events at
one site. They can occur in a wide range of earth materials and be due to a variety of failure
mechanisms. They can be classified in number of ways, each having some usefulness in
emphasizing features pertinent to recognition, avoidance, control, correction or other purpose
of classification. There are several attributes that have been used as different discriminating
factors and criteria for identification and classification (Table 3.1) of landslides. Mostly, the
chief criteria used in landslide classification are type of material and the type of movement
(Table 3.2)[30, 49, 54, 72, 107, 108, 110, 136 and 154]. The type of movement describes the actual internal
mechanics of how the landslide mass is displaced. The five kinematically distinct types of
movement are described in the sequence fall, topple, slide, spread and flow. Hence the
combination of the type of movement and material involve gives a basic description of the
landslide e.g. rock fall, debris flow etc (Table 3.3). Since the type of landslide will determine
the potential speed of movement, likely volume of displacement, distance of run-out, as
well as the possible effects of the landslide and the appropriate mitigate measures to be

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considered, it is important to classify them appropriately. Further description of a landslide

incorporates terms on the state and style of activity (Table 3.4).
Table 3.1 Different Discriminating Factors
Discriminating Description
Factors
Type of movement The main movements are falls, slides and flows, but usually topples, lateral spreading
and complex movements are also added to these.
Type of material Rock, earth and debris are the terms generally used to distinguish the materials
involved in the landslide process. (If the weight of the particles with a diameter greater
than 2 mm is less than 20%, the material will be defined as earth; in the opposite
case, it is debris.)
Activity The concept of activity is defined with reference to the spatial and temporal conditions
i.e. the state, describes the information regarding the time in which the movement
took place; the distribution, the second term describes, in a general way, where the
landslide is moving and style, the third term indicates how it is moving.
Movement velocity This factor has a great importance in the hazard evaluation. A velocity range is
connected to the different type of landslides, on the basis of observation of case
history or site observations.
The age of the The evaluation of age of landslide gives its frequency and the specific condition under
movement which it could have occurred. It should be noted that, it is possible that phenomena
could be occurred in past geological times, under specific environmental conditions
which no longer act as agents today.
Geological conditions: These represent a fundamental factor of the morphological evolution of a slope.
Bedding attitude and the presence of discontinuities or faults/thrust control the slope
morphogenesis.
Morphological As the morphology is the manifestation of past and ongoing geological changes on the
characteristics terrain; morphological characteristics are extremely important in the reconstruction of
the technical model.
Geographical location Landslides on their spatial context are referred so that not only geography is known
but the correlation with landslide morphology and geology is also made.
Topographical criteria With these criteria, landslides can be identified with a system similar to that of the
denomination of formations. Consequently, it is possible to describe a landslide using
the name of a site. In particular, the name will be that of the locality where the landslide
happened with a specific characteristic type.
Type of climate Given the changing climatic condition this criteria give particular importance to
climate in the genesis of phenomena for which similar geological conditions can,
in different climatic conditions, lead to totally different morphological evolution. As a
consequence, in the description of a landslide, it can be interesting to understand in
what type of climate the event occurred.
Causes of movements In the evaluation of landslide susceptibility, causes of the triggers are an important
step. The causes may be as “internal” and “external” referring to modifications in the
conditions of the stability of the bodies. Whilst the internal causes induce modifications
in the material itself which decrease its resistance to shear stress, the external causes
generally induce an increase of shear stress, so that block or bodies are no longer
stable. The triggering causes induce the movement of the mass. Predisposition to
movement due to control factors is determining in landslide evolution. Structural
and geological factors, as already described, can determine the development of the
movement, inducing the presence of mass in kinematic freedom.

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One type of slope failure may grade into another, slide often turn into flows. Complex slope
movements are those in which there is a combination of two or more principle types of
movement. There are also cases of multiple movements in which repeated failure of the
same type occur in succession and compound movement are those in the failure surface is
formed of a combination of curved and planar sections.
Table 3.2 A Widely used Landslide Classification Based on Varnes (1978)
Types of Movements Types of Materials
Engineering Slope
Predominantly Coarse Predominantly Fine
Fall Rock fall Debris fall Earth fall
Topples Rock topple Debris topple Earth topple
Spread Rock spread Debris spread Earth spread
Flow Rock flow Debris flow Earth flow
Rotational slide Rock slump Debris slump Earth slump
Slides Translation slide/wedge Rock block slide Debris block slide Earth block slide
Rock slide Debris slide Earth slide
Complex Combination of two or more principal types of movement

3.1.1 Classification based on rate of movement [49, 136]

Fig. 3.1 Landslide Rate of Movement (Velocity) Classification

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3.1.2 Landslide Activity

Table 3.4 Classification of Slopes Based on Activities[22]

Classification of Description
Slope
Material is currently moving, and landslide
Active
features are fresh and well defined
Material is currently moving and represents
renewed landslide activity; some landslide
Reactivated
I-Unstable Slopes features are fresh and well defined; others may
appear older
Slopes with evidence of landslide activity within
Suspended the past year but is not active at present; landslide
features are fresh and well define
A dormant landslide Slopes with evidence of previous landslide activity
is an inactive that have undergone most recent movement
Dormant-historic
landslide which can within the preceding 100 years (approximately
be reactivated by historic time)
its original causes
Slopes with evidence of previous landslide activity
or other causes. In
that have undergone most recent movement
the example shown Dormant- young
during an estimated period of 100 to 5, 000 years
the displaced mass
II-Slope With before present (late Holocene)
begins to regain
Inactive Landslides its tree cover and Slopes with evidence of previous landslide activity
scarps are modified that have undergone most recent movement
by weathering. Dormant-mature
during an estimated period of 5, 000 to 10,000
years before present (Early Holocene)
Slopes with evidence of previous landslide activity
that have undergone most recent movement
Dormant-old
more than 10,000 year before present (Late
Pleistocene)
Slopes that show no evidence of previous landslide activity but that are considered
III-Potentially
likely to develop landslides in the future; landslide potential is indicated by analysis or
Unstable Slopes
comparison with other slopes.
Slopes with evidence of previous landslide
Stabilized activity but that have been protected from its
original causes by remedial measures.
An abandoned landslide is an inactive landslide
Abandoned which is no longer affected by its original
causes.
IV- Apparently
Stable Slopes A relict landslide is an inactive landslide which
Relict developed under climatic or geomorphological
conditions not currently present.
Slopes that show no evidence or previous
landslide activity and that by analysis or
Stable
comparison with other slopes are considered
stable

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Table 3.5 shows the distribution of activity depending on the direction of the surface of rupture
(slide)[165].
Table 3.5 Distribution of Activities

Distribution Description Figure

In an advancing landslide the rupture surface is

Advancing
extending in the direction of movement.

In a retrogressive landslide the rupture surface is

Retrogressive extending in the direction opposite to the movement
of the displaced material.

In an enlarging landslide the rupture surface of the

Enlarging
landslide is extending in two or more directions.

In a diminishing landslide the volume of displaced

Diminishing
material is decreasing.

In a confined landslide there is a scarp but no rupture

Confined
surface visible at the foot of the displaced mass.

In a moving landslide the displaced material continues

Moving to move without any visible change in the rupture
surface and the volume of the displaced material.

In a widening landslide the rupture surface is extending

Widening
into one or both flanks of the landslide.

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Table 3.6 Shows the style of the activities indicating the way in which different movements
contribute to the landslides[165].
Table 3.6 Style of Activities

Style Description Figure

A complex landslide exhibits at least two

types of movement (falling, toppling, sliding,
spreading and flowing) in sequence. In the
example shown a gneiss and a pegmatite vein
Complex
toppled with valley incision. Alluvial deposits
fill the valley bottom. After weathering had
weakened the toppled material some of the
displaced mass slid further down slope.

A composite landslide exhibits at least two

types of movement simultaneously in different
parts of the displacing mass. In the example
Composite
shown the limestones have slid on the
underlying shales causing toppling below the
toe of the slide rupture surface.

A successive landslide is the same type as a

nearby, earlier landslide, but does not share
displaced material or rupture surface with it.
Successive
In the example shown the later slide AB is the
same type as CD but does not share displaced
material or a rupture surface with it.

A single landslide is a single movement of

Single
displaced material.

21
 3.2 Description of Type of Movements
Table 3.7 Gives Description of Different Types of Movements [54, 107, 110 and 145].
Table 3.7 Description of Type of Movements
Type of movement Descriptions Triggering Mechanism
Fall The detachment of slope material i.e. soil or rock, or both, from a steep slope along a surface on which little or Undercutting of slope by natural processes such as streams and rivers or differential weathering
no shear displacement has occurred is termed as fall. The material descends mainly by falling, bouncing, or (such as the freeze/thaw cycle), human activities such as excavation during road building and
rolling. The volume of material in a fall can vary substantially, from individual rocks or clumps of soil to massive (or) maintenance, and earthquake shaking or other intense vibration. Effects (direct/indirect)
blocks thousands of cubic meters in size. The velocity of movement is very rapid to extremely rapid. Except Falling material can be life-threatening. Falls can damage property beneath the fall-line of
the rolling velocity of displaced mass which depends on slope steepness. The fall is prefixed with some nouns large rocks. Boulders can bounce or roll great distances and damage structures or kill people.
like rock, debris and soil depending upon the type of material. Rockfall is a fall of newly detached mass from Damage to roads and railroads is particularly high: rockfalls can cause deaths in vehicles hit by
an area of bed rock. Debris fall is a fall of debris which is composed of detrital fragments prior to failure. rocks and can block highways and railroads.
IRC:SP:106-2015

Topple Topples 54 can consist of rock, debris (coarse material), or earth materials (fine grained material). Sometimes driven by gravity exerted by material located upslope from the
The material involved usually leans forward in bulk but when it fails, at the base, it rapidly rotates displaced mass and sometimes by water or ice occurring in cracks within
onto the slope below and breaks up, bounces, roles or slides forward. Topples range from extremely
the mass; also, vibration, undercutting, differential weathering, excavation,
slow to extremely rapid, sometimes accelerating throughout the movement. This kind of movement
can be extremely destructive, especially when failure is sudden and (or) the velocity is rapid. or stream erosion.

Rotational Landslide A landslide on which the surface of rupture is curved upward (spoon-shaped) and the slide movement is Intense and (or) sustained rainfall or rapid snowmelt can lead to the saturation
more or less rotational about an axis that is parallel to the contour of the slope. The displaced mass may, of slopes and increased groundwater levels within the mass; rapid drops in river
under certain circumstances, move as a relatively coherent mass along the rupture surface with little internal
level following floods, ground-water levels rising as a result of filling reservoirs, or
deformation. The head of the displaced material may move almost vertically downward, and the upper surface
of the displaced material may tilt backwards toward the scarp. If the slide is rotational and has several parallel the rise in level of streams, lakes, and rivers, which cause erosion at the base of
curved planes of movement, it is called a slump. As rotational slides occur most frequently in homogeneous slopes. These types of slides can also be earthquake-induced.
materials, they are the most common landslide occurring in “fill” materials.

Translational Landslide The mass in a translational landslide moves out or down and outward along a relatively planar surface Primarily intense rainfall, rise in ground water within the slide due to rainfall,
with little rotational movement or backward tilting. This type of slide may progress over considerable snowmelt, flooding, or other inundation of water resulting from irrigation, or
distances if the surface of rupture is sufficiently inclined, in contrast to rotational slides, which tend
leakage from pipes or human-related disturbances such as undercutting.
to restore the slide equilibrium. The material in the slide may range from loose, unconsolidated soils
to extensive slabs of rock, or both. Translational slides commonly fail along geologic discontinuities These types of landslides can be earthquake-induced.
such as faults, joints, bedding surfaces, or the contact between rock and soil.

22
Lateral Spreads Lateral spreads usually occur on very gentle slopes or essentially flat terrain, especially Triggers that destabilize the weak layer include: ① Liquefaction of lower weak layer by
where a stronger upper layer of rock or soil undergoes extension and moves above an earthquake shaking, ② Natural or anthropogenic overloading of the ground above an
underlying softer, weaker layer. Such failures commonly are accompanied by some general unstable slope, ③ Saturation of underlying weaker layer due to precipitation, snowmelt,
subsidence into the weaker underlying unit. Velocity of movement may be slow to moderate and (or) ground-water changes, ④ Liquefaction of underlying sensitive marine clay
and sometimes rapid after certain triggering mechanisms, such as an earthquake. following an erosional disturbance at base of a riverbank/slope, ⑤Plastic deformation of
unstable material at depth (for example, salt).

Debris Flows A form of rapid mass movement in which loose soil, rock and sometimes organic Debris flows are commonly caused by intense surface-water flow, due to
matter combine with water to form a slurry that flows downslope. Debris flows can be heavy precipitation or rapid snowmelt that erodes and mobilizes loose soil
deadly as they can be extremely rapid and may occur without any warning. or rock on steep slopes. Debris flows also commonly mobilize from other
types of landslides that occur on steep slopes, are nearly saturated, and
consist of a large proportion of silt- and sand-sized material.

Debris Avalanche Debris avalanches are essentially large, extremely rapid; often open-slope flows In general, the two types of debris avalanches are those that are “cold” and those that are “hot.”
A cold debris avalanche usually results from a slope becoming unstable, such as during collapse
formed when an unstable slope collapses and the resulting fragmented debris is
of weathered slopes in steep terrain or through the disintegration of bedrock during a slide-type
rapidly transported away from the slope. In some cases, snow and ice will contribute landslide as it moves downslope at high velocity. At that point, the mass can then transform into
to the movement if sufficient water is present, and the flow may become a debris flow a debris avalanche. A hot debris avalanche is one that results from volcanic activity including
and (or) a lahar. volcanic earthquakes or the injection of magma, which causes slope instability.

Earth flow Earth flows can occur on gentle to moderate slopes, generally in fine-grained soil, commonly clay or silt, but also in Triggers include saturation of soil due to prolonged or intense rainfall or snowmelt,
very weathered, clay-bearing bedrock. The mass in an earth flow moves as a plastic or viscous flow with strong internal sudden lowering of adjacent water surfaces causing rapid drawdown of the ground-
deformation. Susceptible marine clay (quick clay) when disturbed is very vulnerable and may lose all shear strength
with a change in its natural moisture content and suddenly liquefy, potentially destroying large areas and flowing for
water table, stream erosion at the bottom of a slope, excavation and construction
several kilometers. Size commonly increases through head scarp retrogression. Slides or lateral spreads may also activities, excessive loading on a slope, earthquakes, or human-induced vibration.
evolve downslope into earth flows. Earth flows can range from very slow (creep) to rapid and catastrophic.

Creep Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-forming soil. For seasonal creep, rainfall and snowmelt are typical triggers, whereas for
Movement is caused by shear stress sufficient to produce permanent deformation, but too other types of creep there could be numerous causes, such as chemical or
small to produce shear failure. There are generally three types of creeps: (1) seasonal, physical weathering, leaking pipes, poor drainage, destabilizing types of
where movement is within the depth of soil affected by seasonal changes in soil moisture construction, and so on.
and soil temperature; (2) continuous, where shear stress continuously exceeds the strength
of the material; and (3) progressive, where slopes are reaching the point of failure.
 IRC:SP:106-2015

4 LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING, VULNERABILITY

and RISK ASSESSMENT

Landslide susceptibility, hazard and risk mapping of any hilly terrain, prior to development,
are the basic need not only for minimizing the risk to life and property and safety of the public
and infrastructure from landslides and like phenomena but also for the quality and durability
of the infrastructure in disaster prone areas.
The landslide hazard, vulnerability and risk assessment is based upon the use of three major
steps: susceptibility mapping, hazard mapping and risk mapping (Fig. 4.1). In susceptibility
mapping, the locations of areas liable to undergo landslide are identified. In hazard mapping,
the probability of failure is estimated using a number of techniques. In risk mapping, the
landslide hazard assessment is combined with an estimate of the vulnerability of the total
infrastructure and population to produce an estimate of landslide risk.

Fig. 4.1 Basic Framework of Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk

4.1 Recommended Landslide Mapping Scale and their Application

Landslide zoning maps should be prepared at a scale appropriate for displaying the
information needed at a particular zoning level understandable to the working engineers
and the policy makers. The scale of mapping is generally controlled by the aim of the project
for which the maps are being planned. Table 4.1 below summarizes map scales and the
landslide inventory, susceptibility, hazard and risk mapping to which they are usually
applied[51].

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Table 4.1 Landslide Zoning Mapping Scale and their Application

Scale Description Indicative Range of Scales Examples of Zoning Application
Regional planning 1:50,000 - 1:1,00,000 Landslide inventory and susceptibility to inform policy makers/planners
(Policy level) and the general public.
Specific policy 1:25,000 - 1:50,000 Landslide inventory and susceptibility zoning for regional and local
decision (regional development/ very large scale engineering projects.
level) Preliminary level hazard mapping for local areas.
Project based 1:5,000 - 1:25,000 Landslide inventory and susceptibility and hazard zoning for local
planning (Advance areas.
level planning) Preliminary level risk zoning for local areas. Advance stage of planning
for large engineering structure roads and railways.
Specific site 1:500 - 1:5,000 Intermediate and advance level hazard and risk zoning for local and
planning site specific areas and for the design phase of large engineering
structure, roads and railways.

4.2 Landslide Hazard Analysis Techniques and Maps

Existing landslides and their relationship with the key factors such as slope steepness,
lithology variation, groundwater conditions etc. gives an understanding of the conditions and
processes controlling landsliding and forms the basis for assessing landslide susceptibility
and ultimately hazard[50]. Table 4.3 provides a summary of hazard analysis techniques and
mapping.
Table 4.3 Hazard Analysis Techniques in Relation to Mapping Scales
Type of Technique Characteristics Scale of Use Recommended
Analysis Regional Medium Large
1:50,000 – 1:25,000 – 1:500 –
1:1,00,000 1:50,000 1:5,000
Landslides distribution Analyze distribution and Yes Yes Yes
analysis classification of landslides
Landslide activity Analyze temporal changes in No Yes Yes
Inventory
analysis landslide pattern
Landslide activity Calculate landslide density in Yes Yes No
analysis terrain units or as isopleth map
Geomorphologic Use in-field expert opinion in Yes Yes Yes
analysis zonation
Heuristic
Qualitative map Use expert-based weight values Yes Yes No
combination of parameter maps
Bi-variate statistical Calculate importance of No Yes No
analysis contributing factor combination
Multivariate statistical Calculate prediction formula No Yes No
Statistical analysis from data matrix
Probabilistic (Magnitude/ Calculate prediction from Yes Yes No
Frequency) inventory and time period using
power law
Safety factor analysis Apply hydrological and slope No No Yes
Deterministic
stability models

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 IRC:SP:106-2015

Heuristic or qualitative methods use expert interpretation of geological and historical information
on landslides to estimate the susceptibility of areas to landslide events. A combination of
qualitative and quantitative information form the basis of relative hazard that can be classified
into landslide susceptibility classes (e.g. high, medium, low).
Statistical hazard analysis methods use landslides, geological, topographic and vegetation etc
information to calculate the susceptibility to landslide or the probability of landslide events. By
definition, determining landslide hazard requires determining the magnitude and frequency
of landslide events. However, both the parameters are difficult to be determined, particularly
when the data are scar.
Determining the spatial and temporal extent of landslide hazard involves identifying areas
which are, or could be, affected by a landslide and assessing the probability of similar
landsliding occurring within a specified time period. Specifying a time frame for the future
occurrence of a landslide is difficult and often not possible.
The prediction and forecasting of landslides relies on the knowledge gained from the production
of hazard maps. The stability and the possible vulnerabilities of slopes are researched to
determine how safe the area around the slope is from possible landslides.

4.3 Landslide Database Inventory

The landslide database and inventory is an important and, in fact, a first step towards not
only the landslide hazard mapping and risk assessment but also towards any of the landslide
hazard mitigation and management programs. The inventory of landslides before zonation
is prerequisite because an area can be said susceptible for landslides, when the terrain
conditions are comparable to those where a slide has occurred[45]. Landslide inventory maps
show the distribution of past and active landslides[4], their relative activity, landslide density
and/or geomorphic attributes, within an area. Some geomorphic attributes include slope,
slope aspect, bedrock lithology and structure, soil type, depth of overburden, moisture content
and geomorphic processes such as gullying and soil erosion etc. Each landslide is typically
mapped as a geographically referenced polygon; small landslides can be represented by a
geographically referenced point. If possible, each landslide should be assigned a landslide
type and, where possible, other information should be included such as date of occurrence,
state of activity and approximate volume.
For small landslides in natural slopes, the quality of the inventory will be enhanced by carrying
out surface as well as aerial photograph-based interpretation. Basic small or medium scale
landslide inventory mapping at regional or local level may be followed by intermediate or
advanced mapping of higher susceptibility areas (Table 4.4). The inventory should be mapped
at a larger scale than the susceptibility, hazard or risk zoning maps. Different information can
be mapped depending on the scale[33].

25
 Table 4.4 Activities Required while Preparing a Landslide Inventory, Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk Mapping

Characterisation Activities
Method
Landslide Inventory Landslide Susceptibility Mapping Landslide Hazard Landslide Risk
Mapping Mapping

Basic Prepare an inventory of landslides in the area from aerial photographs Prepare a geomorphologic map and landslide inventory. Same as landslide Same as landslide
(1:50,000 to and /or satellite imagery, and by mapping and from historic records. susceptibility hazard mapping
IRC:SP:106-2015

1:100,000) The inventory includes the location, classification, volume (or area) mapping + + element at risk,
and so far as practicable the date of occurrence of landsliding. assessment of consequences of
frequency, velocity, hazard
Identify the relationship to topography, geology and geomorphology. Prepare calculations of the % of the total landslide count for each run-out of landslide
susceptibility class, the % of the area affected by landslides for each class
and the % of each class in comparison to the total study area.

Show this information on inventory maps along with topographic Correlate the incidence of landsliding different factors to delineate areas
information including contours, property boundaries, mapping grid, susceptible to landsliding.
roads and other important features such as streams and water-
courses. For regional zoning correlate the incidence of landsliding with annual
rainfall or snowmelt, and/or seismic loading.

Prepare the landslide susceptibility zoning map superimposed on the

topography with a suitable legend. Implement the data and the maps in
a GIS.

26
Intermediate The same activities as Basic plus The same activities as basic plus
(1:10,000 to
1:25,000) Identify landside features/initial surface Obtain basic soil classifications and depths in the study area.

Influence of manmade activities on incidences of landslide. Classify more complex terrain units. Qualitative rating of the landslide
susceptible areas based on overlapping techniques.

Develop quantitative ratings (often relative rating) of landslide susceptible

areas based on data treatment techniques.

Analysis of land use vs. human activities Implement the data and the maps in a GIS

Advanced The same activities as Intermediate plus The same activities as Intermediate plus
(>1:5,000)
Detailed Investigations Detailed mapping and geotechnical investigations to develop an
understanding of the mechanics of landsliding, hydrogeology and stability
analyses.

Advanced temporal cataloguing of periodic reactivations of the same Perform data treatment analysis (discriminate; neural networks; fuzzy
hazard and temporal windowing of specific triggering events to provide logic; logistic regression; etc) and develop quantitative ratings to obtain
periodic inventory data sets which can then be used in advanced susceptibility classes.
validation approaches.
Perform stability analysis.

Implement the data and the maps in a GIS (recommended).

 IRC:SP:106-2015

Landslide Information Form[163]

4.4 Landslide Susceptibility Mapping

Landslide susceptibility mapping usually involves developing an inventory of landslides
which have occurred in the past together with an assessment of the areas with a potential
to experience landsliding in the future, but with no assessment of the frequency (annual
probability) of the occurrence of landslides[51]. Susceptibility mapping involves the rating of
the terrain units according to their propensity to produce landslides. This is dependent on
the topography, geology, geotechnical properties, climate, vegetation and anthropogenic
factors such as development and clearing of vegetation. The scale of susceptibility is usually
a relative one.
It should be recognized that the study area may be susceptible to more than one type of
landslide e.g. rock fall and debris flows, and may have a different degree of susceptibility
(and in turn hazard) for each of these[33]. In these cases it will often be best to prepare
separate susceptibility maps for each type of landslide and to combine them to obtain the
global landslide hazard map of the area.
Procedure for landslide susceptibility mapping:
● Defining the Aim for which the landslide susceptibility or hazard information
is needed
● Based on the aim for which the map is needed, scale of mapping etc. are to
be selected
 Find out whether topographic & other information are available on that
scale, if yes - move further, if not - decide whether such base maps are
to be created
 If base map to the desired scale are not available we look for Aerial
Photographs/imageries of an appropriate resolution which will be
helpful in developing the base map.

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IRC:SP:106-2015

● Development of existing landslide map which helps in identifying the factors

and to prioritize them (Inventory is first step).
● Identification of the factors and their prioritization based on their contribution
in inducing the slope stability.
● Creation of analytical maps for each of the selected factors.
● Characterization of each factor, as per their physical, chemical, engineering
characteristics.
● Grade/rate each of the factors, as per their characteristics, and their possible
as well as established role in inducing landslide hazard process.
● Creation of a combined map, by superimposing one factor maps on another
and so on as per priority given to each factor in GIS platform.
● Total hazard evaluation, the sum total of all the accorded grading/rating.
● Final geo-engineering mapping or susceptibility map.
● Probability analysis, which also serves the purpose of checking the final geo-
engineering map.

4.5 Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) Mapping

Susceptibility maps are prepared to locate/identify the areas susceptible to future stability
problems and the landslide hazard mapping is a step further of susceptibility. Such analysis
is an iterative process, whereby initially a broad appreciation of the hazard, events, and then
likelihood (probability) of occurrence, and the resulting consequences are developed. This will
assist in determining which
aspects need more in depth
investigation. The technique
used in the Hazard mapping
take into consideration the
knowledge of past events,
present condition prevailing
in the area and anticipation
of future behavior of slope
stability. The hazard may
be expressed as the
frequency of a particular
type of landslide of a certain
volume or landslides of
a particular type, volume
and velocity (which may
vary with distance from the
landslide source)[52]. Fig. 4.2
Fig. 4.2 Flowchart of Landslide Hazard Zonation
shows the methodologies
used to prepare landslide hazard mapping[64].

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 IRC:SP:106-2015

The preparation of landslide hazard map required all the steps of susceptibility mapping in
preceding section with addition of assessment of landslide frequency, velocity and run out
distance.
* In India, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has formulated guidelines for
preparation of landslide hazard zonation maps in the year 1998 (BIS -code;
IS 14496 (Part 2).
*
“Guideline for Landslide Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk Zoning for Land Use
Planning” Ref: AGS (2007a) also devised preparation of landslide hazard
map.
4.5.1 Recommended Landslide Hazard Zoning Descriptors
The manner in which landslide hazard is described depends on the type of landslide[51]. For
small slides and rock falls the hazard is described in terms of the number of slides per length
of source area/annum, or the number of landslides per square kilometer of source area/
annum. For large landslides hazard is described in terms of the annual probability of active
sliding, or for active slides the annual probability movement will exceed a defined distance or
the annual probability that cracking within a slide exceeds a defined length.
Table 4.5 presents recommended descriptors (as given in Australian guidelines) for the most
common landslide and rock fall situations.
Table 4.5 Recommended Descriptors for Hazard Zoning
Hazard Descriptor Rock Falls/Slides from Cut and Fill Slopes on Roads or
Railways and Small Landslides on Natural Slopes
Number/annum/km
Very High >10
High 1 to 10
Moderate 0.1 to 1
Low 0.01 to 0.1
Very Low < 0.01

4.5.2 Frequency Assessment

The frequency of landslide may be expressed in terms of the number of landslides of certain
characteristics that may occur (probability) in the study area in a given span of time (generally
per year, but the period of reference might be different if required).
For better understanding and useful references of landslide frequency assessment refer to
Australian Geomechanics “Commentary on Guideline for Landslide Susceptibility, Hazard
and Risk Zoning for Land Use Planning” AGS (2007b).
4.5.3 Intensity Assessment
Intensity is the measure of the damaging capability of the landslide. In slow moving landslides
persons are not usually endangered while damages to buildings and infrastructures might
be high although, in some cases, only evidenced after long periods of time. By contrast rapid
movements of small and large masses may have catastrophic consequences for both persons
and structures. For this reason it is desirable to describe the intensity of the landslides in the
zoning study.

29
IRC:SP:106-2015

The same landslide may result in different intensity values along the path (for instance, the
kinetic energy of a rock fall changes continuously along its trajectory)[33].
4.5.4 Landslide Characterization, Travel Distance and Velocity
For landslide characterization, travel distance and velocity, refer to Australian Geomechanics
“Commentary on Guideline for Landslide Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk Zoning for Land Use
Planning” AGS (2007b). It provides more detail on the activities required to characterize the
landslides for the four main classes of landslides and suggested useful references. In most
of the cases where intermediate methods are being used basic methods will also be used.
For advanced methods, intermediate and basic methods will also be used. Note that much
of these activities will be carried out in GIS and the terms used here are generic. It should be
noted that the more advanced the characterization method the larger scale of the mapping
and level of detail of information and understanding of slope processes is required.

4.6 Landslide Risk Management

Figure 4.4 illustrates fundamental framework for landslide risk management[114].
4.6.1 Landslide Risk Mapping
It takes the outcomes of hazard mapping and assesses the potential damage to persons
(annual probability the person most at risk loses his or her life) and to property (annual value
of property loss) for the elements at risk, accounting for temporal and spatial probability and
vulnerability[51]. In current case it includes risk of life to commuters, travelling vehicles and
highways.
4.6.2 Principles for Planning Approaches
1. Gather accurate landslide hazard information.
Identifying landslide-prone areas and plotting them on planning maps is essential
for communicating the risk they may present and mitigating such hazards[50].
2. Plan to avoid landslide hazards before development and subdivision.
Landslide hazards can be avoided by preventing development on known landslide
hazard areas. Where avoidance is not possible, mitigation measures can be applied
to reduce the risk can reduce risk through appropriate engineering works.
3. Take a risk-based approach in areas already developed or subdivided.
Planning for land use in landslide-prone areas helps to avoid or mitigate the
increased risks from landslide hazards caused by land-use intensification (such
as urban in fill) and inappropriate building.
4. Communicate risk of landslides in built-up areas.
One of the most difficult problems concerning landslide hazards is dealing with
existing urban areas where buildings/highways are constructed on or close to a
landslide. The ideal approach in this situation is to avoid further development in
high-risk landslide prone areas, limit existing-use rights to rebuild, and limit the
use of buildings/highways.

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 IRC:SP:106-2015

Fig. 4.4 Framework for Landslide Risk Management

4.6.3 Recommended Landslide Risk Zoning Descriptors
Table 4.7 & 4.8 presents the recommended descriptors for landslide risk zoning using life
loss and property criteria. These are based on annual individual risk for the person most at
risk. If there is a potential for a large number of persons to be killed in one landslide event
there should be an assessment of societal risk.
Table 4.7 Recommended Descriptors for Risk Zoning using Life Loss Criteria
Annual Probability of Death of the Person Most at Risk in the Zone Risk Zoning Descriptors
>10 /annum
-3
Very High
10-4 to 10-3 /annum High
10-5 to 10-4 / annum Moderate
to 10-5 /annum Low
<10 /annum
-6
Very Low

Table 4.8 Recommended Descriptors for Risk Zoning using Property Loss Criteria
Likelihood Consequences to Property (With Indicative Approximate
(Cost of Damage)(1)
Isndicative Value 1:Catastrophic 2:Major 3:Medium 4:Minor 5% 5:Insignificant
of Approximate 200% 60% 20% 0.5%
Annual Probability
A ALMOST CERTAIN 101 VH VH VH H M or L (2)
B LIKELY 102 VH VH H M L
C POSSIBLE 10 3
VH H M M VL
D UNLIKELY 10 4
H M L L VL
E RARE 10 5
M L L VL VL
F BARELY CREDIBLE 106 L VL VL VL VL

Notes: (1) As a percentage of the value of the property.

(2) For Cell A5, may be subdivided such that a consequence of less than 0.1% is
Low Risk.
(3) L low, M medium, H high, VL very low, VH very high

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IRC:SP:106-2015

4.6.4 Risk Analysis

Risk analysis involves acquiring information on landslide hazards, as well as considering
the consequences if people and property are affected by landslides[50]. Firstly, a thorough
assessment of the types, characteristics and frequency of landslides in the area of interest is
carried out as part of the hazard identification. Secondly, a consequence analysis establishes
the elements at risk (people/property/assets).
4.6.5 The Elements of Hazard and Vulnerability
These two elements - hazard and vulnerability - are essential in risk assessment: hazard, as
the probability of occurrence of a harmful natural event, and vulnerability as susceptibility to
injury or damage if the event occurs, and the ability to protect you against it. This leads to risk
as the product of the two, expressing the probability of occurrence and the magnitude of the
possible damage – in other words, the probable loss or injury.
Risk = hazard x vulnerability
However, it is important to remember that a large part of the vulnerability can be reduced
through human capability for prevention or self-protection (“coping strategies”)[53].The
absence of coping strategies is part of vulnerability, and has to be taken into account in the
vulnerability analysis.
4.6.6 Elements at Risk
Different levels of hazard can be acceptable to various elements at risk depending on the
consequences of a landslide occurring at a particular site[50]. The elements at risk are the
population, buildings and engineering works, economic activities, public services utilities,
infrastructure and environmental features in the area potentially affected by the landslide
hazard[33]. These need to be assessed for existing and proposed development.
4.6.7 Voluntary and Involuntary Risk
Individual and organizations are willing to accept greater voluntary risks, that is, risks that
are perceived to be within their control. Residential occupants, rarely consider landslide risks
as voluntary. Such landslide risks are typically considered involuntary and thus landslide
safety criteria values are likely to be less than the values reported earlier. As normally noticed
in India, workers are generally at work at even high risk landslide areas in that case risk
to workers from landslides considered voluntary because employees know that benefits
(income) are, at least, partial compensation for the perceived risks, provided the risk are
adequately understood and communicated.
4.6.8 Measures of Consequence
The consequences of a landslide are commonly described in terms of the cost of damage,
and the number of deaths or injuries (casualties)[50]. The consequences are often calculated
using the vulnerability (V) of the elements at risk to the landslide.

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 IRC:SP:106-2015

The factors which most affect vulnerability of property /individual are:

 The volume of the slide in relation to the element at risk.
 The position of the element at risk, e.g. on the slide, or immediately down
slope.
 The magnitude of slide displacement, and relative displacements within the
slide (for elements sited on the slide).
 The rate of slide movement.
 Whether the landslide debris buries the person(s).
 Whether the person(s) are in the open or enclosed in a vehicle or building.
 Whether the vehicle or building collapses when impacted by debris.
 The type of collapse if the vehicle or building collapses.
It should be noted that the vulnerability refers to the degree of damage (or damage value in
absolute or relative terms) which is judged to be likely if the landslide does occur.
4.6.9 Risk Estimation
Risk is the combination of the likelihood and potential consequences of (or vulnerability to)
a hazard. A landslide hazard may be assessed as “extreme”, but if there are no vulnerable
elements then there is no risk[50]. Landslide risk analysis is an iterative process, whereby initially
a broad appreciation of the hazard, events, and then likelihood (probability) of occurrence,
and the resulting consequences are developed. This will assist in determining which aspects
need more in depth investigation.
4.6.10 Quantitative Risk Estimation
Quantitative risk estimation involves integration of the frequency analysis and the
consequences[138].
The risk can be calculated:
R = PH* PS: H* PT: S* V*E
where,
R = risk (annual probability of loss property value/life).
PH = annual probability of the landslide occurring.
PS: H = spatial probability that the landslide will reach the property/individual,
taking into account the travel distance and travel direction.
PT: S = temporal spatial probability that the individual will be present when
landslide occurs. For houses and other buildings P (T: S) = 1.0. For
Vehicles and other moving elements at risk 1.0 < P (T: S) > 0.
V = vulnerability or probability of life loss/property value loss.
E = element at risk (the value or net present value of the property and number
of people at risk).

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IRC:SP:106-2015

4.6.11 Risk Assessment

Risk assessment involves evaluating risks, making judgments on the acceptability of the
risks and evaluating remedial options and mitigation measures [50]. Such assessments
depend on the likelihood (probability) and consequences of the landslide hazard events being
considered, and societal acceptance of certain risk levels. This is where policy and decision
makers overlap with the geological and geotechnical professionals in making decisions about
acceptable risk and appropriate development options.
In assessing the landslide hazard and risk, a local authority should also take account of:
● community values and expectations (what the community wants and what it
does not want)
● which areas are, or are likely to be, under pressure for development
● what infrastructure already exists near a landslide hazard (buildings, network
utilities etc) and the value of that infrastructure
● what level of risk the community is prepared to accept or not accept (in
practice, it is easier to define what the community will not accept using
community reactions to past events as a guide)
● Consideration of the feasibility (effectiveness versus cost) of possible
engineering solutions or other risk reducing mitigation works.
Landslide risk assessment requires an understanding of the likely magnitude or consequences
of different types of landslide events, and the risks of injury or loss of life and damage to
property and investment. It also requires consideration of the cost of clean-up, or repair or
replacement of damaged property or services after the event. The estimation of risk is relatively
simple due to the use of a risk matrix, whereby the product of likelihood and consequence
indicates the level of risk[31].
4.6.12 Landslide Risk Treatment/Remedial Measures
Risk Treatment is the final stage of the landslide risk management process and provides
the methodology of controlling the risk. Feasible options for risk mitigation for each risk
assessment are to be identified and discussed including the reduced risk by adoption of
those options.
Alternative methods to be explored include[138]:
● Accept the risk, which is only an option subject to the criteria set by the
regulator. Where the risk is not tolerable then risk mitigation measures are
required.
● Avoid the risk, such as relocation of the site of proposed development, or
revise the form of the development, or abandon the development (though
this may still require some risks to be controlled due to possible effect on
third parties adjacent or nearby).
● Reduce the frequency of landslide, by stabilization measures to control
the initiating circumstances, such as by re-profiling the surface geometry
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 IRC:SP:106-2015

where existing slopes are ‘over steep’, by provision of improved surface

water drainage measures, by provision of subsurface drainage scheme, by
provision of retaining structures such as retaining walls, anchored walls or
ground anchors etc.
● Reduce the consequences, by provision of defensive stabilization measures
or protective measures such as a boulder catch fence, or amelioration of
the behavior of the landslide, or by relocation of the development to a more
favorable location.
● Manage the risk by establishing monitoring and warning systems, such as
by regular site visits, or by survey, which enable the risks to be managed
as an interim measure in the short term or as a permanent measure for
the long term by alerting persons potentially affected to a change in the
landslide condition. Such systems may be regarded as a method of reducing
the consequences provided it is feasible for sufficient time to be available
between the alert being raised and appropriate action being implemented.
● Transfer the risk, such as by requiring another authority to accept the risk
(possibly via a court appraisal) or by provision of insurance to cover potential
property damage.
● Postpone the decision, where there is sufficient uncertainty resulting from
the available data, provided that additional investigations or monitoring are
likely to enable a better risk assessment to be completed. Postponement
is only a temporary measure and implies the risks are being temporarily
accepted, even though they may not be acceptable or tolerable.
4.6.13 Disaster Risk Management - Concept and Areas for Action
Disaster management (DM) includes measures for before (prevention, preparedness,
risk transfer), during (humanitarian aid, rehabilitation of the basic infrastructure, damage
assessment) and after disaster (disaster response and reconstruction)[53]. Disaster risk
management (DRM) (Fig 4.5) is part of disaster management, focusing on the before (risk
analysis, prevention, preparedness) of the extreme natural event, and relating to during and
after of the disaster only through risk analysis. DRM is an instrument for reducing the risk
of disaster primarily by reducing vulnerability, based on social agreements resulting from
risk analysis. These social agreements are the result of a complex social process in which
all social strata and interest groups participate. They are a necessary basis for resisting the
future effects of extreme natural events (prevention, preparedness). The primary area of
action of a DRM is reducing vulnerability and strengthening self protection capabilities.
Disaster prevention includes those activities which prevent or reduce the negative effects of
extreme natural events, primarily in the medium to long term. These include political, legal,
administrative, planning and infrastructural measures.
Preparedness for disasters is intended to avoid or reduce loss of life and damage to property
if an extreme natural event occurs. The participating institutions and the population at hazard

35
IRC:SP:106-2015

are prepared for the situation that might arise, and precautions are taken. In addition to
increasing the alert level, mobilizing the self-help resources of the population for the emergency
and operating a monitoring system, this includes the following measures:
1) Participative formulation of emergency and evacuation plans;
2) Coordination and deployment planning;
3) Training and upgrading:
4) Infrastructural and logistical measures, such as emergency accommodation,
etc and stockpiling food and drugs;
5) Establishing and/or strengthening local and national disaster protection
structures and rescue services;
6) Disaster protection exercises;
7) Early warning systems.
Preparedness and prevention measures also include designing and implementing risk
transfer concepts.

Fig. 4.5 From Risk Analysis to DRM Measures

For further disaster management plan refer to National Disaster Management Guidelines on
“Management of Landslides and Snow Avalanches”.

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5 METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF SLOPES AND LANDSLIDES

The investigation and characterization of surface as well as subsurface conditions form the
core of landslide studies. The success of mitigation and management agenda of any landslide
depends upon the quality of investigation carried out on that particular landslide site.
In case of new roads/corridors, the emphasis is on planning, at a stage where there is an
opportunity to choose the most favorable location for the alignment involving lowest overall
hazards and risk. The evaluation of terrain through investigations will lead to predict the
problems or hazards which may likely to occur after construction and consequently suitable
schemes or plans for mitigation and management of the indentified trouble areas can
be taken up. But for an existing road network, the focus on effective slope maintenance
programme, i.e. maintain the slopes at minimal economic cost and identifying slopes most
at risk, and providing remedial measures to minimize or eliminate risk. The investigation
should be comprehensive enough that appropriate corrective measures can be taken[58]. So
investigation is the first step towards understanding the phenomena.
Landslide investigations should be designed with reference to four basic guidelines that have
evolved over many years of experience:
● Most landslides or potential failures can be predicted if proper investigations
are performed in time;
● The cost of preventing landslides is less than the cost of correcting the
affected elements, except for small landslides that can be handled by normal
maintenance procedures;
● Massive landslides that may cost many times the cost of the original facility
should be prevented and
● The occurrence of initial slope movement can lead to additional unstable
conditions and movements.

5.1 Investigation phases

The investigations of landslides have different phases[118] (as shown in Fig. 5.1). As already
mentioned there are two different conditions (virgin areas i.e. where roads are planned but
not constructed and non-virgin areas i.e. existing roads which are already affected due to
landslides) requiring investigation. The purpose of investigation is different for planned and
existing roads, although some primary phases of investigation are similar in both the cases.
 For the virgin areas, in case of proposed road construction, the susceptibility
of terrain to landslides and probability of recurrence of such processes is
determined; Refer to chapter IV for landslide susceptibility mapping.
 While in case of existing landslides on highways, investigation leads
to identification of the factors, causes, mechanisms, etc; and design of
preventive measures preferably innovative and cost-effective. It would also
cover probability of recurrence of existing landslides and susceptibility of
the terrain to new landslides in future. The landslide susceptibility procedure

37
IRC:SP:106-2015

as explained in the chapter IV is to be followed in both the cases as per

requirement.

Fig. 5.1 Flowchart of Methodology Followed for Investigation of Landslides

5.1.1 Preliminary Investigation
The purpose of the preliminary site investigation is to establish the geological/geotechnical
feasibility of the site and to determine the extent and precision of detailed surface/subsurface

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 IRC:SP:106-2015

investigation required to obtain information needed for design and construction of control/
preventive mitigation measures. The preliminary investigation consists of two parts:
5.1.1.1 Desk study
The availability of desk study information, together with its scale and level of details, will
determine the extent to which desk studies can advance feasibility studies prior to embarking
on detailed fieldwork. The scope of desk study will depend on the availability and quality of
available information’s.
For detailed information on desk study and its parameters readers may refer to BSI BS
5930:1981 Code of practice for site investigations 2001. These phases are discussed in
detail in Special Report 15, IRC State of the Art: Landslide correction technique.
5.1.1.2 Reconnaissance survey
The site reconnaissance may include both site inspection and local enquiries concerning
existing and proposed features on and adjacent to the site. With an approximate understanding
of the overall topographic feature and knowledge of the distinction(s) of movement and aerial
extent of the slide, a detailed field investigation plan can be developed to delineate the aerial
extent and a general direction of movement of the landslide zone, assess the geology and
geologic structure, estimate the cause(s) of the sliding, and predict future movement.
For further consideration of reconnaissance survey for new roads refers to clause 7 of
IRC:SP:19-2001 & Clause 5.3 of IRC:SP:48-1998.
5.1.2 Detailed Field Investigations and Mapping
The field investigation is the central and decisive part of a study of landslides and landslide-
prone areas[158]. With an approximate understanding of the overall topographic feature and
knowledge of the distinction of movement and the extent of the sliding blocks, a detailed field
investigation plan can be developed to delineate the aerial extent and a general direction
of movement of the landslide zone, assess the geology and geologic structure, estimate
the causes of the sliding, and predict future movement. A detailed investigation plan can be
drafted to delineate the:
 Type of landslide, its size and mechanism
 Aerial extent of the slide, identification of the direction of deformation
 Location and shape of slide plane(s)
 Nature of landslide block(s)
 Possibility of further or future movement on slopes above the existing slide
 Distribution of ground water
 Type of soil in the site area
5.1.2.1 Some signs of slope movement
a) Tension Cracks on Roadway or on Slope above the Roadway
b) Escarpments in or above the Roadway

39
IRC:SP:106-2015

c) Sunken guardrail
d) Dips in Grade
e) Debris on Roadway
f) Bulge above, on, or below Roadway
Details are included in chapter II of the guidelines
5.1.2.2 Landslide hazard inventory, susceptibility, zonation and risk assessment
In landslide investigation use of inventory, susceptibility and zonation maps can cut the cost
of road maintenance to a great extent. The utilization of these maps allows understanding the
degree of vulnerability the terrain is having for landslide hazard and the location of existing
landslides. This can help in optimizing the loss of construction of road, reduction in cost and
time for maintenance after construction; reduce risk to life and property etc.
For further description of above topic refers to chapter four “Landslide Hazard Mapping,
Vulnerability and Risk Assessment”.
5.1.2.3 Investigation of surface deformation
The investigation of surface deformation is conducted to define the boundaries of the landslide,
size, level of activity and direction(s) of the movement, and to determine individual moving
blocks of the main slide. Instrumentation used for the surface deformation investigation
includes extensometers, ground tilt meters, and movement determination by survey methods
including transverse survey, grid survey, laser survey from the opposite bank, movement
determination by aerial photographs, and G.P.S. (Chapter VII gives detailed information
about the types of instruments required for an investigation).
During this phase, a detailed identification of terrain conditions, geologic formations, buried
stream beds, soil and rock formations need to be carried out with extensive use of aerial
photography and remote sensing and other types of mapping like topographical maps,
geological maps, geomorphological maps etc.
5.1.2.4 Geotechnical investigation
In order to conduct slope stability analyses and to design appropriate control measures
for landslides, physical properties such as strength of slide plane, location and depth of
slide plane and stable ground areas must be determined. The following tests are generally
performed;
 Physical tests, Standard Penetration Tests (Refer to section 21.2.1 of
Geoguide 2, Hong Kong, 1987: page 111),
 Soil mechanic tests (unconfined compression, tri-axial compression box
shear, ring shear, and in-situ shear (refer to IS:7746-1991 for in-situ data
sheet of shear test of rocks; IS:13047-1991; section 3.2 of chapter 12 of
the TRB Special Report 247, Landslides; Investigation and mitigation).
IS:11229-1985; IS:11593-1986 covers specifications for shear box used as
an assembly for testing of soils. BIS (IS:13365-1998; IS:13365-1992; 13365;

40
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1997) provide the procedure for determining the class of rock mass based
on geomechanics classification system which is also called the Rock Mass
Rating (RMR) system.
5.1.2.5 Subsurface investigation
Generally there are five types of field subsurface investigation methods:
1) Disturbed sampling: Disturbed samples are generally obtained to determine the
soil type, gradation, classification, consistency, density, presence of contaminants,
stratification, etc. Clause 5.1 of IS:1892:1979 gives the types of samples and
methods of sampling to be used for both soil and rock.
2) Undisturbed sampling: These samples are used to determine the in-place
strength, compressibility, natural moisture content, unit weight, permeability,
discontinuities, fractures, fissures of subsurface deposits. The various tests
that are necessary for different phases of exploration are given in Table 3;
IS:1892-1979 (Reapproved 2002). Appendix E of IS:1892: 1979 (reapproved
2002), gives an outline for handling and sampling of rock and soil samples. ASTM
D420-87: presents the standard guide for investigating and sampling soil and
rock.
3) In situ investigation: In situ methods can be particularly effective when they are
used in conjunction with conventional sampling to reduce the cost and time for
field work. In-situ tests are used to provide field measurements of soil and rock
properties. The common in-situ tests performed are presented in Table 5.1.:
Table 5.1 Types of Tests and their Code of Practice
Type of tests Codes of practice
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) IS:2131-1963; AASHTO T 206; ASTM D 1586
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) see IS:4968 ( Part I )1976 ); IS:4968 (Part II)-1976 and
IS:4968 (Part III)-1976); ASTM D 3441
Field Vane Shear Test (FVT) IS:4434-1978; AASHTO T 223; ASTM 2573
Pressure Meter Test (PMT) ASTM D 4719; No.FWHA-IP-89-008
Dilato Meter Test (DMT) IS:12955 (Part 2):1990
Plate Load Test (PLT) IS:1888-1971; ASTM D 1194

5.1.2.6 Geophysical investigation

Geophysical methods are used for prospection of landslide bodies, detection of discontinuities
and shear surfaces, as well as for investigation of hydrological regimes. However gaps exist
and wider application of geophysics in landslide research have been hindered for two reasons:
geophysical methods provide images of geophysical parameters which are not directly
linked to geological parameters required by geotechnical engineers and geomorphologists;
and the overestimation of the quality and reliability of results among some geophysicists.
The development of 2D and 3D geophysical techniques has aroused a growing interest
for assessing the landslide volume, characterizing the physical properties of the landslide
material and locating the groundwater flows within and around the slide.

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IRC:SP:106-2015

Methodology for the measurement of subsurface conditions by seismic refractions and

planning of the survey is given in IS:15681-2006. Appendix B of IS:1892-1979 (Reapproved
2002) gives an outline of electrical resistivity and seismic methods used. Refer to Clause B.1
of Appendix B of IS:1892-1979 (Reapproved 2002).
For detailed account about the methods of site exploration refers to “Code of practice for
subsurface investigation for foundations are given in IS:1892:1979 (Reapproved 2002)”.
Subsurface explorations should be carried out in two stages; preliminary and detailed as
mentioned in IS:1892:1979 (Reapproved 2002).
Laboratory testing for soils: The geotechnical engineer should conduct sufficient in situ
and/or laboratory testing to characterize the physical geotechnical parameters of the earth
materials affecting the proposed development.
A method for various tests of soils and preparation of samples can be found in IS 2720 from
Part I-41.
Laboratory testing for rocks: Table 5 of BS 5930:1981 gives the standard practice for
laboratory tests on rock. Also Table 9 of BS 5930:1981 gives a guide for identification of
rocks for engineering purposes. Reference should be made to Section 6 BS 5930:1981 of
chapter: Laboratory test on samples. The following codes of practice are given for laboratory
testing of rocks.
● IS:9179:1979 Method for the preparation of rock specimen for laboratory
testing.
● IS:13365: Part 1:1998 Quantitative classification system of rock mass -
Guidelines: Part 1 RMR for predicting of engineering properties.
● IS:13365: Part 2:1992 Quantitative classification systems of rock mass-
Guidelines Part 2 Rock mass quality for prediction of support pressure in
underground openings.
● IS:13365: Part 3:1997 Guidelines for classification system of rock mass
Part 3 Determination of slope mass rating (SMR).
● IS:8764:1998 Method of determination of point load strength index of rocks.
● IS:9143:1979 Method for the determination of unconfined compressive
strength of rock materials.
● IS:9179:1979 Method for the preparation of rock specimen for laboratory
testing.
● IS:9221:1979 Method for the determination of modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio of rock materials in uniaxial compression.
● IS:10050:1981 Method for determination of slake durability index of rocks.
● IS:10082:1981 Method of test for the determination of tensile strength by
indirect tests on rock specimens.
● IS:10782:1983 Method for laboratory determination of dynamic modulus of
rock core specimens?

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● IS:13047:1991 Method for determination of strength of rock materials in

triaxial compression?
● IS:14448:1997 Code of practice for reinforcement of rock slopes with plane
edge failure?
● IS:13372: Part 2:1992 Code of practice for seismic testing of rock mass
Part 2 Between the borehole.
5.1.2.7 Ground water investigation
Investigation of ground water, which is a driving force of sliding, includes determining ground
water level, pore water pressure, ground water logging, ground water tracing test, pumping
test, water quality analysis, electricity survey, geothermal survey, and geophysical logging
(electric logging and radioactive logging). Based on the results of the above measurements
and tests, ground water control works can be planned and designed.
Different types of piezometers are explained in IS:7436 (Part I-1993); IS:8282
(Part II-1996); Section 20.2.3., 20.2.4., 20.2.5., 20.2.6 of Geoguide 2, Hong Kong., 1987
and their installation procedure is discussed in 20.2.7). Detailed information regarding
groundwater level observations can be obtained from ASTM D 4750.

5.2 Enforcing Remedial/Control Measures

Identifying, the need for corrective works and remediation procedures is a critical component
of any investigation report in order to prevent the initiation of future landslide from the unstable
and weak geometry of the Relic of the slide. Measures should be provided in order to stabilize
the slide and prevent the formation of other slides in the disturbed areas.
Chapter VIII is exclusively dedicated to remedial measures.

6 Instrumentation, Monitoring, Forecasting and

Early Warning of Landslides

Instrumentation, monitoring, forecasting and early warning of landslides empower individuals

and communities to respond timely and appropriately to the hazards in order to reduce the
risk of death, injury, property loss and damage.
Monitoring provides means of accurately and objectively gauging the stability conditions of
unstable or potentially unstable slopes; it can also play an important role in assessing risk.
Landslide monitoring includes the comparison of landslide characteristics like areal extent,
speed of movement, surface topography and soil humidity from different periods in order
to access landslide activity[149]. Long-term risk monitoring to identify developing trends and
provide early warning information. Monitoring and predicting systems, when associated with
communication system and response plans, is considered early warning systems (EWS)[49]
(See Fig. 6.1). The capacity to observe, predict landslides and map vulnerabilities requires
a huge technological investment in observing networks, forecasting systems, monitoring
instruments, communication and dissemination platforms and modern sensors. Therefore
only selective landslides of critical nature are required to be identified and monitored.

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Fig. 6.1 Early Warning System Operational Aspects

6.1 Objectives of Instrumentation, Monitoring, Forecasting and Early Warning

● Determining the depth, shape, rate and scale of slope/ground movements so
that calculations can be made to define the appropriate strength parameters
at failure and design remedial treatments.
● Monitoring of the activity of marginally stable natural or cut slopes and
identification of effects of construction activity or precipitation.
● Monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of various control
measures[171].
● To take action to protect or reduce loss of life or to mitigate damage and
economic loss, before the disaster occurs.
● Primary objective of a EWS is to empower individuals and communities to
respond timely and appropriately to the hazards in order to reduce the risk of
death, injury, property loss and damage[178].

6.2 Why and Where the Instrumentation

The increasing trend of the landslide incidences and recurrences along the highways is quite
alarming and raise concerns regarding the stability of landslide prone areas along these
highways and their potential impact to the safety of the travelling public, infrastructure, their
property and environment. There are many major landslides along the Highways which are
critical in nature and recurring every year. Thereby not only disrupting communication but
also in many instances killing people. Many of such landslides are source of continuous
trouble for the travelling public as well as the inhabitants. In addition to that these slides act
as a bottleneck at the time of dire need during any disastrous situation where evacuation and
early response is key to successful disaster management. Such identified critically known
landslides should be monitored suitably for early warning to take timely steps to avoid, life

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loss, property and hardship on long traffic closures etc. The information about forecasting of
the critical landslides should be integrated with the web server so that the same is available
to all concerned to avoid risk and danger to public as well as alarm to the communication and
transportation managers.

6.3 Techniques of Monitoring Landslides

Monitoring of landslides can be done in 3 ways:
● Measuring inherent factors like strength and stress parameters of slope
masses.
● Measuring external factors like earthquake vibrations, rainfall and climatic
conditions.
● Measuring strains, displacements, or release of energy due to slope
movements or failures.
6.3.1 Step Required in Monitoring of Landslides
● Selection of specific location depending upon the type of movement, location,
hazard and risk value of slope failure.
● Selection of monitoring methods and frequency of data collection.
● Data processing and methods/instruments of presentation of results.
6.3.2 Surface Monitoring
Surface movement may be horizontal or vertical. Horizontal movements are measures with
surveying methods. This primarily involves distance measurements. Vertical movements are
measured with settlement gauges. Surface methods to measure development of cracks, uplift
and subsidence include repeated conventional surveying and installation of instruments to
measure movements directly. Deformation measurement on surface of entire slope indicates
existence of instability. Geotechnical and geophysical equipments used in surface/subsurface
deformation are discussed in Annexure 1 Table 8.
6.3.2.1 Surveying methods and equipments
Surveying methods (Table 6.1 & Annexure 1 Table 4) are generally used for monitoring the
magnitude and rate of vertical and horizontal movement of the ground surface, structures,
and accessible parts of subsurface instruments. Two basic methods for the design of a
deformation survey can be used:
● A horizontal or vertical control network is established in the area under
investigation with control points located in the deforming region[154].
● Geodetic Surveying: Several surveying methodologies are used to investigate
the activity of existing landslides. Two main classes are identifiable: point
based (Total Station, GPS) and area based techniques (Photogrammetry,

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Laser Scanning and Remote Sensing, in particular spaceborne radar

interferometry). The geodetic methodologies like triangulation and distance
measurements with electronic instruments permit a very high accuracy. By
means of GPS (Global Positioning System) or Total Stations it is possible
to detect movements on the order of mm/yr or cm/yr, and estimate the
boundary of the landslide area. There are also several promising Remote
Sensing techniques used to generate DEMs for landslide monitoring and
characterized by high level of accuracy, in particular the new generation of
high-resolution satellite imagery and mostly Interferometric SAR (Synthetic
Aperture Radar). Photogrammetry is the technique most commonly used for
this kind of survey, permitting to reconstruct the three dimensional landslide
shapes with great wealth of information and to study its 3D. evolution over
time. The development of digital photogrammetry offers today new possibilities
and innovative procedures, like the creation of DSMs (Digital Surface Model)
in automatic mode for the reconstruction of surfaces and the generation of
orthoimages.
Table 6.1 Type of Surveying Techniques
Surveying Methods/Techniques Result Typical Range Typical Precision
Precision tape distance change < 30 m 0.5 mm/30 m
Rod for crack opening distance change <5m 0.5 mm
Offsets from baseline coordinates differences (2D) < 100 m 0.5-3 mm
Triangulation coordinates differences (2D) 300-1000 m 5-10 mm
Traverse/Polygon coordinates differences (2D) variable, usually < 100 m 5-10 mm
Leveling height change variable, usually < 100 m 2-5 mm/km
Precise leveling height change variable, usually < 50 m 0.2-1 mm/km
Electronic Distance Measurement distance change variable, usually < 1-14 km 1-5 mm + 1-5 ppm
(EDM)
Terrestrial photogrammetry coordinates differences (3D) ideally < 100 m 20 mm from 100 m
Aerial photogrammetry coordinates differences (3D) H flight < 500 m 10 cm
Clinometer angle change +_10 degree +_0.01-0.1 degree
Precision Theodolite angle change variable +_10
GPS Survey coordinates differences (3D) variable 2-5 mm + 1-2 ppm
Total station (Leica geosystems) coordinates differences (3D) 3500 m 1 mm + 1 ppm
RTK DGPS coordinates differences (3D) variable +_ (5 mm + _2 ppm)
Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) coordinates differences (3D) upto few 100 m 0.6 to 15 mm

Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) instrumented and monitored over eight decade
old Kaliasaur landslide, which is still active and causes considerable damage to highway
and risk to the commuters. To measure the movement of the landslide, 75 nos. of specially

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designed steel pedestals have been installed in preselected locations within the slide body
and adjacent area[84]. Their original position was recorded using DGPS (Differential Global
Positioning System) and TS (Total Station). Subsequent monitoring with DGPS and TS was
done. It was noticed that the pedestals installed within the slide boundary did not move much
except at only few locations. These locations were on the loose debris mass and rest of
the pedestals which, have shown movement were located near and around the crown part
indicating the movement only above the crown. Monitoring results when matched with field
condition indicated surficial movement from the crown part. These results coincide with the
activity of slide observed mostly from above the crown part. At that stage sufficient warning
was passed to take immediate measures before the coming monsoon season.
6.3.2.2 Monitoring through remotely sensed methods
New tools of mapping like Earth observation satellites and remote sensing are able to provide
significant information for mapping the extent and properties of landslides. The powerful In
SAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) tools, which provide accurate topography
and motion maps, can make significant contributions to the assessment and mitigation of
landslide hazards[154].
● Interferometric SAR, whether satellite or ground-based (InSAR and DInSAR
(Differential Interferometric SAR)) are the techniques most used for slope
motion monitoring.
● Optical and infrared regions of the spectrum are used for monitoring purposes
using high resolution images like IKONOS and QUICKBIRD, multi-temporal
aerial photogrammetry.
● Space and air-borne microwave applications for monitoring movement
using SAR interferometry from satellites like the Radarsat, ERS (European
Remote Sensing), Envisat ASAR (Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar)
or forthcoming Terra SAR-X, ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Satellite),
and Cosmo (Constellation of small Satellites for the Mediterranean basin
Observation)/Skymed.
● Ground based differential SAR interferometry.
● Visual interpretation of aerial photography is still the most commonly used
technique to support the elaboration of landslide inventories and also
commonly used to reconstruct the evolution of landslide over time.
The contribution of remote sensing to the mapping, monitoring, spatial analysis and hazard
prediction of mass movements has largely been in the form of stereo air photos and satellite
images interpretations of landslide characteristics (e.g., distribution and classification) and
factors (e.g., slope, lithology, geostructure, landuse/land cover, rock anomalies). Refer to
Table 5 of Annexure 1 for information of types of microwave satellites.

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6.3.3 Subsurface Monitoring

Subsurface deformation measurements is required if sliding occurs and depth of sliding is not
apparent from surface measurements and visual observations. Subsurface measurement
includes horizontal deformation, vertical deformation and groundwater pressure which
normally are required. Measurements of subsurface horizontal deformation provides basis for
effective safeguard, install monitoring instruments that can identify mechanism of movement
and any time-related change of stability-affecting factors[36].
Primary instrument for monitoring lateral, subsurface deformations is the inclinometer, rod
extensometer, the details of which are given in Table 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4.
Table 6.2 Instruments for Monitoring Vertical Deformation are
Single and Multi Point Instruments
Instrument Profile Reading Remote Data Main Main Main Cost of On-Going
System Time Access Logging Advantages Limitations Installation Costs
Traversing Yes 45 No No Least Probe cable Borehole for Sending a
System minutes expensive and readout are inclinometer technician
per 100 way to bulky and heavy. casing is the to read the
feet monitor many Reading takes main cost. installation is
installations. time. main cost.
Place No Seconds Yes Yes Only way to Long horizontal Borehole for Few ongoing
Systemc obtain near real runs of cable inclinometer costs.
time readings must be casing is the
and remote protected main cost.
readings. from electrical
transients.

6.3.4 Monitoring of Groundwater

Monitoring of ground water, which is a driving force of sliding, includes determining ground
water level, pore water pressure, ground water logging, ground water tracing test, pumping
test, water quality analysis, electricity survey, geothermal survey, and geophysical logging
(electric logging and radioactive logging)[118]. Based on the results of the above measurements
and tests, ground water control works can be planned and designed.
Monitoring of pore water pressure is essential for effective stress analysis of the slide prone
area. Pore pressure measurements are required especially around the failure plane for
control measures to be adopted as well as for mitigating potential slides. The installation of a
suitably placed piezometer is however preferable as the information obtained is more easily
interpreted. Piezometers are instruments installed in the ground to measure pore-water
pressures. Commonly used for landslide monitoring applications; standpipe, pneumatic, and
electric.
Refer Annexure 1 Table 6 and 7 for different types of piezometers and the factors on which
they should be selected.
For detail description of piezometers refer to IRC Special report 15 “State of the art: Landslide
Correction Techniques”

48
 
Table 6.3 Comparison of Single Point Systems
Instrument Range Accuracy Duration Remote Access Data Logging Main Advantages Main Main Cost of
System Limitations Installation
Settlement Cell 10s of feet Inch Typically short term Yes No (Pneumatic No interference Reservoir Components
cell) Yes (VW with construction must be higher cell is generally
cell) activities. elevation than not installed in
cell. boreholes.
Settlement 1 to 2 feet Fractional No restriction No No Simple Pipe obstructs Borehole. If
Point inch activities. constructed through
fill, components are
main cost.
Rod Extenso 2 to 4 Thousandths No restriction No (mechanical No (mechanical High resolution Small range. Borehole.
inches of inch head) head) measurements
meter
Yes (electric Yes (electric
head) head)
Settlement 25 inches Hundredths No restriction Yes Yes No interference More expensive Borehole.
Extenso meter or more of inch with construction than other
activities. systems

Table 6.4 Comparison of Multi-Point Systems

49
Instrument Monitor Range Accuracy Remote Access Data Logging Main Advantages Main Limitations Main Cost of
System Installation
Sondex Vertical Large Fractional inch No No Works with No remote reading Borehole for
Profile deformations inclinometers inclinometer casing.
Magnet Vertical Large Fractional inch No No Works with 1” pipe No remote reading Borehole for
Extenso-meter Profile deformations or inclinometer inclinometer casing
or access pipe.
Rod Extenso- Vertical 2 to 4 inches Thousandths of No (mechanical No (mechanical High resolution Small range Borehole
meter Profile inch head) head) measurements
Yes (electric Yes (electric
head) head)
Horizontal Horizontal 25 inches or Fractional inch No No Monitors Friction becomes Trench or borehole.
Inclino-meter Profile more settlement over a
factor in lengths over
broad area
300 feet Expensive
Horizontal In- Horizontal 25 inches or Fractional inch Yes Yes Monitors Expensive Trench or borehole.
Place Inclino- Profile more settlement in Components can
meter critical areas. be expensive.
IRC:SP:106-2015
IRC:SP:106-2015

6.4 Planning of instrumentation

Adequate planning is required before a specific landslide is instrumented. The plan should
proceed through the following stages[171]:
● Identification of landslides to be monitored its purpose and outcome
expected.
● Determination of types of measurements required and selection of the specific
types of instrument best suited to make the required measurements;
● Definition of the location and depth of instrumentation and number of
instruments;
● Development of the data acquisition techniques (manual, online) and
● Decision as to the management and presentation of the data acquired
6.4.1 Instrument Selection, Installation, Monitoring and Interpretation
In field instrumentation monitoring, plans are developed to select and install the appropriate
instrumentation (Table 6.5 gives various parameters on which instruments are selected and
used.) and collect and interpret the data. This step is often the most difficult to accomplish.
Table 6.5 Various Parameters on which Instruments are Selected and Used
Concerning elements Description
Critical parameters When the parameters are identified, the specification for instruments should include the
required range, resolution, and precision of measurements.
Complementary Parameters The behavior of a soil or rock mass typically involves not one, but many parameters. In
some cases, it may be sufficient to monitor only one parameter, but when the problem is
more complex, it is useful to measure a number of parameters and to look for correlation
between the measurements.
Ground Conditions Ground conditions sometimes affect the choice of instrument. For example, a standpipe
piezometer is a reliable indicator of pore-water pressure in soil with high permeability, but
is much less reliable in soil with low permeability. A better choice in this case would be a
diaphragm-type piezometer.
Environmental Conditions Temperature and humidity also affect instrument choice. Instruments such as hydraulic
piezometers and liquid settlement gauges have limited use in freezing weather. In tropical
heat and humidity, simple mechanical devices may be more reliable than electrical
instruments.
Data Acquisition An automatic data acquisition system may be required when there is a need for real-time
monitoring and automatic alarms. If a data acquisition system is required, the choice of
instruments should be narrowed to those that can be connected to the system easily and
inexpensively.
Instrument Life Are readings needed only during project or will they be needed for years afterwards?
Instruments, signal cables, and protective measures should be selected accordingly.
Instrument Quality The difference in cost between a high-quality instrument and a lesser-quality instrument
is generally insignificant when compared to the total cost of installing and monitoring an
instrument. For example, the cost of drilling and backfilling a borehole is typically 10 to 20
times greater than the cost of the piezometer that goes in it.
Instrument Instrument performance is specified by range, resolution, accuracy, and precision. The
economical designer will specify minimum performance requirements, since the cost of an
Performance
instrument increases with resolution, accuracy, and precision.

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Type of instruments used in landslide monitoring is illustrated in Figs 6.3 and Table 6.6. Note
that any instrumentation scheme depends upon the site and is determined by investigations
conducted in landslide prone area.
Table 6.6 Instrumentation and Accessories Generally used in
Landslide Monitoring are as Follows (refer to Fig. 6.3)
No. Instruments Purpose
1 Inclinometer Monitoring lateral movement - inclinometer
system system with bi-axial servo accelerometer
probe and data logger with storage capacity
30,000 readings. For settlement also, magnetic
extensometer system
2 Piezometer Monitoring of ground water level - vibrating wire
piezometer. Standpipe piezometer with dip-
meter water level sounder probe.
3 In-place Continuous monitoring of slope stability - In-
inclinometer place inclinometer bi-axial servo accelerometer
probes
4 Centre hole Monitoring of tension in anchor.
load cell
5 Bore hole Monitoring of movement inside a slope at various
extensometer depths - Multiposition bore hole extensometer
6 Fixed tiltmeter Monitoring of tilt on retaining walls or rocks that Fig. 6.3 General Instrumentation Scheme
may topple -
7 Crack meter Monitoring of displacement/opening in cracks
8 Stress meter Monitoring of stress on interface of soil/concrete
or soil/rock -
9 Rain gage. Monitoring of rainfall
10 Flow Monitoring of seepage - seepage measurement
measurement system with sensor to measure thrust on
submersible cylinder.

6.4.2 Reading, Recording and Data Transmission

The frequency of reading will depend upon the situation and the nature of the changes which
the instruments are being used to monitor. Any readings which indicate a marked change in
conditions should be checked immediately. The calibration of some instruments can change
with time and re-calibration may become necessary. Duplication of instruments in critical
areas will aid the interpretation of readings[48]. All instrument readings should be plotted on a
time base so the significance of variations can be assessed more easily.
Automated data recording and transmission can be undertaken in several ways, each
reflecting different levels of automation, investment, and sophistication. This type of system
requires periodic visits to the site to download the data. Remote data acquisition equipment
includes:
● Datalogger
● Multiplexer
● Communication devices,

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● Power source.
● In addition, specialized software is necessary to program and interact with
the datalogger.

6.5 Developing Technologies for Monitoring Ground Movement[121]

● TDR Cable: Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is an alternative method
of detecting ground movements that utilizes coaxial cables grouted within
boreholes or embedded within fills or structures. Ground displacements
deform the cable and change the travel time of an electrical pulse. In theory, the
signal alteration through the deformed section also provides an approximate
measure of the magnitude of displacement. The benefits of this system
include simple–quick readout, remote monitoring and data acquisition, and
ability to survive large ground deformations. A limitation is the inability to
measure the direction of sliding and small rates of movement.
● Digital Bluetooth inclinometer: Digital inclinometer probes have recently
been introduced by several manufacturers. Micro-Electro Mechanical
Systems (MEMS) accelerometers are positioned within the inclinometer
probe. MEMS are designed to integrate small sensors on a single chip.
● Wireless In-Place MEMS Systems: This type of instrumentation consists
of a string of closely spaced MEMS accelerometers combined with an
Automated Data Acquisition System (ADAS) that provides near real-time in-
place monitoring.
● Vibrating Wire Inclinometer: These instruments are being developed for
IPIs and other ground movement instrumentation.
● Fiber Optic Inclinometer: Fiber-optic sensors use light guided in the fiber to
perform high-resolution measurements. The measuring core is flexible and
contains an optical setup with mirrors. The fully symmetric internal structure
of the inclinometer makes it insensitive to temperature variations that affect
the whole measuring core.
Recently, Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation, a geophysical method for detecting landslide
areas of the types sliding, spreading and flowing has been developed. It is based on the
registration of natural electromagnetic emissions. The new method can be used on the
surface and in boreholes to identify not only landslide areas but also volcanic and earthquake
prone zones. The instrument, called Cereskop, can be operated by just one person. (Refer
to: Krauter. E- New methods of investigation and controlling of landslides)

6.6 Prediction
Slopes which are already in movement, monitoring is often the only chance for a prediction[30].
The prediction accuracy for the location and size of the landslide event will continue to improve
as more data is collected by the monitoring system.

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Amrita Center for Wireless Networks and Applications provides a framework for Wireless
Sensor Network (WSN), focused on is for purpose of detecting natural disasters[139]. WSN
can be useful to disaster management in two ways. Firstly, WSN has enabled a more
convenient early warning system and secondly, WSN provides a system able to learn
about the phenomena of natural disasters. Wireless Sensors are one of the cutting edge
technologies that can quickly respond to rapid changes of data and send the sensed data
to a data analysis center in areas where cabling is inappropriate. WSN technology has the
capability of quick capturing, processing, and transmission of critical data in real-time with
high resolution. However, it has its own limitations such as relatively low amounts of battery
power and low memory availability compared to many existing technologies. It does, though,
have the advantage of deploying sensors in hostile environments with a bare minimum of
maintenance. This fulfills a very important need for any real time monitoring, especially in
hazardous or remote scenarios.
This landslide detection system using a WSN is the first in India, one of the first in the world
of its kind. It is also one of the first landslide field deployments backed up by a laboratory
setup and modeling software. The current system (Fig. 6.4) can be replicated in other rainfall
induced landslide prone areas around the world.

Fig. 6.4 Wireless Sensor Network Architecture for Landslide Detection

A new type of sound sensor system (Fig. 6.5) has been developed to predict the likelihood
of a landslide. Developed by researchers at Loughborough University, in collaboration with

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the British Geological Survey, it works by measuring and analyzing the acoustic behavior
of soil to establish when a landslide is going to occur so that preventive measures can be
undertaken. Noise created by movement under the surface builds an increasing growth of
loudness as the slope becomes unstable and so gauging the increased rate of generated
sound enables accurate prediction of a soil collapse. The detection system consists of a
network of sensors buried across the hillside or embankment that presents a risk of collapse.
The sensors, acting as microphones in the subsoil, record the acoustic activity of the soil
across the slope and each transmits a signal to a central computer for analysis.

Fig. 6.5 A New Sensor for Early Warning of Landslides

This technique can also be used in monitoring the condition of potentially unstable slopes
built to support transport infrastructure, such as rail and road embankments. The system is
now being developed further to produce low cost, self-contained sensors that do not require a
central computer. It is now focused on manufacturing of very low cost sensors with integrated
visual and/or audible alarms, for use in developing countries.
Central Scientific Instruments Organization (CSIO), a laboratory of Central Scientific Industrial
Research (CSIR) presents a case study of landslide monitoring and early warning of Mansa
Devi (Haridwar), located at Haridwar by pass road. Data recorded by instrumentation network
installed at Mansa Devi landslide site by five sensors (Rain Gauge, Inclinometer, Tiltmeter,
Crack meter and Earth pressure cell) was analyzed and a relationship between rainfall
intensity-surface parameters and landslide occurrence drawn with neuro-fuzzy approach for
predation of landslide and concept of early warning system is also described. For further
description refer to paper “Mittal et al 2011, Analysis of data using neuro-fuzzy approach
recorded by instrumentation network installed at Mansa Devi (Haridwar) landslide site”.

6.7 Forecasting
In terms of time, forecasts can be roughly divided into three classes of lead time:
I. Long-term forecasts mostly indicate a potential hazard within a certain region,
years before they actually occur.
First step towards a landslide forecast is a systematic collection of data in
a landslide hazard zonation map[28]. An ideal map of slope instability hazard

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should provide information on the spatial probability, type, magnitude, velocity,

runout distance and retrogression limit of the mass movements predicted in
a certain area. These maps can be interpreted as first long-term forecast.
Although, they cannot predict the exact time of an event and cover a region,
rather than a specific slope, they indicate a potential hazard several years in
advance of an event.
II. Mid-term forecasts predict failures several months ahead and
A routine survey of landslide prone areas or slopes provides information
about the progress of unstable masses[28]. Routine surveys allow monitoring
with lead times of years to months for mid-term forecasts.
III. Short-term predictions have a lead time of months to days
Digital tools such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Digital Image
Processing, Digital Photogrammetry and Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
are applied in forecasting landslides. Of late generation of Digital Elevation
Models (DEM) obtained from different sources like Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) or Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) are also applied.
Forecasting the time of slope failure can be done by the following procedure
I. Measurement of the relative displacements of a slope across tension cracks
or along the centre line, depending on field conditions.
II. Determination of the beginning of the unstable state of the slope through the
relative displacement curve.
III. Calculation of the constant strain rate from the relative displacement curve.
IV. Estimation of creep rupture life corresponding to the strain rate, using the
relationship between strain rate and creep rupture life.

6.8 Early Warning and its Importance

Early Warning (EW) is “the provision of timely and
effective information, through identified institutions,
that allows individuals exposed to hazard to take
action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for
effective response[49].”, and is the integration of four
main elements (i.e. design, monitoring, forecasting
and education) Fig. 6.6.
6.8.1 Early Warning Systems for Landslides
EWS are based on either spatial warnings with
to respect triggers and specifically to hydro-
meteorological events, or on locally installed
monitoring devices. These systems focus on the
technical aspects of early warning and do not take
into consideration the whole chain of early warning
including monitoring, analysis, establishing alert Fig. 6.6 Main Elements of Early Warning

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thresholds, and issuing warnings and up to the societal responses including responsibilities.
EWSs are extremely site-specific and may greatly vary depending on the scale, type of
landslide, element at risk, etc[61]. Some of the early warning systems are described below:
1. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN): WSN consist of spatially distributed
autonomous devices using sensors to cooperatively monitor physical or
environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound, vibration, pressure,
motion or pollutants, at different locations. Each node in a sensor network is
typically equipped with a radio transceiver or other wireless communications
device, a small micro controller, and an energy source, usually a battery.
(Matthias Busslinger, 2009. Landslide time-forecast methods, A literature
review towards reliable prediction of time to failure. HSR University of Applied
Sciences Institut für Bau und Umwelt Rapperswil, Switzerland.)
2. The SLEWS (Sensor-Based Early Warning System) Fig 6.7: It gathered
data using wireless sensor networks via information processing and analysis
to information retrieval for landslides and mass movements. It paid special
attention to mobile, cost-reduced and easy deployable measurement
systems, as well as the modern information systems under consideration
of interoperability and service orientated architecture concepts. It focused
on three sensor types measuring acceleration, inclination and pressure to
monitor landslide initiation. (Arnhardt, C et al. 2007. Sensor based Landslide
Early Warning System-SLEWS. Development of a geo-service infrastructure
as basis for early warning systems for landslides by integration of real-time
sensors. GEOTECHNOLOGIEN Science Report. Early Warning Systems in
Earth Management. Kick-Off-Meeting 10 October 2007 Technical University
Karlsruhe, pp.75 - 88.)

Fig. 6.7 Schema of a Wireless Sensor Based Landslide Early Warning System
3. Senslide is a low cost Landslide Prediction System based on Wireless
Sensor Network WSN technique. The system consists of single-axis strain
gauges connected to cheap nodes, each with a CPU, battery and a wireless
transmitter. (Sheth, A. et al. 2007. Senslide: A Distributed Landslide Prediction
System. http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/groups/mns/senslide-osr2007.
pdf)

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4. Wireless Sensor Columns includes four types of sensors: geophones,

strain gages, pore pressure transducers and reflectometers as well as
seismic sources placed at regular intervals over the length of the column for
detecting early signals of landsliding. (Matthias Busslinger, 2009. Landslide
time-forecast methods, A literature review towards reliable prediction of time
to failure. HSR University of Applied Sciences Institut für Bau und Umwelt
Rapperswil, Switzerland.)
5. Rocknet is a self organizing wireless sensor network used for rockfall
surveillance and provides real-time warning. Wireless sensor nodes are
equipped with accelerometers, temperature and other sensors. The nodes are
distributed in a rockfall prone area. If a specified number of nodes recognize
vibrations, an alert is released and for traffic can be stopped outside the
danger zone. (Matthias Busslinger, 2009. Landslide time-forecast methods, A
literature review towards reliable prediction of time to failure. HSR University
of Applied Sciences Institut für Bau und Umwelt Rapperswil, Switzerland.)
6. Integrative Landslides Early Warning Systems (ILEWS) measures
deformations using several different sensors in a wireless sensor network
(web ScatterWeb). Geoelectrical survey systems are applied to examine
the landslide body. (Matthias Busslinger, 2009. Landslide time-forecast
methods, A literature review towards reliable prediction of time to failure.
HSR University of Applied Sciences Institut für Bau und Umwelt Rapperswil,
Switzerland).
6.8.2 Challenges of Early Warning Systems
The key challenge in EWS is translating warning into concrete local action, even for those
with effective capacities for forecasting, detecting and monitoring hazards and suitable
technologies for disseminating advance warnings. Along with technical difficulties of landslide
hazard prediction, legal, social and political dimensions add to the complexity of early warning.
Fig. 6.8 shows a basic framework for early warning system.

Fig. 6.8 Framework for Early Warning System

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7 LANDSLIDE RISK REDUCTION THROUGH IMPROVED PLANNING,

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

The standard of good practices for landslide reduction and their management for effective
planning, investigation, design and construction of projects that involve highway slopes and
their maintenance is must.

7.1 Planning of Highways Projects

The problem of coping with slope hazards revolves around two questions:
 On intended new road alignments, how to minimize the incidence of
potential damage from landslides. In this case, corridors or alignments need
to be compared so that the route involving the lowest overall hazard can
be selected. The emphasis is on planning, at a stage where there is an
opportunity to choose the most favorable location for the alignment,
 For an existing network, how to manage a slope maintenance programme,
i.e. maintain the slopes at minimal economic cost. Here, the focus is on
identifying slopes most at risk, and measuring or monitoring an existing
geotechnical asset.
7.1.1 Planning of new Highway Projects
7.1.1.1 Alignment selection
Planning of a new highway is a repetitive process which involves transport, highway,
environmental, geological and geotechnical professionals. The purpose here is to find a safe
alignment or review options for alignments. This involves defining potential hazardous zones
in the landscape, avoiding them where possible or identifying appropriate design options
where avoidance is not possible[116]. Decisions made at the route selection stage for highways
may have long-term effects on road construction and maintenance costs, user safety, and
other resources. Routes must be selected and located to meet the objectives of higher-level
plans within the constraints of any approved operational plans or permits.
Most of the things required for above purpose are already mentioned in example every
important details of pertaining to landslide and other mass movement.
The IRC:SP:20-2002, Rural Roads Manual & IRC:SP:48-1998, “Hill Road Manual” gives
detailed guidance on selection of the alignment.
7.1.1.2 Report
The reconnaissance report should identify and or confirm:
 Terrain conditions and road sections that are in unstable or potentially
unstable terrain.
 Control points and topographic features (e.g., rock bluffs, swamps, avalanche
paths, landslides, and debris slides), including those that may be used as
photo ties.

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 The sections of road that encroach on public utilities.

 All continuous and intermittent drainage flow channels, springs, seeps, and
wet areas.
 Riparian areas.
 Forest covers (species composition, timber quality, and volume per
hectare).
 Recommended slash and debris disposal methods and additional clearing
widths required for the slash and debris disposal.
 Soil types based on visual observations of exposed cuts, shallow hand dug
test holes and probing, and the location of these soils on maps or aerial
photos (see Appendix 1 for a method of identifying soils).
 Maximum road grades and minimum curve radii.
 Location and extent of bedrock, if rippable, and the potential as ballast.
 Location and extent of gravel sources and the potential for use as subgrade
and surfacing materials.
 Geological details encompassing type of lithology, their stratigraphic
sequence, structural setup such as faults/thrust/joints/fractures etc.
7.1.1.3 Survey level selection
There are two general types of surveys: a field traverse and a location survey. To determine
which survey type and level to recommend in the reconnaissance report, the physical
characteristics of the terrain, design complexity, and desired road prism geometry should be
considered.
7.1.1.4 Road plans to mitigate slope hazard
In areas of complex geology a balance has often to be achieved between what is theoretically
desirable in terms of frequent design variation along an alignment and the practicalities of
construction and cost. A pragmatic approach is to develop a few standard, generic slope
designs for costing purposes, knowing that these will be modified in the light of information
recovered when the ground is opened up during construction[116].
7.1.1.5 Criteria for measures to maintain slope stability
If a proposed road will cross areas with a moderate or high likelihood of landslides, the
measures to maintain slope stability must be prepared by a qualified professional. The
recommendations should be site specific and precise so that the road designer cannot
misunderstand them. He or she should also provide the results of the measures to maintain
slope stability as they apply to the road prism, or adjacent to the road prism, separately from
other recommendations.
It must include measures to maintain slope stability that satisfy either:
 Criteria 1 (hazard-based) – In these criteria, the selected measure is the
least likely measure to result in a landslide, and the qualified professional
provides a statement to this effect.

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 Criteria 2 (risk-based) - In this criteria, the selected measure is based on an

analysis (i.e., landslide risk assessment) made by a qualified professional.
7.1.1.6 Geotechnical Review
It is mandatory to carry out some form of geotechnical review for planning of new highway/
alignment as it will help in identifying the landslide hazard and critical issues that can influence
a highway project. Geotechnical review provides relevant information on:
● Scope of the geotechnical work,
● Cost and time requirements, for investigation, design , construction and
maintenance of the geotechnical work,
● Hazard mitigation measures, land-take, cost, programming, professionals
required for investigation, design, construction and maintenance of the
chosen route alignment.
In Geotechnical Review, following tasks is to be carried out:
STEP 1:
1) Search for, obtain and study;
i. Information relevant to the project from all potential sources including the
landslide database, landslide inventory maps, boulder inventory maps,
records of annual rainfall and landslide reports, landslide study reports etc.
ii. Relevant past site investigation records, geotechnical design reports and
construction reports.
iii. Published geological maps.
iv. Relevant services and utilities records.
v. Study the most recent set of topographical maps and at least two sets of
good quality of aerial photographs (Refer to IRC:SP:48-1998).
2) Carry out a detailed walkover survey of the proposed alignment(s) and nearby to:
● Prepare records on key natural terrain and man-made geotechnical features,
paying attention to recording any signs of ground instability and landslide
hazards.
● Undertake the necessary topographical survey (IRC:SP:48-1998), geological,
geomorphological and seepage mapping.
3) Assess the general topographical, geological hydrological and groundwater
conditions along the proposed highway corridor as outlined in IRC:SP:48-1998
and refine the project boundaries.
4) Carry out a Natural Terrain Hazard Review.
5) Identify all existing man-made slope features along the tentative alignment and
nearby that could affect or be affected by the proposed highway, determine their
date of construction where possible.

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6) Carry out a preliminary assessment of the site conditions and the identified
landslide hazard that could significantly impact on the cost and programming of
the project, in particular :
● Assess the impact of the potential landslide hazard from natural terrain
(e.g: boulder falls), determine the extent of the terrain that needs to be further
assessed and outline the likely mitigation strategy required.
● Determine the safety standard for all of the existing man-made slope features
based on the anticipated use of the highway and outline the necessary
investigation and assessment of their stability or the likely landslide preventive
works required to upgrade the features to the current safety standard.
● Identify any new man-made slope features that are will likely be formed and
determine the required design standard.
● Prepare a preliminary report of ground investigation works.
7) Based on the above work:
● Assess how the identified geotechnical features, hazards and constraints
may affect the proposed highway alignment and recommend adjustment of
the corridor, if it is considered necessary.
● Identify the contractual and construction management issues (e.g.
supervision, design review, traffic constraints, safety of road users, blasting
control, etc) related to the likely geotechnical work and landslide mitigation
measures.
● Provide preliminary estimates of the potential costs, programming and
geotechnical personnel requirement for the investigation, design and
construction of geotechnical works.
STEP 2:
Based on the available information carry out a comparative assessment of the alternative
corridor/alignment in particular;
● Rank the alternatives based on the magnitude of the geotechnical hazards
present along each proposed corridor/route.
● Recommend the appropriate rating to be applied for use in a balanced
evaluation of the geotechnical factors with other factors where such evaluation
process is required.
STEP 3:
A review report should be produced documenting the work done, the information examined,
the findings and recommendations, schematic plans and cross sections at critical locations
of the geotechnical works and landslide hazard mitigation measures to be proposed for the
project. The report shall also include a hazard map showing the corridor alignment, the source
and area extent of all landslide hazards identified, the details of all existing slope features
including those to be upgraded and new slope features to be formed under the project, the

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principal drainage courses and the probable direction of and limits of travel of any landslide
debris from natural terrain.
7.1.1.7 Critical sites
More intensive assessment of ground conditions is required where an alignment is forced to
cross areas that are known to be unstable or marginal, to ensure that the route is adequately
protected while not wasting money on over-elaborate protection in a situation where the risk
of damage or loss is high.
In this situation a detailed landslide hazard map at a suitable scale of the zone needs to be
made, in order to indicate the hazardous parts where slope protection measures and special
design considerations for the carriageway are required. Slope monitoring may be appropriate
at specific locations, to measure, for example, the rate of slope movement, landslide recession
or erosion[116].
7.1.2 Planning for Existing Highways
Primary concern for the highway slopes is the stability of the slopes. Scope of planning for
existing highways can vary widely, ranging from upgrading of a road to local improvements
of a road’s alignment like widening.
As compared with a new highway, planning of a road upgrading or a widening project is
generally more constrained by existing structures, services and utilities and the surrounding
topography. The need to maintain traffic flow during construction is also an important
constraint. The selection of appropriate route alignment and/or design options should take
into account these constraints[56].
7.1.2.1 The objectives of planning for existing roads
● minimize the risk and severity of road accidents that may result from landslide
hazards,
● minimize the need for remedial work,
● reduce the life cycle costs of the project,
● improve the awareness of safe design practices of everyone involved in the
design.
Where there is a large number of failures on a network, an inventory can help in establishing
a priority for earthworks most likely to fail, or most likely to constitute the greatest risk. Once
a database of relevant slope information has been established and analysed, then updating
of the database can be focussed on those datasets that are both key to the slope condition
and are likely to change within engineering time. The inventory can provide a tool to:
● Plot the location of the earthworks, along the length of the route or network.
● See where the slope failures are, and describe and classify them.
● Rank the earthworks in order of priority for repair.
● Calculate an order of cost for the repairs.

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The limitation of a slope inventory is that the data give information only on the slopes measured.
There is no information on the slopes in the landscape at large; inventory is not an ideal tool
for extrapolation unless combined with terrain evaluation, as was done in Indonesia. If used
within the framework of a terrain classification, the two together form a powerful tool for
planning, management and design.
7.1.2.2 Planning for monitoring of key sites
For important slope hazard sites such as major cuttings, valley side traverses or stacks of
climbing loops the cut slopes can be measured to assess the hazard (Table 7.2), or kept
under continuous observation by monitoring. It would be appropriate to make a detailed
geotechnical assessment of an important slope that is felt to pose a risk (Fig. 7.1). Planning
for existing highways is the same order as followed in IRC:SP:48-1998, with the addition of a
few measures which can be included in the planning process.

Fig. 7.1 Natural Terrain Landslide Hazards Posed to a Highway

Table 7.2 Geotechnical Hazards that Needs to be Considered for a Highway Project
1. Existing man-made slope features that could affect or be affected by the project
2. Man-made slope features that will be formed along the route (cut slopes, fill slopes, retaining walls)
3. Natural terrain landslide hazards (debris avalanches, debris slides, rock fall, gully erosion)
4. Other geotechnical hazards ( eg: presence of soft ground, karstic areas)
5. Hazards associated with the geotechnical works (rock blasting, excavations, diversion of surface water)

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Where landslides or slope failures occur, there is often a need to identify quickly the likely
cause of the failure and to develop short or long term measures to mitigate the failure. Planning
required for dealing with these hazards can be summarized into[145]:
1. Simple field reconnaissance to in-depth topographic survey as outlined in
IRC:SP:48-1998.
2. Field data collection.
3. Geotechnical section must provide oversight during repair of the landslide
or slope failure, particularly if an emergency condition is identified. This
can range from documenting work done by sub-contractors to conducting
analyses to help decide the type of repairs that should be implemented. This
will require:
● Close communication with the contractor who is performing the repair.
● Having a clear understanding of responsibilities and expectations
during the work.
● Providing good documentations of decisions that are made, including
photographic documentation,
4. Slope stabilization methods : If the results of the stability analyses indicate that
the roadway slope does not meet the minimum factor of safety requirements
or displacement limits, than it may be necessary to use slope stabilization
methods to improve the slope performance, mentioned in chapter VIII of this
guidelines and also in IRC:SP:48-1998.
Where a site shows signs of being at risk but for reasons of size or complexity are felt to
be too expensive to protect, monitoring can be implemented to detect any sudden change
in condition. In extreme cases an early warning system can be installed to give warning of
imminent failure and have the road closed before the slope gives way.

7.2 Hazard Assessment

There is a wide range of approaches to hazard assessment and these approaches can have
very different applications:
a) New Roads construction: the primary task is to locate an alignment that
minimises the hazards likely to affect the road. This involves examining a
large area of terrain in a broad way. This strongly indicates a terrain evaluation
approach to the assessment (chapter IV of the guidelines).
b) Existing Roads: for an existing alignment or network, the engineer may
require detailed design information for specific slope hazards. A numerical
approach is more likely to be appropriate in this situation (chapter IV of the
guidelines).
Geomorphological mapping and walk-over geotechnical mapping are based on the premise
that the landscape bears visible indicators of past instability, from which future activity may
be predicted. Land forms such as concave slopes, fans, terraces and slopes with thin soil

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cover are indicators of particular kinds of land-forming process including instability, and are
interpreted to form a picture of how the land has evolved into its present state and how it will
evolve in future.
Geomorphological mapping therefore provides the engineer with a valuable tool to separate
areas of stable terrain from those that are unstable, and appreciate what processes may
affect the road in the short and longer term (Chapter V of the guidelines).

7.3 Technical Tools for Road Alignment

In the absence of a GIS computerized system, transparencies can be made of each map and
then can be overlaid together[4]. It is important that the maps and data be at the same scale.
The following list describes many types of information that might be useful in constructing
layers for GIS analysis of landslide potential.
● Topographic Map- Indicates slope gradient, terrain configuration, drainage
pattern.
● Terrain Map-Identifies material, depth, geological processes, terrain
configuration, surface and subsurface drainage, slope gradient (also called
surficial geology or Quaternary geology maps).
● Bedrock Map- Identifies bedrock type, surface and subsurface structure,
surficial cover (overburden), and age of rock over a topographic map base.
● Engineering Soil Map- Identifies surficial material type, drainage, limited
engineering characteristics, soils characteristics, vegetation cover.
● Forest Cover Map- Identifies surface vegetation, topographic features,
surface drainage pattern, and in some cases, soil drainage character.
● Research Studies- May provide information on all of the above, plus
quantitative data on controlling factors and possibly local stability risk
assessment.
● Aerial Photography Remote Sensing- Identification can be made of:
 vegetation cover,
 topography,
 drainage pattern,
 soil drainage character,
 bedrock geology,
 surficial geology,
 landslide type, and relationship to other factors.
● InSAR Imaging- InSAR is an acronym for Interferometric Synthetic Aperture
Radar. Most InSAR equipment is able to penetrate fog and rain and can be
used in areas difficult to access by foot. By bouncing signals from a radar
satellite off the ground, digital elevation model (DEM) maps can be produced
that will show the ground terrain. Ordinary radar on a typical Earth-orbiting

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satellite has a very poor ground resolution of about 3 to 4 miles because of

the restricted size of the antenna on the satellite.
● LiDAR Imaging- LiDAR is an acronym for Light Detection and Ranging,
also known as ALSM or Airborne Laser Swath Mapping. LiDAR can produce
accurate terrain maps even where forest cover gets in the way of traditional
photography. The technique produces a very accurate Digital Elevation
Model map (DEM). LiDAR is a useful topographic mapping tool for three
reasons :
 Accuracy
 Productivity
 Provides its own illumination.
These characteristics overcome the major liabilities of photogrammetry in forested terrain.
The maps produced by LiDAR are very clear and detailed and in many cases reveal evidence
of past landslides that are virtually invisible by other means due to heavy vegetation cover.
The use of GIS is extremely important in both investigating and helping to establish the
spatial relationships between causative factors and landslide events, and also in preparing
map products of susceptibility, hazard and risk. For the first purpose, the development of
spatial relationships, the GIS acts as an integrating framework for the analysis. By providing
a management system for the variety of input spatial datasets and the tools for investigating
their interrelationships, the GIS can greatly improve the efficiency of such analysis.
Some of the techniques used to reduce landslide hazards are mentioned (Table 7.3). These
may be used in a variety of combinations to help to solve both existing and potential landslide
problems. The techniques are generally applicable to all types of surface ground failure,
including flows, slides and falls. The effectiveness of each hazard reduction technique varies
with time, place and persons involved in the planning and implementing of the programme for
reducing the hazard. The control of the landslide hazard system is easier for new developments
for new developments as vulnerability can be restricted.
Table 7.3 Techniques for Reducing Landslide Hazards (Kockelman, 1986)
Discouraging new developments in hazardous areas by:
Disclosing the hazard to real-estate buyers
Posting warnings of potential hazards
Adopting utility and public-facility service-area policies
Informing and educating the public
Making a public record of hazards
Removing or converting existing development through:
Acquiring or exchanging hazardous properties
Discontinuing nonconforming uses
Reconstructing damaged areas after landslides
Removing unsafe structures
Clearing and redeveloping blighted areas before landslides

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Providing financial incentives or disincentives by:

Conditioning federal and state financial assistance
Clarifying the legal liability of property owners
Adopting lending policies that reflect risk of loss
Requiring insurance related to level of hazard
Providing tax credits or lower assessments to property owners
Regulating new development in hazardous areas by:
Enacting grading ordinances
Adopting hillside-development regulations
Amending land-use zoning districts and regulations
Enacting sanitary ordinances
Creating special hazard-reduction zones and regulations
Enacting subdivision ordinances
Placing moratoriums on rebuilding
Protecting existing development by:
Controlling landslides and slumps
Controlling mudflows and debris-flows
Controlling rock falls
Creating improvement districts that assess costs to beneficiaries
Operating monitoring, warning, and evacuating systems

Under the sequence of survey and survey methods (IRC:SP:48-1998), an important measure
to be added before fixing final alignment of a hill road is landslide hazard mapping. Before the
determination of the Final Centre line, it is necessary to know areas prone to landslide. For
areas with existing landslides, hazard maps show the areal extent of threatening processes
where landslide processes have occurred in the past, recent occurrences. Most importantly,
it shows the likelihood in various areas that a landslide will occur in the future, which will
help in preparing the alignment of a road to a great extent, in a way that we can avoid areas
susceptible to land slips and prepare alternate routes of alignment.
Hazard maps contain detailed information on the types of landslides, extent of slope subject
to failure, and probable maximum extent of ground movement. These maps can be used to
predict the relative degree of hazard in a landslide area and we can therefore plan accordingly
to the kind of remedial measures that can be undertaken in order to prevent the area from
further damage. Areas may be ranked in a hierarchy such as low, moderate, and high hazard
areas. This helps us importantly in demarking areas which can completely be closed for
transportation use, areas which needs greater inspection, areas where alignment of roads is
possible and also aids in following a certain structure/framework for planning according to their

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ranks of low, moderate and high danger areas. In terms of high and very high hazard ranking
sites, the primary intention is to concentrate on exposure reduction and a mix of exposure
and hazard reduction, with the latter approach generally being the more expensive.
For virgin areas, hazard maps show the locations of past and present landslides. With the
use of a hazard map, the magnitude of the possible slide can be calculated. This helps in the
process of planning how a possible landslide should be dealt with, for example, to access
whether the benefits of a prevention method outweigh its costs.
Landslide hazard mapping may be produced by a ‘direct’ or an ‘indirect’ method. For direct
mapping the study area is zoned according to the location and the density of recorded
landslides, then extrapolating to slopes of the same type that have not failed[116]. The
assumption is that future landslides are more likely to occur on slopes where conditions are
the same as those in which sliding has occurred previously. The indirect mapping method
relies on the evaluation of factors that are considered to be significant in the initiation of slope
failure and aggregating these.
Landslides can occur at a road section where:
a. The upslope drainage or the associated road drainage is partially or fully
blocked or has an inadequate design capacity; during rainstorms the road
section will collect a large volume of surface runoff from uphill areas, which
may discharge onto the downhill slope, and
b. The slope below the road onto which the surface water may overflow is a
substandard man-made feature, or steep natural terrain of marginal stability,
or ground susceptible to erosion or washout by concentrated surface water
flow.
(Refer to IRC:SP:48-1998 for further guidance of drainage in highways).
Table 7.4 Location which can be Considered Critical with Regard to the
Impact of Drainage on Stability of Highway Slopes

1. A long and sloping road with adjacent large uphill slopes which can intercept and collect a large volume
of surface run-off and discharge it onto the downhill slopes in the event that nearby catchpits, drainage
channels or road drainage components are blocked during heavy rain.
2. Road sections traversed by drainage culverts/pipes during large catchment areas uphill, the blockage
of the nearby stormwater inlets could lead to severe flooding and adversely affect the stability of slopes
in the adjacent area.
3. Road sections affected by slopes below a catchwater which could be subject to overflowing due to
blockage of the catchwater.e.g : by landslide debris.
4. Sag points of roads susceptible to large runoff from adjacent road surfaces and slopes which could be
discharged onto downhill slopes.
5. Road bends supported by downhill slopes.
6. Road sections with significant elevation and large cambering (e.g: greater than 5%) which may lead to
overflowing onto the downhill slopes.

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7.4 Techniques for Hazard Reduction on Existing Roads

The challenge with hazard reduction is in identifying locations that are of sufficiently high
hazard ranking to warrant spending significant sums of money on engineering works[155]. The
costs associated with installing remedial works over long lengths of road are difficult to justify
in economic terms and may well be unaffordable. Moreover the environmental impact of such
engineering work should not be underestimated, having a lasting visual impact at the least
and potentially other more serious impacts. It is considered that such works should be limited
to locations where their worth can be proven. Critical review of the alignment of culverts and
other conduits close to the road should be carried out as part of any planned maintenance or
construction activities (Fig. 7.2).
Achieving a reduction in the hazard will involve physical engineering works to change the
nature of a slope or road to reduce the potential for either initiation and or the potential
for a debris flow to reach the road once initiated. Debris flows are dynamic in nature and
quite often originate some distance above the road; when they reach the road they are
relatively fast-moving, high-energy flows. The energy of these systems is a significant factor
in determining the nature of the engineering works that can be used to effectively reduce the
hazard to the road and its user. Hence, there are three broad approaches to the selection of
hazard reduction works:
● Road Protection: Accept that debris flows will occur and take measures
to protect the road. Potential solutions include debris basins, lined debris
channels, debris flow shelters, overshoots and barriers (including ditches,
walls and fences).
● Debris Flow Prevention: Carry out engineering works to reduce the
opportunity for a debris flow to occur.
● Road Realignment: Realign the road.
Road realignment is undertaken as route improvement activities in order to improve the
road in terms of both alignment and junction layout, in particular to reduce accidents and to
ensure compliance with current design standards[116]. In cases where the debris flow hazard
ranking is high and other factors indicate that some degree of reconstruction is required, road
realignment may be a viable option.
With regard to the chapter 5 IRC:SP:48-1998, the sequence of survey and survey methods
should also include the study and analysis of historical background checks of the present
landslide before undertaking the survey of the site.
During the preliminary stages of an investigation reference should be made to records of
development in the area which may contain information on site formation, site investigation,
well boring, piling, foundations and previous instability of slopes[48]. Records held by the
office in the Public Works Department and by the consultant architect or engineer for both
public and private developments, although records for old developments may be scanty or
non-existent. Site investigation contractors may hold useful information. Hazard and risk
assessments combine geology and history to determine which technologies best will respond
to a landslide event or to reduce future hazards. Fig. 7.3 provides options for the highway
slope management.

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70
Fig. 7.2 Examples of Methods of Handling Surface Water at Critical Locations Along a Road
 IRC:SP:106-2015

Fig. 7.3 Range of Options for Highway Slope Management System

7.5 Post Disaster Management of Landslide

The management and control of the adverse consequences of future landslide incidences
will require coordinated, prompt, and effective response systems at the central and state
government levels, and especially at the district and the community levels in the landslide
affected areas[64]. Since many components of the response initiatives are the same for different
types of disasters, systems need to be developed considering the multi-hazard scenario of
various regions in order to optimally utilize the available resources.
Depending on the magnitude of the landslide and scale of the required response, the
corresponding role players should be identified and mobilized at the district, state or national
levels. The community in the affected neighborhood is always the first responder after any
disaster. Trained and equipped teams consisting of local people should be set up in landslide
prone areas to respond effectively in the event of a disaster. Rescue & relief operations shall
be based on ground assessment of damage and losses. Preliminary assessment should
be carried out immediately within 24 hours for planning the response. Teams should be
constituted of officials drawn from various sectors to make assessment on the basis of on
the spot visits, aerial surveys and information collected from primary and secondary sources.
The Departments/Agencies of the State Governments responsible for various infrastructural
facilities such as electricity, drinking water, telecommunication etc should repair the damage
caused by the disaster and should take immediate steps to restore damaged essential
services so that rescue & relief operations are conducted smoothly.
In the aftermath of disasters the affected people must be looked after for their safety, security
and the well being and provided food, water, shelter, clothing, medical care etc. so as to

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ensure that the affected people live with dignity. The state governments should facilitate the
involvement of the corporate and private sector and utilise their services and resources if
offered to the government during the immediate post disaster situation. The India Disaster
Resource Network (IDRN) should be maintained and updated regularly so that locally
available resources are utilized effectively in the case of emergencies. The nodal agency
and respective state governments should constitute multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary
teams for carrying out post landslide field investigations to assess the hazard potential and
estimate the risk involved. They will also document the lessons and disseminate the same
to target audiences within the state and recommend cost effective practical measures. The
nodal agency should oversee the progress of these efforts in a systematic manner.
For further details on post disaster management of landslide, refers to “National Disaster
Management Guidelines-Management of Landslides and Snow Avalanches”, a publication
by National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA). Apart from the administrative approach
as given in the NDMA document; planning, inventorisation, deployment, use of equipment
for mitigation, search & rescue, skill-set and training level of equipment operators, are also
important aspects of post disaster management of landslide.

8 Technology for Landslide Prevention and Remediation

The key of successful landslide management strategy is to design workable and economically
viable schemes of mitigation/preventive measures. The promotion of innovative and modern
technologies based on proven workability becomes the unavoidable choice.
The thumb rule says that slope failure occurs due to imbalance in the driving and resisting
forces of slope under the effect of gravitational forces. But the triggering factor/factors which
cause such imbalance are different at different incidence of landslides, greatly depending
upon the local conditions and hence this hazard is so varied in type and size. So it is essential
to identify potentially hazardous slopes and control their instability by providing suitable
remedial measures. For prevention and remediation of such consequences of landslides
there are a number of effective remedial measures which can avoid or minimize their adverse
effects. The slope can be stabilized by a single method or concomitant methods of prevention
totally depending upon the nature, size, location, causative factors of the landslide. The
effectiveness, acceptability and durability of remedial measures, to a large extent depend
upon the quality of investigation carried out for identified correct problematic factors of the
landslides.

8.1 Slope Instability and their Stabilization

Landforms are the products of the local balance between weathering, erosion and deposition
and are continuously evolving. Slopes that are too steep for the weathered material to remain
stable are subject to periodic failure. Instability may be associated with moderate to steeply
sloping terrain or with land, which has been disturbed by man[35]. Natural slopes that have
been stable for years may suddenly fail because of construction activities on hill slope and
also other causes which are already mentioned in chapter 2.

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8.1.1 Appropriate Actions for Unstable Slope Treatment

The detailed site inspection procedure as mentioned in Chapter 5: Investigation with or
without ground investigations, reveals the nature of the problem that is faced, before the
selection and design of suitable scheme of remedial measures. To control the slope instability
problems, a general outline consisting of a decision-making process used for assistance in
framing the problem and selection of the preferred remedial actions presented in Fig. 8.1.
The recommended remedial measures/methods, as per Clause 6 of IS:14680:1999 can be
followed for selection of various landslide control measures to avoid landslides in hill areas.
These control measures are generally divided into four main practical groups as described
in Table 8.1[134]:

Fig. 8.1 Decision-Making Process for Selection of Remedial Measures

(Scott Wilson in Association with Lao Consulting Group)

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Table 8.1 Brief List of Remedial Measures for Unstable Slope

1. Modification of Slope Geometry 3. Retaining Structures

1.1 Removing material from the area driving 3.1 Gravity retaining walls
the landslide (with possible substitution 3.2 Crib-block walls
by lightweight fill) 3.3 Gabion walls
1.2 Adding material to the area maintaining 3.4 Passive piles, piers and caissons
stability (counter weight berm or fill)
3.5 Cast-in situ reinforced concrete walls
1.3 Reducing general slope angle
3.6 Reinforced earth retaining structures with strip/sheet -
2. Drainage polymer/metallic reinforcement element
2.1 Surface drains to divert water from 3.7 Buttress counterforts of coarse-grained material
flowing onto the slide area (collecting (mechanical effect)
ditches and pipes) 3.8 Retention nets for rock slope faces
2.2 Shallow/deep trench drains filled with free 3.9 Rockfall attenuation oxr stopping systems (rocktrap
draining geomaterials (coarse granular ditches, benches,fences and walls)
fills and geosynthetics) 3.10 Protective rock/concrete blocks against erosion
2.3 Buttress counter forts of coarse-grained
4. Internal Slope Reinforcement
materials (hydrological effect)
2.4 Vertical (small diameter) boreholes with 4.1 Rock bolts
pumping or self draining 4.2 Micro piles
2.5 Vertical (large diameter) wells with gravity 4.3 Soil nailing
draining 4.4 Anchors
2.6 Sub-horizontal or sub-vertical boreholes 4.5 Grouting
2.7 Drainage tunnels, galleries or adits 4.6 Stone/lime cement columns
2.8 Vacuum dewatering 4.7 Heat treatment
2.9 Drainage by siphoning 4.8 Freezing
2.10 Electro-osmotic dewatering 4.9 Electro osmotic anchors
2.11 Vegetation planting (hydrological effect) 4.10 Vegetation planting (root strength mechanical effect)
Source : Popescu, 2001, BIS 14680:1999, TRB: Special Report 247, BIS 14458 (Part 1):1998,
BIS 14458 (Part 7):1998, BIS 14458 (Part 6):1998, BIS 14458 (Part 9):1998, IRC:SP:48-1998

There are a number of levels of effectiveness and levels of acceptability that may be applied
in the use of these measures, for while one slide may require an immediate and absolute
long-term correction, another may only require minimal control for a short period[135]. Thus
the mitigation measures chosen for a given slope must be analyzed recognizing that different
mitigation measures require analyses for different methods of failure.
8.1.2 Cost Implication of Treatment
There are many alternatives (Table 8.2) to deal with the instability of slope such as avoid
the instability, reduce driving forces, increase resisting forces by application of an external
force, increase resisting forces by increasing internal strength, protect the surface etc[155].
Each alternative has many common techniques that should be recognize for resolving slope
instability including consideration of what these techniques likely to cost as low or moderate
or high.

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Table 8.2 Various Remedial Techniques Against Cost Implication

Options Implications
Avoid the instability
Re-align road High cost; may create similar problems; slow to implement.
Completely or partially remove Low cost; only feasible for minor, shallow slips; may create further instability
unstable material
Construct catch wall Moderate cost: There must be enough space so that the wall is capable
of containing slip debris and access for clearance; slip may become more
extensive upslope.
Reduce driving forces
Reduce slope angle Low cost; unlikely to be feasible in steep terrain, cut surface will need erosion
protection, right of way/sufficient space may not be available
Drain surface Low cost; will only reduce surface infiltration, therefore combine with other
techniques.
Drain sub-surface Moderate cost; assumes that the water table is above the slip surface; more
effective when sliding mass is relatively permeable.
Increase resisting forces by application of an external force
Construct retaining wall Moderate cost; must be founded below slip surface; may need to be combined
with other techniques.
Construct toe berm Low cost; usually requires significant space at toe.
Install anchors High cost; specialist installation equipment needed, potential corrosion/
monitoring problems.
Increase resisting forces by increasing internal strength
Drain sub-surface Moderate cost; assumes that the water table is above the slip surface; more
effective when sliding mass is relatively permeable.
Install soil nailing High cost; specialist installation equipment needed.
Use bio-engineering Low cost; not suitable for very steep slopes and deep-seated failures.
Protect the surface
Construct revetment or rip-rap Moderate cost.
Use bio-engineering Low cost; not suitable for very steep slopes or hard, compacted soils.
River training works Usually high cost, but only required in particular locations.

8.2 Stabilization Methods for Different Types of Slope Failure

8.2.1 Rockfall Mitigation Measures
8.2.1.1 Prevention measures
Measures (Fig. 8.2) are taken to
increase the resisting forces or
minimizing the disturbing forces
causing the rockfall and prevent
any detachment and movement of
rocks. e.g. Nailing, Deep Anchoring,
Correcting the rock slope by
trimming and Benching, Reinforcing
the slope face etc. Fig. 8.2 (A) Soil Nailing & (B) Anchor and Steel Grid

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8.2.1.2 Retention measures

The measures in this category will not totally nullify or prevent the detachment and tendency
to move. Measures (Fig. 8.3) are taken to contain or retain the rock masses which are on
the verge of movement. E.g. Mesh/ Net/Netting with nails or anchors surficial strengthening,
shortcreting, Chemical stabilization of slope face etc.

Fig. 8.3 Surfacial

8.2.1.3 Protection Measures
These measures (Fig. 8.4) don’t affect or prevent the process of rock detachment. They
guide the falling rock and control the distance and direction in which the falling rock travels
thus protecting the area prone to hazards. E.g. Drapery system with steel wire mesh and
steel cable panels, Rockfall prevention barriers, Ditches, Rock sheds etc.

Fig. 8.4 A. Drapery System, B. Protection Barrier & C. Protection Embankment

8.2.1.4 Warning measures
These measures help the detection of an impending rockfall or slope movement and thereby
provide sufficient time for taking precautionary measures to prevent any loss of life and
property due to rockfalls.
8.2.2 Rockfall Mitigation Systems In Practice
8.2.2.1 Rockfall drapery systems (mesh/cable nets)
These systems are also used to control falling detached rock block from slopes and preventing
the rock blocks from falling onto roads or areas, directly, where loss of life or property damage
is possible. There are different types of rockfall drapery systems, as presented in Table 8.3,
along with their purpose and limitation.

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Table 8.3 Different Types of Rockfall Drapery Systems

Types Description /Purpose Limitation Figure
Draped Mesh/Nets Hexagonal wire mesh, cable nets/ Require a debris collection
panels or high-tensile strength catchment area. Must
steel mesh of rhomboidal or consider debris and snow
hexagonal or circular in shape, loads on anchors. Typically
draped over aslope face to slow limited to areas with rocks
erosion, control the decent of the smaller than 1.5 m (5 ft) in
falling rocks and restrict them to diameter. Visible to passing
the catchment area. motorists.

Anchored Mesh/Nets Free-draining pinned/anchored in May from pockets of

place nets or mesh. Used to apply accumulated rock. Can be
active retention force to retain difficult to clean out. Can be
rocks and soil on a slope. visible to passing motorists.

8.2.2.2 Rockfall barriers/fences

Rockfall barriers of variable geometry are made of a complex system of steel cable panels or
ring net panels, a double-twist wire mesh layer for the containment of small rock fragments,
steel cables connected to structural elements, posts, energy dissipater devices and
anchors[148]. There are different types of rockfall barriers, as discussed in Table 8.4, along
with their purpose and limitation.
Table 8.4 Different Types of Rockfall Barriers
Types Description /Purpose Limitation Figure
Earthen Barriers Barriers constructed of natural soil and Catchment area must
rocks (berms) or mechanically stabilized be periodically cleaned
earth (MSE), placed at the toe to to remove accumulated
improve its effectiveness. MSE walls in material. Berms of
the particular, can withstand large kinetic considerable height require
energies and repeated impacts. a wide base area.

Flexible retaining Flexible retaining barriers that provide High stiffness causes
walls protection from low energy impacts. barriers to cracks and or
Relatively cheap, easy to obtain and fast shatter in high-energy
to install. impact. Not visually
appealing.

Structural walls Rigid barriers used to intercept falling Catchment area must
rocks and restrict them to a prescribed be periodically cleaned
catchment area. Facing can be installed to remove accumulated
on road side of walls to improve material. Prone to damage
aesthetics. by high-energy events.

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Types Description /Purpose Limitation Figure

Flexible Barriers Flexible barriers made of wire ring or Must be cleaned out
high strength wire mesh with high energy periodically. Fairly
(upto Maximum-8500 kJ is available expensive to construct and
in market) –absorption capacity, prone to damage by higher
supported by steel posts and anchor energy events. Do not
ropes with a deformable braking system blend well into surrounding
(as per European Technical Approval landscape.
Guidelines). Fence is fixed at the bottom
to hold rocks.
Attenuators Flexible barriers similar to fencing Visible to passing
(above) but not attached at bottom (an motorists. A catchment
extra length of fence lies on the slope area is required and must
face); allow rocks to move beneath the be periodically cleaned.
two sections of fence and direct them
into a catchment area.

8.2.2.3 Benched slopes

Benches are flat catchment areas typically constructed at regular elevation intervals within
rock cuts. Main purpose of these benches is to control the degradation of the slope and
control rockfalls.

8.3 Landslide Protection Measures

8.3.1 Retaining Structures
There is already a wealth of information available on retaining structure, the following is the
information found in different codes & practiced:
● In Clause 9.2 of Chapter 9: Structures and Protective works: IRC:SP:48-
1998 and Chapter 14: Special requirement for Hill Roads: IRC:SP:73-2007.
● About its design criteria in Clause 7.3.2 of Chapter 7: Corrective measures and
design considerations; State of the Art: Landslide Correction Techniques.
● Code of practice for different types of Retaining walls and their selection for
stability of hill slopes are given in IS:14458 (Part 1:1998). Design of Retaining/
Breast walls are given in IS:14458 (Part 2:1997)(Reaffirmed 2007)
● Retaining Wall for Hill area- Guidelines; Construction of dry stone walls;
IS:14458 (Part 3:1998) (Reaffirmed 2007).
● Design and construction of reinforced earth retaining walls: IS:1445
(Part 10:1998)
● Special Report No. 21: State of the Art: use of Jute Geotextiles in Road
construction and prevention of Soil Erosion/Landslide.
● IRC:56-2011: Recommended practice for treatment of Embankment and
roadside slopes for Erosion Control (First revision).

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8.3.2 Gabion Wall

Gabion walls are made up of wire mesh crates filled with stones and erected as gravity
retaining structures (Fig. 8.5) each unit is rectangular and is fabricated from mechanically
woven, double twisted, hexagonal shaped mesh of soft annealed heavily zinc coated steel
structure strengthened by mechanical selvedging the edges by high diameter wire. The
following national and international references having detailed information about gabion walls
have been collected and presented as follows:

Fig. 8.5 Typical Gabion Wall

● IRC:SP:48 ( Hill road manual ) briefly describes the concept as sausage wall
made by forming sausages of galvanized iron or steel work netting of 4 mm
dia having 10cm square or hexagonal openings and filling the sausages with
local hard boulders/stones and wrapping the wire net at the top. The manual
highlights the advantages of flexibility and free drainage properties of gabion
wall.
● BS:8002:1994: Code of practice for earth retaining structures.
● Standards IS:16014:2012, Mechanically woven, double twisted, hexagonal
wire mesh gabions, revet mattresses and rock fall netting (galvanized steel
wire or galvanized steel wire with PVC coating).
● Section 2500 of Specifications for Road and Bridge Works (Fifth Revision).
● EN 10223 Part 3 : Hexagonal steel wire netting for engineering purposes.
● ASTM A 974 - 97 : Standard specification for welded wire fabric gabions and
gabion mattress.
● ASTM A 975 – 97 : Standard specification for Double – twisted Hexagonal
mesh gabions and rivet mattress.
8.3.3 Soil Nailing
Soil nailing essentially involves reinforcing and strengthening of existing grounds by installing
closely-spaced steel bars, called nails, into hill slope. A soil-nailed system can override
local weaknesses in the ground through stress redistribution and is less vulnerable than
unsupported cuts to undetected adverse ground and groundwater conditions that have not
been accounted for in the slope stability analysis. Fig. 8.6 shows the cross-section of a
typical soil-nailed cut slope.

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Fig. 8.6 Cross-Section of Soil-Nailed Cut Slope

Based on the project requirement, variety of facings may be adopted – viz. steel meshes and
steel cable panels with high stiffness and low deformability which may be used in combination
with erosion control mattresses, fibre reinforced shotcrete, etc.
There are following referred codes of practice and design manuals for design of soil nailing
are:
● BS 8006-1:2010 Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other
fills.
● BS 8006-2:2011-Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils. Soil nail
design
● U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA
1998), Manual for Design and Construction Monitoring of Soil Nail Walls.
● Geoguide 7 - Guide to soil nail design and construction, Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Civil Engineering Department, The Government of the
Hong Kong, 2008.
8.3.4 Ground Anchor
A pre-stressed grouted ground anchor is a structural element installed in soil or rock that is
used to transmit an applied tensile load into the ground (Fig. 8.7). Key international documents
as referenced related to ground anchors are as follows:
● BS EN 1537 2000: Execution of special geotechnical work on Ground
Anchors.
● BS 8081 1989: Code of practice for ground anchorages. This comprehensive
code covers the full range of design, materials, corrosion protection, execution,
testing and maintenance aspects associated with ground anchors.
● FIP 1996: Design and construction of prestressed ground anchorages.
They provide a guide to the planning, installation, testing and monitoring
of permanent and temporary ground anchorages normally bonded to the
ground by cement grout. The recommendations do not deal with the overall
design of anchored structures or excavated faces.

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Fig. 8.7 Grouted Ground Anchor

8.3.5 Drum Retaining Wall/Drum Anchored Diaphragm wall
A simple method and low cost technology for construction of retaining wall to stabilize slopes
has been developed by Bhandari (1987), which promotes extensive use of slope waste
and landslide debris. The system of drum anchored diaphragm walling consists of empty
bitumen drums interconnected vertically (Fig. 8.8) and laterally, filled up with wasteful debris
to achieve gravitational effect and suitably anchored at the slope foundation as well as on to
the slope retained. The system of retaining wall makes use of empty bitumen drums to serve
as containers. This technology already implemented at Kaliasaur landslide on Rishikesh -
Badrinath highway[19, 73 and 158] as mentioned in Bhandari (1987), IS 14680:1999 Landslide
control - Guidelines, State of the Art report: Landslide Correction Techniques SOA(1995).

Fig. 8.8 Drum Anchored Diaphragm Wall

8.3.6 Non-Biodegradable Systems
8.3.6.1 Geosynthetic mat
Geosynthetic mats shall be three dimensional structures made of non-biodegradable materials
like polypropylene, polyethylene, nylon or similar polymer fibers that are extruded or heat
bonded at contact points to provide a dimensionally stable matrix to prevent soil erosion on
slopes (Table 8.6).

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Table 8.6 Geosynthetic Mats

Types Figure
Consists of a flexible 3D polymer mat which initially stabilizes the
surface whilst assisting vegetation to establish. It goes on to provide
long-term, tenacious reinforcement of the root system. The mats
have a flat, high tensile modulus base layer bonded to an upper
cuspated surface which provides an array of pockets and traps for
topsoil retention.

3D permanent erosion control mats composed of UV stabilized non-

degradable synthetic fibers. These can be integrated with steel mesh
reinforces the geomat, significantly increasing the tensile strength
of the mat, enhancing its erosion protection and shear resistance
capacity when compared to un-reinforced erosion mats.

8.3.6.2 Geogrid
Geogrids are now a day widely used for increasing slope stability and erosion control.
(Fig. 8.9) can be an economical alternative to conventional slope design as mentioned in
FHWA (1998)[173]. Soil reinforcement using high tensile strength inclusions can increase the
shear resistance of a soil mass. It permits construction of soil structures at slope angles
greater than the soil’s angle of repose.
However, 3 dimensional erosion control mats are best suited for erosion control applications
and where tensile strength and shear resistance is required there the steel wire mesh
reinforced 3 dimensional mats are best utilized. This is because normal geogrids are not able
to last long due to UV exposure. Also there is the danger of it being a fire hazard.
8.3.7 Bioengineering Systems
8.3.7.1 Coir geotextile
Coir Geotextile are permeable coir fabrics made from coir fiber extracted from coconut husk
either by natural retting or by mechanical process. The open weave of Coir Geotextile are
used for stabilization of soil through vegetation against erosion of landscape and soil slopes
and acting as a ground cover or mulch.
The following Indian Standards has been published by Bureau of Indian Standards on the
account of Coir Geotextile:
● IS:15869:2008 Textiles-Open Weave Coir Bhoovastra-Specifications.
● IS:15868: (Part 1 to 6): 2008 Natural Fibre Geo textiles (Jute Geo textiles
and Coir Bhoovastra)-Method of Test.
● IS:15871:2009 Use of Coir Geo textiles (Coir Bhoovastra) in Unpaved Roads-
Guidelines.

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● IS:15872: Application of Coir Geotextiles (Coir Woven Bhoovastra) For Rain

Water Erosion Control in Roads, Railway Embankments and Hill Slopes -
Guidelines (2009).
The standard IS:15872:2009 prescribes the code for guidelines of woven coir bhoovastra
suitable for application in slopes of road and railway embankments and also in hill slopes
including the selection of woven coir bhoovastra and installation methods.
8.3.7.2 Jute geotextile
Jute is a natural fiber out of which Jute Geotextiles (JGT) can be made by the special
treatment and weaving processes. Jute geotextile being a natural fabric is biodegradable and
environment-friendly. It has good hygroscopic and hydrophilic properties. Jute geotextiles are
most drapable among all types of geotextiles-Both natural and manmade. Properly designed
Jute geotextiles lay on slopes or any other exposed soil surface provides a cover over exposed
soil lessening the probability of soil detachment and at the same time reduces the velocity of
surface run-off, the main agent of soil dissociation. IS:14986:2001 & SOA(2012) has covered
the various aspects like specific requirements, selection, installation method, monitoring and
requirement of packing related to geo textile.
8.3.8 Biotechnical Slope Protection
In Biotechnical Slope Protection, vegetation is used as surface protection and to augment the
strength of soil in which it grows, usually combined with naturally occurring or recycled inert
materials – timber, stone, iron and steel cables and meshes. These vegetated composite soil
bodies or structures are ‘soft’ – flexible and multi-redundant statically and visually attractive.
Bioengineering is the use of vegetation, mostly shrubs and grasses, either alone or in
conjunction with stone and concrete protection works such as retaining walls etc. to enhance
the stability of slopes. Soil bioengineering combines mechanical, biological, and ecological
concepts to prevent shallow slope failures and erosion. Basic approaches to upland slope
protection and erosion control can be divided into two general categories:
● Living and
● Nonliving. Frequently, living and nonliving measures are combined to form a
system (Table 8.7).
Table 8.7 Living and Nonliving Upland Slope Protection and
Erosion Control Measures/Solutions
Soil Bioengineering Solutions Figure
Reinforced Slope with green facia Unit- It is a reinforced soil
system forming structures with 60 degree facings. The vegetation
can be incorporated after installation of the structure. It is often
installed with soil bioengineering techniques such as live staking
and brush layering. For detailed specifications please refer Section
3105.1.5 of MORTH Section 3100.

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Elliptical Wire Basket filled with stone and soil mix- It is an

elliptical basket made of steel wire mesh and lined with coconut
fiber blanket. The blanket is used to contain a soil and stone mix. It
can be used with geogrid to form a reinforced soil structure and are
frequently vegetated with brush layering.

Special sized gabions with green facia-These may be a trapezoidal

gabion basket or a site specific solution (considering feasibility of
manufacturing) made of steel wire mesh with an inclined front face
suitable inclination and lined with coconut fiber blanket. They provide
immediate erosion protection and create hospitable conditions for
healthy plant development. They are filled with a mix of soil and
stone to offer a substrate for insertion of cuttings, rooted woody
plants and/or herbaceous plants.”

8.3.8.1 Greening techniques

Greening techniques for slope stabilization can be divided into three categories i.e. mulching
system, planting long-rooting grass and fiber reinforced soil system. These techniques
have their own unique characteristics[79]. They vary in applications, installation procedures,
materials required and vegetation, etc. There characteristics and advantages are mentioned
in Table 8.8.
Table 8.8 Characteristics and Advantages of Various Greening Techniques
Greening Techniques Characteristics Advantages
Mulching System ● Easy to apply for single layer, more complicated ● Higher adhesive capacity on steep slope
with multiplayer mat system ● Full vegetation on non-soil surface
● Relies on anchor pins for securing mat onto ● High resistance to rain erosion
slope surface
● High water retaining capacity
● Long-term maintenance on anchor pins
● Long-lasting fertilisers
● Not easily applicable on uneven surfaces
● High gas permeability
● Cannot accommodate existing vegetation
● No bulge effect
● Only grass can be grown on
● Light in weight
● Pockets of voids at interface are prone to fire
● Adaptable to rough surfaces
hazard
● Sustainability is questionable with limited space
for root development
Planting Long-rooting ● A shotcrete surface with drilled holes for ● Natural and environmentally friendly
Grass planting the grass ● Cost-effective
● Can be applied to uneven surfaces ● Fast and easy installation
● A single type of long-rooted grass system is ● Can be applied on steep slope
used
● Low maintenance
● As the grass grows longer, it will cover the
● High vegetation coverage
concrete exposed
● Seasonal greening
● This grass system does not blend into the
existing environment ● Non-invasive to other plant species
● Cannot produce long-term ecological
equilibrium

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Greening Techniques Characteristics Advantages

Fiber Reinforced Soil ● Easy to apply ● Self-sustained vegetation system with
System ● Easily applicable on uneven surfaces low maintenance
● Can be easily accommodated with existing ● Fibre strengthens soil particles to prevent
vegetation and environment erosion
● Strengthening soil through a variety of flowers, ● Visual improvement of the slope with
trees, shrubs and grass grown various plant species
● Soil is reinforced and stable to reduce erosion ● Restoration of natural habitats on the
slope
● Provides good nutrients for vegetation grown
● Develop a healthy root system and provide a
natural ecosystem

8.4 Debris Flow Protection Measures

8.4.1 Flexible Ring Net Barriers
A new type of debris flow mitigation measure, flexible ring-net barrier systems, are cost-
effective and efficient compared to massive concrete barriers. It can ideally be used to span
the cross section of a river bed or drainage on hill slope (Fig. 8.10) to stop the expected
debris flow volume and to drain the material. There are two different set-ups of the barriers
(Fig. 8.11).
● Open slope barriers: For wide U-shaped channel cross sections
● Channel barriers: For narrower V-shaped channels cross sections
In both systems, a wire ring-net is mounted between the horizontal steel wire ropes that are
anchored in both sides of the channel side or open slopes. Based on different slope/channel
configurations, variety of different geometries may be adopted as shown in figures below.

Fig. 8.10 Flexible Ring Net Barriers on Hill Slope

Fig. 8.11 Flexible Ring Net Barriers A. U-Barrier System and B. V-Barrier System

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8.4.2 Check Dams

These are small barriers or dams constructed across natural or man made drainages, or other
channelized flow of water. A properly designed, constructed, and maintained check dam will
reduce channel erosion by reducing flow velocity and encouraging sediment settlement. A
check dam either filters the water for sediment as it passes through the dam or retains the
water, allowing the sediment to settle while the water flows over the dam (Fig. 8.12).

Fig. 8.12 Check Dam Placed Across Natural Drianage

8.5 Drainage and Surface Protection

The following techniques may be considered to limit the destabilizing effects of rising
groundwater due to development:
 Surface water drains (table drains) - are often used to prevent scour and
limit inflow to a slope. Other than in rock, they are relatively ineffective unless
they have an impermeable lining. They should be cleared regularly and as
required.
 Surface Protection – gabions and mattresses can be provided for surface
protection, it is possible to construct flexible structures that effectively
sustain eroding slope and also preserve their natural look thus providing
eco-compatible solutions.
 Sub-soil drains- are often constructed behind retaining walls and on
hillsides to intercept groundwater. They should be laid in a sand/gravel, bed
and protected with a graded stone/geotextile filter to reduce the chances of
clogging. These drains should always be laid to a fall of at least 1 vertical on
100 horizontal.
 Deep, underground drains- are usually used only in extreme conditions,
where the landslide risk is assessed as not being tolerable and other
stabilization measures are considered to be impractical. They work by
permanently lowering the water table in a slope. Both an increase and a
reduction in the normal flow from deep drains could indicate a problem if it
appears to be unrelated to recent rainfall.

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84. Kumar Kishor, Prasad P.S., Goyal Nitesh, Kathiat Anil, Negi Indervir S. (2013),
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North Eastern Region of India – a Case Study, 14th Asian Regional Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Hong Kong 23rd to 27th May.
89. Kumar Kishor, Prassad P.S, Kathiat Anil, Kalota Deera, Negi Indervir S., Kimothi,
Shivashish & Mathur Sudhir, (2011), Landslide Susceptibility Analysis by Using
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Hazard - Consequences and Challenges, CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee, Feb. 10-12,
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Dash Abhilipsa & Mathur Sudhir, (2011), Kinematic Slope Stability Analysis of
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Sudhir, (2011), Monitoring of Slope Behavior Through Simple and Cost-effective
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94. Kumar Kishor, Kimothi Shivashish, Prasad P.S., Singh Kanwar and Mathur Sudhir
(2010), Landslide Hazard Potential Analysis of Patalganga Valley, Garhwal,
Western Himalayan Region of India. 13th Annual International Conference and
Exhibition on Geo-spatial Information Technology and Applications (Map India),
Gurgaon, Jan 19th-21st.
95. Kumar Kishor, Jangpangi Lalita and Mathur Sudhir (2009) “Prominence & State
of the Landslide Hazard Database and Inventory along Highways in Uttarakhand
Himalaya” Geomatics 2009, National Conference,on Geomatics and Impact of
Climate Change with Specific Reference to Mountain Ecosystem 4-6th February,
Dehradun.
96. Kumar Kishor, Gupta Pankaj, Parsad P S and Mathur Sudhir, (2008) ‘Design of
Suitable Corrective Measures for Stability of a Critical Slope near Koldam, HP – A
Case Study’, Journal of Indian Highways, Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 36, No. 1,
pp. 41-47.
97. Kumar Kishor, Prasad P.S., Goyal Nitesh & Mathur Sudhir (2007). Large – Scale-
Mapping and Monitoring of the Patalganga Landslide”, Disaster & Development,
Journal of the National Institute of Disaster Management, Vol. 1, No. 2,
pp. 187-196.
98. Kumar Kishor, Prasad P.S. and Goyal Nitesh (2007). Study of Rockfall on Mumbai-
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of 1970 & Possibility of its Recurrence and Impacts on Patalganga Basin - A GIS
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7-9 Feb.’ 05.
100. Kumar Kishor, Gupta Pankaj and Sikdar P.K. (2004). Devastating Events of
Cloudbursts Leading Landslide Disaster and its Consequences in Garhwal
Himalaya. Proceedings of the World Congress on Natural Disaster Mitigation,
Vol. 2, 14-21 February, 2004, New Delhi.
101. Kumar Kishor, Panigrahi R.K., Mathur Sudhir and Sikdar P.K. (2003). A Case
Study on Filed Investigation and Instrumented Monitoring of Powari Landslide,
Himacahal Pradesh National Seminar on Disaster Management with Specific
Reference to Landslides and Avalanches organized by BRO, October 2003,
New Delhi.
102. Kumar Kishor, Gupta Pankaj, Yadav O.P. and Bandara R.M.S. (2000). Comparative
Landslide Hazard Zonation Study in Garhwal Himalaya-A Case Study. Presented
in the Silver Jubilee National Seminar on Geodynamics and Environmental
Management of Himalaya - Dec. 4-7, 2000.

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103. Kumar Kishor and Panigrahi R.K. (1999). Role of Geological Discontinuities in Slope
Failure- A Case Study. Proc. Of International conference on Rock Engineering for
Site Characterization to be held at Bangalore, 6-8 Dec., 1999.
104. Kumar Kishor, Tolia D.S., Kumar Satish (1997). Role of Vegetation in Mitigating
the Effects of Masswasting. Journal of Indian Building Congress, New Delhi,
Feb.1997, No.1, Vol. 4.
105. Kumar Kishor, Tolia D.S., Kumar Satish (1996) Landslide Hazard Evaluation in
a part of Himalaya. Proc. of Seventh International Symposium on Landslides,
Trondhiem, Norway, 17-22 June 1996.
106. Kumar Kishor, Tolia D.S., Kumar Satish (1996). Progressive (Compound)
Landslides and Their Identification in the field. Proceeds of Indian Geo-technical
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Annexure - 1

Table 1 Some of the Disastrous Landslides

Uttarakhand:
Date/Year Location Damage
1867 and 1880 Nainital There have been two major landslides on the Sher-ka-Danda slope in
Nainital. The 1180 landslide took place on account of rainfall and an earth
tremor. A large portion of the range and the buildings were swept away in
minutes. The slide permanently filled a portion of the Naini lake.
July 1968 Garhwal Himalaya Active Kaliasaur slide- continuous damage to road
July 1970 Alaknanda Landslide dam broke, huge boulders were thrown far and wide causing wide
spread damage, nearly 15 vehicles and 35 lives were lost. There were numerous
landslides in the region, besides reactivating the old ones.
Sep 1985 Haridwar-Badrinath Road First time in 1920, then in 1952, 1963, 1964, 1965 and a major landslide in
1969, 1970, 1971, 1972 and Sept 1985 and so on. The Kaliasaur Landslide
is the most persistent and regular occurring Landslide.
1991 Garhwal Large number of landslides, rock dislodgements, subsidence and ground
fissures have been observed at several places.
Aug 2nd, 1997 Joshimath-Badrinath road Lambagarh landslide has damaged about 250 m stretch of road out of
which 40 m of road was totally disappeared
14 Aug 1998 Okhimath 69 people killed

18 Aug 1998 Malpa, Kali river 210 people killed. The heap of debris created were about 15m high. The
village was wiped out in the event.
1999, 2004, 2009 Joshimath-Badrinath road In 1999 and 2009, The Lambagarh Landslide has reoccurred. Both these
events lead to closer of road for a period of 10-15 days at a single span
and for many days, intermittently, in the year. In 2004, Heavy landslides
hit Lambagarh area, 17 people were killed, 300 meter long road washed
away.
26th July 2009 Gopeshwar, two laborers were killed and 4 injured
Chamoli district,
9 Aug 2009 Pithoragarh 43 killed in mudslide and 2 villages completely destroyed
8th Sep 2009 Almora district three persons were killed and five others injured, two vehicles damaged
19 Aug 2010 Bageshwar district 18 children killed and more than 30 trapped in the rubble of school
building
19 Sept 2010 Garhwal, Kumaon Landslides and cloudburst triggered by incessant rain claimed 37 lives in
Garhwal and Kumaon regions. Also over 5,000 tourists and pilgrims were
stranded on Char Dham Yatra routes.
Oct 2010 Kaliasaur Heavy rainfall triggers the notorious Kaliasaur landslide causing closures
of NH-58 between Srinagar and Rudraprayag for more than a month, 3
people were killed, nearly 100 meter long road completely covered by
debris.
2011 NH 58 and Rishikesh- The landslides blocked the roads at Several places and stuck the thousands
Gangotri road of tourists as well, 15 lives have claimed.
August 2012 Asi Ganga valley, 29 person were killed, connectivity to 85 villages were disrupted
Uttarkashi district,
Uttarakhand
September 2012 Okhimath, Rudraprayag 69 persons were killed while 15 people were injured; more than 70 houses
District, Uttarakhand were reportedly damaged.

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June 2013 Uttarakhand 169 person were killed, 4021 person were missing, 19780 houses affected,
145 bridges were damaged or washed off, 2070 roads connectivity were
disrupted.
Himachal Pradesh:
Date/Year Location Damage
Sep 1968 Himachal Pradesh Active Maling slide- 1 km of road and a bridge washed out
Dec1982 Himachal Pradesh Near Solding nallah 3 bridges & 1.5 km length of road washed away
1986 Himachal Pradesh 88 dead due to sliding
March 1989 Himachal Pradesh Nathpa, 500 m road section is frequently damaged during successive
year
Sep 1995 Kullu 22 persons killed and several injured about 1 km road destroyed
15 Aug 2007 Dharla village, Around 60 people were dead in the cloudburst. It brought down 20-25 ft
high huge boulders
14 Feb, 2010 Kinnaur district six persons were killed and 14 others injured in a landslide on the bank of
river Satluj at Kachsthal village of Kinnaur district
22 Oct, 2010 Rohtang pass More than 2,500 tourists were stranded at 12,500 feet after sudden snowfall
closed the crucial Pass.
March 2011 Kullu District The incessant snowfall and rain resulted in landslides and blockage of
Kullu-Manali road and Chandigarh- Manali highway, more than 500
vehicles, including tourists were trapped, between the landslides
Aug 2011 Mandi District Two persons were killed and 15 others injured & 12 houses were damaged
due to landslides,
August, 2012 Himachal Pradesh Two buildings collapsed at Shimla, Rock fall or landslides have affected
more than 60 road routes
June 2013 Kinnaur District, Himanchal 10 persons were killed, 300-400 families have been badly affected in the
Pradesh district
Jammu & Kashmir:
Date/Year Location Damage
1913 to 1993 NH 1A, from Jammu to It is an old and notorious landslide. Nashri landslide causes disruptions and
Srinagar at km 138 blockage of the road several times in the same year. Often many vehicles
and equipments are buried in the huge debris generated.
Almost annual NH 1A, Jammu- Srinagar Almost every year landslides occur at the Khuni Nallah site destroying vital
feature Highway bridges and disrupting the traffic and the communication system.
Jan 1982 Nashri, J&K Active slide from 1953. Every year road and communication network is
damaged
Jan 1994 Kashmir National Highway 1A severely damaged.
June 1995 Malori Jammu 6 persons killed, NH 1A damaged
2003 Himalaya 25 dead
2005 Verinag,Qazigund, 250 killed in an avalanche
Ramsu, Anantnag,Poonch
8th Feb 2010 Narundi area of Uri five houses damaged, one person killed, 6 injured
sector of north Kashmir’s
Baramulla district
25th May 2010 Uri in Baramulla district damaged several houses, Over 100 people trapped
5 & 6 Aug, 2010 Leh, ladakh fragmented 145 persons dead, floods and mudslides triggered by cloudburst at Leh,
Ladakh. Several villages along the Chang-la pass, the world’s second-
highest motorable road, were feared washed away.

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Sept 2010 Dharam-Tharad area, Landslide destroyed 42 houses, a mosque and a government school.
Ramban district.
18th April 2011 Doda District 6 person killed, 1 injured
Sept 2011 Jammu-Srinagar NH. Over 300 vehicles have been stranded at various points.
East India:
Date/Year Location Damage
1968 Bihar, Bengal 1000 killed in the mishap of sliding
August 1993 Kalimpong, WestBengal 40 people killed, heavy loss of property
16th Aug 2009 Darjeeling, West Bengal 17 people killed and many injured, 500 houses damaged
26-27th March Darjeeling District, West Two people were killed and an equal number were injured
2011 Bengal
Sep 2011 Sevoke To Rangpo Along 15 Seismogenic landslides have occurred and badly breached the road
NH31-A, West Bengal respectively
South India:
Date/Year Location Damage
Nov.1992 Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu Road network and buildings damaged, Rs.5 million damage estimated
Nov. 1993 Nilgris, Tamil Nadu Occurrence of Landslide is widespread in Nilgiris. During 1993, about 408
landslides occurred of which Marapplam is the severest in terms of loss
and magnitude 40 people killed, property worth several lakhs damaged.
9 Nov 2001 Amboori, Kerala 38 persons killed, damage to houses. A large number of huge sized
boulders, some of them weighing 5 to 10 tonnes rolled down during the
slide.
10th Nov 2009 Ooty region, Tamilnadu killing at least 39 people, demolished nearly 300 tinned roof mud huts
10th-11th Nov 2009 Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu 543 landslips have occurred, 816 houses razed to debris, 600 hectares of
crops and road revetments (in 145 places) has been devastated. Above
all, 43 precious lives lost and over 1,100 people have been left homeless.
West India:
Date/Year Location Damage
June 1994 Varundh Ghat, Konkan 20 people killed, breaching of ghat road damaged to the extent of 1km.
Coast
1996 Karnataka,Andhra 48 killed
Pradesh,Maharastra
19 and 25 Valmikinagar, Kurla, Seven houses damaged, killed eight persons.
June, 2010 Mumbai and Harnai,
180 kms from Ratnagiri ,
Maharashtra
30 July 2014 Malin Village, Ambegaon 134 persons were killed in which 50 men, 64 women and 20 children (as of
taluka, Pune district, 4 August 2014), 44 houses were damaged.
Maharashtra
North- East India:
Date/Year Location Damage
1948 Assam 500 people killed in landslide occurrence
1957, July 1966 Gangtok-Siliguri road, The seismicity of the area and the rainfall both are the triggering factors
and 1972 Sikkim of this slide. An average rainfall of about 3000 mm is common in the slide
area. The slope uphill of the road is a complex landform.
1978 Northeastern 64 killed in the slide
July 1991 Assam 300 people killed, road and buildings damaged.
June 1993 Aizawal Four persons were buried

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July 1993 Itanagar A. P. 25 people buried alive 2 km road damaged

Aug1993 Kohima, Nagaland 200 houses destroyed, 500 people died, about 5 km road stretch was
damaged.
May 1995 Aizwal Mizoram 25 people killed road severely damaged
1997 Gangtok, Darjeeling 51 killed in the slide
2005 Assam 12 dead in the landslide
20 Aug 2009
th
Sombaria and Daramdin, Two persons were killed and 10 others were injured
west Sikkim
21 April, 2010 Arunachal Pradesh At least 12 people have died in Arunachal Pradesh due to landslides
triggered by heavy rains on 21st April 2010. Landslides have cut off road
links at Lohit, Upper Siang, Dibang Valley, Anjan and East Kameng
districts.
28th June, 2010 Shillong, Meghalya. One killed and at least seven others were injured
12 Sep, 2010
th
Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Two persons were killed and about 300,000 displaced in flash floods and
Golaghat and Bongaigaon landslides
Districts, Assam
23rd March 2011 Guwahati five persons were buried alive and two seriously injured
Sept 2011 Sikkim 158 Seismogenic landslides have occurred along the Singtham – Dickchou
road, Rangrang-Dickchou road and North Sikkim Highway.
September 2012 Sikkim, Assam and 26 persons were killed, eight people are missing
Arunachal Pradesh, North
East India
May 2013 Aizawl, Mizoram 17 people lost their precious lives; 6 people were injured; 11 houses
completely swept away; 6 houses partially destroyed and 17 vehicles were
buried under the debris.

* The data listed above is quit partial and just indicating of the severity of the phenomena
in our country. Anybody likes to us data for their own purpose suggested to revalidate the
authenticity of the data.
Table 2 The Main Satellite Imagery Sources which May be Applicable to
Landslide Investigations are Summarized below:
The use of Remote Sensing techniques used for investigation of landslides
Aerial Photography (Orthogonally-rectified digital aerial photography)
Identifies the presence of existing failure scars and debris run out. Identify pre-conditioning factors for failure (where visible
at the resolution of the photography).
Low cost Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
This approach enables reveals high-resolution digital surface models of landslides. Digital surface models (DSMs)
are generated using a new feature-based surface reconstruction approach which does not require any ground control
point information and enables surface models to be generated from UAV-based remote sensing without ground based
measurements.
Object-Oriented Analysis (OOA)
OOA has the potential to accurately and meaningfully detect landslides by integrating the contextual information to image
analysis, therefore reducing the time required for creation of landslide inventory for large areas.
Optical Satellite Imagery (Thematic Mapper)
The Landsat series of satellites operates the Thematic Mapper instrument. Landsat-7 now offers a 15 m resolution
panchromatic band which enables mapping scales to 1:25,000. The Indian, IRS-1C with 5 m pixels improves mapping scales
to 1:10,000. The IKONOS satellite, available since early 2000, offers data which provides 1 m ground resolution imagery
and enables mapping scales of 1:2000 or greater. The French SPOT satellite provides 10 m resolution panchromatic data
and the ability to acquire stereo image pairs. At these scales individual flow lobes, ground fissures and subtle morphology
indicative of potential peat landslides may be resolvable.

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Microwave (Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry, In SAR)

Radar imagery, at different wavelengths and polarization, can be obtained from both satellite and aircraft. Radar data
can be acquired during the night or day and effectively ‘sees’ through cloud. Currently available SAR (synthetic aperture
radar) data includes ERS with 25 m spatial resolution, RADARSAT with 10-15m spatial resolution and stereo capability,
and JERS with 18 m spatial resolution. These data enable interpretation at a range of scales from regional, to local and
include vegetation type, moisture content, debris sizes etc.
Multispectral Video
Multi-spectral video cameras operate at the visible to near infra-red portion of the spectrum and can be mounted on low-
flying aircraft. They can generate pixels of less than 1m ground resolution and are therefore suitable for large mapping
scales. Field spectra obtained from in-situ measurements are used to determine different classes of iron oxide precipitates
from the air and, by inference, the different pH levels of drainage systems.
Hyper spectral
Airborne hyper spectral scanners are much more complicated and expensive instruments than multispectral video. They
can be mounted on low-flying aircraft. Remotely sensed multi-spectral data have been shown to be of considerable use
for landslide investigations. Uses include the mapping of geological units in areas of poor exposure through estimation of
soil moisture content, the estimation of soil thickness prone to landslides and the mapping of geomorphological features
of landslides at the regional scale and the local scale.
Stereo photogrammetry
In the method of stereo photogrammetry, a satellite acquires two images of the same ground scene within a relatively short
period of time, so that it can view surface features have not significantly changed. These images can be processed to
get topography from the stereo pair of images. The series of stereo pairs offers a 3 dimensional evolution of the landslide
over time.
Terrestrial laser scanners
Generates a high resolution topographic model DEM of the study area. The laser system is combined with a differential
GPS system and calibrated colour digital cameras(infrared cameras can also be fitted) to produce surface topographic
data and photographic imagery.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS is a useful tool for detecting first stage disaster and further mitigation. It can detect movement of cm/yr., and aid in
determining the boundary of the landslide area. Monitors can be placed anywhere you can access, and they are relatively
easy to operate. But precision is affected by the number of observable satellites present, the obstruction of the observation
point, and the monitoring of installed GPS receivers which have been placed out in the field.

Table 3 A Variety of Remotely Sensed Images Available from Different Sensors with
Varying Radiometric, Spatial and Spectral Resolution
Satellite Sensor Resolution(m)
IRS P6 Resourcesat-1 AWiFS 56
LISS III 23.5
LISS IV 5.8
LANDSAT 5 MSS 80
TM 30
LANDSAT 7 ETM 30
PAN 15
IRS-1D PAN 6
Terra ASTER 15
IRS P6 Resourcesat-1 LISS IV
RISAT (SAR system) C-Band SAR 1-50
SPOT IV PAN 10 m
IKONOS PAN 1 m pan

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Satellite Sensor Resolution(m)

XS 4
IRS P5 CARTOSAT 1 PAN(stereo) 2.5
CARTOSAT 2 PAN(stereo) 0.81
SPOT 1, 2, 4 XS 20
PAN 30
SPOT XS 10
PAN I 5
PAN 2 2.5
QUICKBIRD XS 2.44
PAN 0.61
 Recent advances in new techniques, such as Object-Oriented Analysis
(OOA), a platform for integration of different types of data (spectral, elevation
and thematic) has the potential to detect landslides automatically in a better
way than the pixel, based methods, by incorporating a multitude of landslide
diagnostic features.
 The availability of a new generation of high resolution of optical satellite
imageries (eg. World View, GeoEye, SPOT-5, Resourcesat, Cartosat,
Formosat and ALOS-PRISM) has caused a paradigm shift in the use of Earth
Observation (EO) data for landslide studies.
 Digital Elevation Models (DEM) produced from overlapping aerial photographs
or stereoscopic satellite images are the major sources of elevation data for
landslide studies. A DEM is useful for estimating the volume of landslides
by an elevation change analysis. Shaded relief images produced from a
DEM obtained from light detection and ranging (LIDAR) have proven to
be very suitable for generating landslide inventories under forest areas in
hilly regions and to refine the boundaries of landslides prepared during field
investigations.
 SPOT-5 HRS (high resolution stereoscope) data have been shown to be
valuable for DSM generation. Cartosat-1 and ALOS-PRISM are other more
recent sources of along track stereoscopic data. They are more advantageous
than methods employed by SPOT1-4 AND IRS-1C/D Satellites, which are
frequently affected by atmospheric differences between the images.
 New generation satellites such as Cartosat-I have considerable advantages
over airborne stereo imagery, due to their high periodicity, synoptic view,
high data quality, relatively low cost, and quick extraction of DEM.
 The main satellite remote sensing methodology used for measure accurate
land displacement is the InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar)
technique.
 Quickbird satellite sensors produce very detailed elevation models that
are considerably more cost-effective than the equivalent areal coverage of
airborne LiDAR or SAR.

105
IRC:SP:106-2015

Table 4 Showing Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Methods

with their Respective Diagrams

Surveying Advantages Limitations Diagram

Methods
Elevations by Fast, particularly with self- First order leveling requires high-grade
optical leveling leveling equipment equipment and careful adherence to
Uses widely available standard procedures
equipment

Trigonometric Long range; fast and Accuracy is influenced by atmospheric __________

leveling convenient; can be done conditions; requires a very accurate
simultaneously with measurement of zenith angle
traversing
Distance Direct measurements Requires clear, relatively flat surface
measuring by between measuring points and
taping reference datum; movement can only be
measured in one direction; tape should
be checked frequently against standard;
except for short measurements, taping
has been replaced by EDM.

Electronic Long range; fast and Accuracy is influenced by atmospheric

distance convenient; very accurate. condition
measurement
(EDM)

Offsets from Direct measurements. Requires baseline unaffected by

baseline using movement
theodolite and
scale

Laser beam Faster than conventional Seriously affected by air turbulence,

leveling and optical methods; readings humidity, and temperature differential;
offsets can be made by one requires curvature and refraction
person corrections beyond about 200 ft

Traverse lines Useable where direct Accuracy decreases as number of legs __________
measurements are not in traverse increases; traverse should
possible be closed if possible

106
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Surveying Advantages Limitations Diagram

Methods
Triangulation Useable where direct Requires accurate measurement of __________
measurements are not angles and baseline length
possible
Photogrammetric Can record movement Weather conditions can limit use;
methods of hundreds of potential interpretation requires specialist; for
points at one time for good accuracy the baseline should
determination of overall not be less than one-fifth of the sight
deformation pattern distance

Global Intervisibility between Requires open sky line of sight.

positioning points is not required. Accuracy of height component is 2 times
system (GPS) Can be used at any time lower than positional accuracy. Energy
of the day or night and in supply needed on every station.
any weather. can be set to
trigger a warning device;
very accurate.
Total Station They provide 3D coordinate The requirement to have an
information of the points unobstructed line-of-sight between the
measured instrument and the targeting prism.
Vertical refraction errors can reduce the
accuracy of the height information that
may be obtained from the total station
measurements.

(ADAPTED FROM DUNNICLIFF, 1993)

107
 Table 5 Main Characteristics of Current and Forthcoming Microwave Satellites

Satellite Sensor Space Operational Band Wavelength Polarization Resolution Scene Orbital
Agency Since (cm) Range (m) with (km) Elevation (km)
ERS-1 AMI ESA 1991 C 5.7 VV 26 100 785
ERS2 AMI ESA 1995 C 5.7 VV 26 100 785
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Radarsat-1 SAR RadarSat Int 1995 C 5.7 HH 10-100 45-500 798

JERS-1 SAR NASDA 1992 L 23.5 HH 18 75 568
Envisat ASAR ESA 2002 C 5.7 HH/VV 30-150 56-400 800
Radarsat-2 SAR RadarSat Int 2005 C 5.7 QUAD-Polb 3-100 50-500 798
Alos PALSAR NASDA 2004 L 23.5 All 7-100 40-350 660
TerraSAR-X TSX-1 DLR/Infoterra 2006 X 3 All 1-16 5-100 514
GmbH
Cosmo/Sky Meda SAR-2000 ASI 2005 X 3 HH/VV 1-100 10-200 619

Table 6 Piezometers for Measuring Positive pore Water Pressure

108
Types Role Suitability Advantage Disadvantage Photographs
Open- Determination of soil It involves no Cheap, simple to read & Vandal damage often
hydraulic- pore pressures inaccessible moving maintain. In-situ permeability irreparable.
Standpipe/ parts: this makes them measurement possible. Direct
Casagrande particularly well suited measurement of water level.
to long-term monitoring There are no buried “sensing”
works. components.

Closed Long term monitoring of Because of two tubes, Simple device, moderately Gauge house usually
Hydraulics Pore water pressures in if gas has entered the expensive, reliable, long required. Regular de-airing
(Twin-tube embankment dams system through the filter, experience record. Short lag necessary. A terminal
Hydraulic) tubing, or fitting, the gas time. Minimal interference with enclosure is needed to
must be removed by construction operations. In-situ contain the read-out and
flushing easily. Permeability measurement flushing arrangement.
possible. This enclosure must be
protected from freezing and
from vandalism.
 

Types Role Suitability Advantage Disadvantage Photographs

Diaphragm Pneumatic piezometers When pore water Fairly cheap. Components No method of checking
Piezometer can be successfully pressures are to be are not affected by electrical if pore water or pore air
used in zones that are read, air or nitrogen is transients. The use of gas pressure is measured. The
either partially saturated admitted to one line, but rather than water means there presence of moisture in the
or in zones that may dry is prevented from flowing are no problems of elevation connecting leads will affect
out for short periods. up the other line by a and freezing. the readings.
blocking diaphragm in
the tip.

Vibrating wire More accurate The VW piezometer provides There is no independent

piezometers should be measurements of pore rapid response in all means of recording the
considered at sites where water pressure are types of soils. Suitable for position of the sensor and
frequent groundwater occasionally called for, unattended monitoring with therefore if large settlements

109
measurements are requiring the installation a data logger. The device are likely care must be
required. of vibrating wire can be used to measure taken in the interpretation
piezometers, which may small sub-atmospheric pore of results. Expensive. Zero
be read remotely. water pressures. No freezing reading liable to drift and
problems. Transmission over cannot be checked
long distances.

Electrical It can be used as Moderately complex device, The principal disadvantage

resistancez profiling piezometer expensive. Simple to monitor. of being unable to undertake
for measuring pore Very short lag time. Elevation calibration checks. As
water pressure at many of readout independent above.
points. of elevation of tips and
piezometric levels. No freezing
problems. Easily automated.
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 Table 7 The Choice of a Piezometer Should be Based on the Factors Summarized in the Table Below
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Instruments Range Response Reading Readout Remote Access Data Main Main Main Cost of
Time Time Log Advantages Limitations Installation

Standpipe Depth Slow Minutes Water level No. Reading is No Simplicity. No remote Borehole.
of stand indicator. obtained at top of Nothing to access. Components
pipe Size and standpipe. go wrong. are the least
weight Not normally, expensive of
depend on just possible with any type of
reel capacity. bubbler or float piezometer
system

110
VW 50, 100, Fast Seconds Portable Yes. Signal cable Yes Easy to Long horizontal Borehole.
250, readout. can be run to read. Simple runs of cable Components are
500 psi Lightest, remote readout grout-in should be more expensive
smallest station. installation. protected than pneumatic
Yes, but special Remote from electrical or standpipe.
cable required access. transients

Pneumatic 180 psi Fast 5 minutes Portable Yes. Tubing can No Remote Slow reading Borehole.
with 200 feet readout. be run to remote access. time Components are
of tubing. Large and readout station. Not affect more expensive
Longer times heavy Yes Some head by electrical than pneumatic
with longer because of loss over long transients. or standpipe.
tubing. internal tank. distance
 
Table 8 Geotechnical, Geophysical Instruments Used for Surface and Subsurface Deformation
GEOTECHNICAL GEOPHYSICAL

Type Advantage Disadvantage Role /purpose Accuracy/ Type Advantage Disadvantage Role/Purpose Acquisiton
Photographs Photographs
Precision Parameters

Extensometer/ Inexpensive and has a The principal devices used to monitor precision Seismic Determines depths to strata May be unreliable unless strata are All are based on the fact Seismic relection-
crack gages/ precision ranging from ± limitation of changes in distance between ranging from Seismic and their characteristic thicker than a minimum thickness, that the elastic properties of Vp, Vs, 2D vertical
convergence 0.01 to ± 0.1 inches. mechanical two points at the ground ± 0.01 to ± 0.1 refraction seismic velocities velocities increase with depth, and earth materials determine the sections
gages crack gages is surface or on a structure inches. profiling boundaries are regular. Information velocities of waves propagating
the relatively is indirect and represents average through them Seismic refraction-
short span values Vp, Vs
length between
the pins. 1D
displacement
vector cannot
measure
out of line
displacements.

TWSI Ensures an evolutional Detects the signal of ± 0.1 % F.S. Direct seismic Obtains velocities for Data are indirect and represent
Digital Wire up-grade to conventional displacement based on the (uphole, particular strata, their averages; may be affected by mass
Extensometer analog transducer. amount and rate to identify downhole, dynamic properties, and characteristics
Low power RF with different levels of landslide and crosshole rock-mass quality
transmission ranging up ________ event and provides an alarm surveys) ________
to 2 km (with optional signal. Provides the signal

Surface
module) reduces periodically so as to ensure
the equipment and stable operation and also
installation cost and indicate the power status.
power requirement

Digital Tape Lightweight and rugged The tape extensometer is 0.05 -0.2 mm Electrical and Locates boundaries Difficult to interpret and subject to It is based on measuring the electromagnetic
extensometer design which can be used to determine changes electromagnetic between clean granular and correctness of the hypothesized electrical potentials between methods were
easily read and operated in the distance between pairs clay strata, groundwater subsurface conditions; does not one electrode pair while recently used
by one person. One of reference points, including Electrical table, and soil rock provide engineering strength transmitting a direct current for landslide
unit reads at many monitoring deformations in resistivity interface properties between another electrode pair investigation,

111
locations. Robust underground openings. mainly for
and proofed against determining the
mechanical damage geometrical limits
under reasonable field of the unstable
conditions mass.

Crackmeter Reliable & accurate. Crack These devices measure 0.3 mm Electromagnetic Locates boundaries Difficult to interpret and subject to ________ r, 1D horiz. profile
Simple to install. monitoring may the displacement between Conductivity between clean granular and correctness of the hypothesized and 2D map
Simple to read. Rugged not provide two points on the surface profiling clay strata, groundwater subsurface conditions; does not
construction. Low cost. an accurate that are exhibiting signs of table, and rock-mass provide engineering strength
indication of separation. They can be quality; offers even more properties
displacement very simple and low-cost rapid reconnaissance than
in areas of devices, so they are often electrical resistivity
extensive used as warning systems
cracking,
plastic surface
deformation,
or areas of
developing (or
retrogressing)
instability.

Tiltmeter Tiltmeters very Bubble tiltmeters Tiltmeters are used to precision is Microgravity Extremely precise, locates Use of expensive and sensitive They can detect areas of
accurately measure however they determine the direction of typically ± 50 small volumes of low instruments in rugged terrain low density in relatively large
inclination relative can be sensitive movement, to delimit the arc-seconds; density materials utilizing typical of many landslides may landslides.
to gravity, either at a to temperature areas of deformation and to and the very sensitive instruments be impractical; requires precise
discrete point or along a fluctuations determine the mechanism temperature leveling and elevation data;
baseline. Horizontal tilt of movement (e.g. slumping sensitivity is results must be corrected for local
__________
meters are particularly or slope creep). They can typically in the topographic features; requires
versatile as they may also provide advance range of 2 to 3 detailed information on topography
be manufactured on site warning of accelerated slide arc-seconds/°F and material variations; not
using readily available movement and quantify the (Dunnicliff, recommended for most landslide
low cost materials. effectiveness of landslide 1993). investigations
repairs
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 GEOTECHNICAL GEOPHYSICAL

Type Advantage Disadvantage Role /purpose Accuracy/ Type Advantage Disadvantage Role/Purpose Acquisiton
Photographs Photographs
Precision Parameters

Long range The maximum Long range displacement +- 1mm Ground- Provides subsurface profile; Has limited penetration in clay This method appears to offer e, 2D vertical
distance range over meters are used to penetrating locates buried objects (such materials and shales. important potential for rapid sections
meter which the measuring changes in the radar as utility lines), boulders and subsurface profiling
instrument can distance between two points soil-bedrock interface
provide sensible over a span of several
readings is 30 m meters .
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--Raingauge Seismographs Multichannel seismographs Multichannel seismographs are Used to record shock-wave
allow more sophisticated more complex and expensive travel times between a source
data filtering, recording and and a receiver, or geophone,
processing. Enhancement over a series of selected
________ of the signal to noise ratio. distances.

Rod Provides high accuracy Anchor depth Rod extenso meters serve Seismic allows lateral P-wave Compared to classical seismic Vp, 2D vertical
extensometer and precision data as is limited by to measure lengths between Tomography velocity variations to be refraction, the technique requires sections
(Lateral it avoids issues such rod material one or more anchor points determined much more travel-time data and
deformation) as creep and kinking and orientation and a reference point. field effortThe versatility of event
associated with tensioned of rods. Free information is highly dependant
wire systems. Multiple movement of on the sensitivity and layout of the
rod installations within horizontal rods geophone array, and interpretation
one borehole, Single can be restricted can be limited by poorly considered
Point or, Multiple Point. by friction and installations
Electric head allows by pinching
unattended monitoring due to vertical
by a data logger movements.
Placement
is important
because the rod
extensometer
m o n i t o r s

112
movements
along the axis
of a borehole.
In contrast, the
inclinometer
can report
deformation over
a wide area.

TDR (TIME cost effective installation. proper grouting TDR cable surveillance Direct Current Low acquisition time The determination of the
Domain prolong the lifetime of (especially in can detect very thin or Geoelectric for a single potential distribution of the subsurface
Relflectometry) inclinometers. soil) . localized shear zones. Use System measurement. Thus only resistivity is the purpose of direct
(Lateral of TDR in combination with high quality data points cur-rent (DC) geoelectrical
deformation) Continuous data only applicable inclinometers or tiltmeters can be selected for the measurements. The aim is the
Inclinometer collection possible. to localized allows remote operation inversion without any loss in correlation of ground resistivity
(Lateral s h e a r i n g as well as sensing of both resolution. Consequently a with geological parameters.
deformation) remote data collection. d e f o r m a t i o n gradual tilt and localized subsurface coverage about
m e a s u r e m e n t (narrow shearing deformation. TDR typically ten times higher compared
of subsurficial zone) . detects ground movement with conventional arrays
deformations. when it is in excess of 1 in. is reached within a much ________
q u a n t i t a t i v e (25 mm). shorter time.
delivers a insight (surface measurements
of rup-ture/position of slip are still a
plane, width and type of c h a l l e n g e

Surface
deformation zone) (movement rates
> 2 cm/a) .

no information
on direction/
orientation of
deformation .

combination
with surface
measure-ments
necessary
 
GEOTECHNICAL GEOPHYSICAL

Type Advantage Disadvantage Role /purpose Accuracy/ Type Advantage Disadvantage Role/Purpose Acquisiton
Photographs Photographs
Precision Parameters

Inclinometer Provide accurate The main inclinometers are used for ± 0.05 to 0.5 Microseismic Microseismic data may be The versatility of event information is It has been used to identify Microseismic
(Lateral indication of soil disadvantage monitoring landslides/slopes, inches per monitoring used to monitor the temporal highly dependant on the sensitivity active areas of slope monitoring systems
deformation) deformation with time. of this type of to detect zones of movement 100 feet for and spatial evolution of and layout of the geophone array, deformation and provide generate a
Inclinometers generate instrument is and establish whether force-balance slope instabilities. and interpretation can be limited by details on the precursors to significant quantity
more data than do that curvature is movement is constant, accelerometer poorly considered installations failure (Amitrano et al., 2007; of data, in the order
other types of sensors. only observed in accelerating, or responding transducers, ± Spatial location of Amitrano et al., 2005; Meric of 1Gbyte per day
Provides profile of one axis. to control measures. These 0.02 to 1 inch microseismic events can et al., 2007). Microseismic (Roth et al., 2006;
settlement over broad instruments help for the per 100 feet provide important in- monitoring is unique in that it Spillmann et al.,
area. Does not interfere determination of slip surfaces for bonded formatio regarding the can provide information on the 2007)
with site operations. In- or zones of movement and resistance location, propagation, and entire subsur-face volume.
place version provides they reveal the depth of the strain gage mechanics of unstable
real-time data when failure plane(s). transducers, areas.
connected to data logger and ± 0.1 to 0.5
inches per 100 The most detailed data
feet for vibrating from microseismic inves-
wire transducers tigations can provide
(Dunnicliff, information on individual
1993). microseismic events and
aid the interpretation of the
instability mechanism

Geophones geophone is a device which Seismic this method requires a bigger effort The major interest of seismic
converts ground movement Reflection to deploy the geophone layouts, reflection profiling is its potential
(displacement) into voltage, particularly in the conditions of for imaging the geometry of the
which may be recorded at rugged topography, making the landslide structure, such as the
a recording station. The technique time consuming and internal bedding or the rupture
deviation of this measured costly surface(s) and the robustness
voltage from the base line is of processing tools compared
called the seismic response to tomography.
and is analyzed for structure
of the earth.

Borehole Borehole extensometers The accuracy

Extensometrs are used to measure rock of the device
(vertical displacement which may depends on

113
deformation) take place as a consequence the type of
of movements in natural mechanical
slopes. or electrical
transducer used
to measure
change in the
anchor location.

Probe Reliable, accurate, sim- +- 1mm

extensometer ple to install and operate.
Any number of points
along a borehole can be
monitored at little extra
cost.

Magnetic targets avai-

lable for monitoring
settlement in boreholes
and fills. Telescopic
coupling for access
tubing allows high
settlement / heave

____________
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