GE6200| ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

OBJECTIVES:
 Define environmental science and other basic terms
 Familiarize with the major themes of environmental science
 Use science to study the environment

Environmental
Science

Environment Everything around us

Both living (biotic) + non-living (abiotic): affect an individual organism
or population at any point in the life cycle
*physical (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere), biological (flora,
fauna, microbe) + cultural (social, political, economic) environment

Ecology the study of how organism, or living things, interact with one another and
with their environment

Ecosystem a set of organisms within a defined area or volume interacting with one
another and with their environment
E.g. forest ecosystem, cave system, + marine ecosystem

Environmentalism a social, political, and ethical movement concerned with protecting the
environment and using its resources wisely
Practiced more in the realm of political + ethical arenas than in science

Environmental
Science an interdisciplinary field of study which integrates both the physical
sciences + the social sciences

Fields of study under the physical sciences: physics, chemistry, biology,

earth science, agriculture, + engineering

Fields of study under the social sciences: sociology, economics, law,

philosophy, + politics

[Study] involves both theoretical + applied aspects

Theoretical: identification of environmental problems
Applied aspect: development of solutions to these problems

(3) Goals: (Miller & Spoolman, 2010)

1. To learn how nature works;
2. To understand how we interact with the environment
3. To find ways to deal with environmental problems + live more
sustainably
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Environmentalist
Vs.
Environmentalist
Science Environmentalist: someone with a passion for the protection +
sustainable use of the environment
Environmental scientist: undergoes training on the physical + social
sciences to answer the different environmental problems of today

*The protection of the environment starts with being knowledgeable +

aware of our surroundings. Different processes contribute to pollution,
climate change, + other environmental problems. Every aspect of our life
is affected by different environmental issues

Major Topics
Of Environmental
Science
1. Human Population Growth
– Underlying reason of environmental problems

10000 years ago: 5-10 million humans in Neolithic settlements

20th century: 2.5 billion
1987: 5 billion
2011: 7 billion

Population bomb population explosion

*Increasing human populations have environmental implications. The

increase in population size results to increase in resource consumption:
food, water, raw materials, + energy. As a result, huge amounts of
pollution + waste are generated in the process

2. Sustainability
– One of the central questions of environmental science
The quality of the human environment that we have now

major topic of environmental science that refers to providing the same

resources for future generations

*The use of resources and much of our renewable environmental

resources are being used unsustainably – the fish in the oceans are being
extracted faster than they are being recharged, forests are being cut down
rapidly before they are allowed to regrow

3. Urban Environments

1950: only 18% of the world’s population live in urban areas

2001: people living in urban areas crossed the 50% mark
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2025: estimated at 5 billion people – about two-thirds of the world’s

population
*As more people move into urban areas and cities are formed,
environmental problems arise including water shortage, freshwater and
marine pollution, air pollution, salinization of aquifers due to over
extraction of groundwater and flooding

Cities are commonly located in rivers and along coastlines, loss of

agricultural land and coastal wetlands are encountered as urban areas
sprawl to accommodate more people. These areas are also important
habitats for rare and endangered species

4. Global Perspective
One of the central themes of environmental science is that our actions
today are experienced worldwide

major theme of environmental science which refers to the thought that

everything is connected to everything else

*Actions by different people at different places influences our climate

and the entire world. + Non-living things have also been said to
change and affect our environment

E.g. the increase in greenhouse gases brought about by various human

activities such as burning of fossil fuels are changing the Earth’s
climate

Gaia hypothesis by James Lovelock + Lynn Margulis

Interaction between life and the environment
That life has greatly influenced the global environment, changing it and
improving the chances for the survival of species

5. People + Nature
*The resulting environmental problems resulting from human
activities can simply be solved by stopping these activities

Environmental science proves otherwise:

Environmental problems are solved by a scientific analysis leading to
cooperative problem solving. It recognizes the connection between
people and nature steering to long lasting and successful solutions to
environmental problems

Since we are dependent on food, water, air, shelter, and a lot of other
things. We also affect nature with our activities
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*The industrial revolution and the use of fossil fuels have contributed
so much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and other pollutants which
have increased earth’s temperature and climate

~Environmental sciences show us that both people and nature connect

to each other

6. Science + Values
Both science and the society’s values dictate what we want the
environment to be. Informed decisions on the environment require
critical scientific thinking – mapping out possibilities using scientific
data, generalizations, theories and laws

Precautionary Principle
Invokes that when the environment is under serious threat, possibly
constituting irreversible damages, necessary precautionary measures
should be employed even without full scientific proof
E.g. pesticides and use of chemicals

May be applied while still gathering scientific evidence; provisional

conclusions maybe generated based on the evidence while continuing
scientific investigation

Valuing
The
Environment
Putting a value on our environment helps in decision making and policy
direction
(8)
Justifications in
Valuing the
Environment
1. Utilitarian justification
– based on economic benefits by some individuals or directly
necessary to human survival
E.g. conserving lions in Africa due to their tourism benefits

2. Ecological justification
– based on the thought that the ecosystem is necessary for survival of
some species that may interest people or provide economic benefits
E.g. mangroves are preserved because they provide fish both for food
and decoration (aquariums)

3. Aesthetic and recreational justification

– based on the beauty of nature and our desire to enjoy them
E.g. conservation of parks and wildlife for hiking and scenery
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4. Moral justification
– based on the belief that we have a moral obligation to allow other
aspects of the environment to exist or persist

5. Cultural justification
– different cultures have different degrees of values with respect to the
environment
*It is impossible that all cultures may value nature

6. Recreational justification
– people use wilderness for recreation
E.g. fishing, camping and hiking

7. Inspirational justification
– conservation of nature can be based on its benefits to the human
spirit
E.g. religious retreats

8. Creative justification
– based on the connotation that nature helps to human creativity
E.g. artists, poets and others find a source of their creativity in their
contact with nature

Science as Lens to
Study the
Environment
Science uses critical thinking in understanding the natural world. Hence,
environmental issues must use science with relevant scientific evidence
in finding solutions. *Aside from science, analysis of economic, social
and political consequences should also be done

Scientific Method
Generally based on its disprovability, or if a test or method can be
conducted to disprove it. *The advancement of modern science is said to
have begun in the development of the scientific method.

(8) Steps of the

Scientific Method
1. Make observations and develop a question about the observations
2. Develop a tentative answer to the question – hypothesis
3. Design a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis (implies
identifying and defining independent and dependent variables)
4. Collect data in an organized form, such as a table
5. Interpret the data visually (through graphs), quantitatively (using
statistical analysis, and/or by other means
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6. Draw a conclusion from the data

7. Compare the conclusion or disprove the hypothesis and determine
whether the results support or disprove the hypothesis
8. If the hypothesis is consistent with the observations in some limited
experiments, conduct additional experiments to test it further. If the
hypothesis is rejected, make additional observations and construct a
new hypothesis

Characteristics of
Scientific Method
 Observations – basis of science, made through using the 5 senses or
using instruments
 Interferences – generalizations from a set of observations
 Fact – when many agrees to the interference
 Hypothesis – a statement from the interferences that can be disproved
 Dependent variable – responding variable, responds to the
manipulating variable
 Independent variable – manipulated variable
 Quantitative data – numerical data
 Qualitative data – non-numerical data

Scientific Theory &

Absolute Proof
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Scientific Theory defined as a grand scheme that explains and relates many observations
supported by a great number of evidence
can be disproved by new scientific data and evidence

*Science can never provide absolute proof of the truth of its theories

Theory refers to a guess, hypothesis, prediction, notion, or belief

Science and Society:

Misunderstandings

Science & Decision

Making
Education of politicians and all citizens in order to make sound
environmental decisions is crucial. These decisions are made by policy
makers who are often political leaders and ordinary citizens

Science & Technology

Science: a process of understanding the natural world
Technology: application of science in an attempt to benefit people

Science & Objectivity

Scientists may be impartial and always objective, but also they are
people too who have personal values, beliefs, and culture
*People & scientists cannot really escape biases, what is important is that
these biases are admitted & identified

Science, pseudoscience,
& Frontier Science
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 Pse
ud
osc
ien
ce:
(ps
eu
do
=

false)
When ideas are presented as scientific, they are
in fact not scientific because they are untestable,
lack empirical support, or based on poor
scientific methodology
 Frontier science:
Not all research may support a certain
hypothesis at the frontier but some of them may
merge with the existing science

Critical Thinking Questions

(6) Helpful Questions

To Decide
Whether to Accept
Or Not Claims
& Theories
1. What is the major claim made in the article?
2. What evidence does the author present to support the claim?
3. Is the evidence based on observations, and is the source of the
evidence reputable and unbiased?
4. Is the argument on the claim, whether or not based on claim
logical?
5. Would you accept or reject the claim?
6. Even if the claim were well supported by evidence and based on
good authority, why would your acceptance be only tentative?

OBJECTIVES:
 Learning all about systems and rates of change
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 Defining feedback and differentiating negative and positive feedback

 Be introduced to the principle of environmental unity and uniformitarianism

System In studying the environment, we have to look at it as a system

E.g. if we want to find what causes flooding in an area, we have to

look at the different factors. Understanding environmental problems
entail looking at different factors of life and the environment

set of components, or parts, that function together as a whole.

E.g. your body, cities, and earth

Open System energy or material (solid, liquid, gas) moves into or out of the
system
E.g. ocean—water moves in from rivers and is evaporated into the
clouds

Closed System there is no transfer of energy or material

Materially Closed
System no transfer of material occurs but energy and information transfer
may happen. Earth is considered a materially closed system

Static System in a fixed condition and tends to stay in the same exact condition

Dynamic System the opposite of a static system, changes in an often-continuous

manner over time

Classical Stability a kind of static system wherein the system is in a constant condition.

If a disturbing factor is introduced and then removed, it returns to its

constant condition.

E.g. pendulum of a grandfather clock. The pendulum swings back and

forth once force is applied. But due to friction, it stops and returns to
its previous condition. The point of rest is called equilibrium.

In previous years, species, population, ecosystems and the whole Earth have been viewed to be
a static system. However, as more scientific studies have been undertaken, systems are found to
be always changing classifying them as dynamic systems.

Often times, controversies have risen on whether we want systems to be static when they are
naturally dynamic and changing. This is an important question in environmental science.

Steady-state &
Non-steady-state
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Open Systems with only a few exceptions, all systems in the environment are open
systems since flow of matter, energy and information can be
observed.

Steady-state
Open Systems
inputs (matter, energy, information) equal the output of the system.
Hence, the amount of concerned in the system is constant. The
opposite is true for

Non-steady-state
Open Systems the amount of concerned in the system is inconstant (?)*

The balance of nature

Popularly, people have called undisturbed environments as the balance of nature and believed
to be gearing towards a steady state. However, the correct term for this is dynamic equilibrium
and most certainly these natural systems undergo negative feedback. In fact, disturbances by
natural events such as floods and fires are necessary in the maintenance of different
ecosystems.

Dynamic
Equilibrium classification of most of the environments and natural systems

Feedback defined as occurring when the output of a system [or a compartment

in a system] affects its inputs. There are two kinds of feedback -
negative and positive

Negative feedback steady-state systems remain in constant condition due to self-

regulation or stabilization

Positive feedback an increase in output leads to further increase in input

Figure 3-2. Possible feedback loops for

human population changes in cities.
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The positive feedback is the increase in population due to more jobs, better health care, social
services and higher standards of living. On the other side, air pollution, disease, crime,
discomfort and traffic may lead to people migrating out of the city [Image source: Botkin &
Keller, 2011].

Residence time average residence time is the time it takes for a particular unit to
stay in a reservoir

Lakes and other bodies of water have different residence time based
on the analysis of the rates of change or input-output changes.
This is important in systems such as a small lake or a big lake where
residence time will dictate its vulnerability to change and pollution. A
small lake with a high transfer rate will have a short residence
time - making it vulnerable to change but also pollutants may be
washed out quickly. The basic formula for average residence time is
as follows:

ART = S/F

where ART = average residence time. S is the size of the reservoir,

and F is the rate of transfer

System Responses
Linear and Non-linear
Process Environmental and ecological systems have always been characterized
according to linear and non-linear processes or flows. In a linear
process, the same amount of anything added to a system is expected to
produce the same amount of change / (a type of system response
wherein the amount of anything added to a system is expected to
produce the same amount of change) expected to produce the same
amount of chan. In a non-linear process, adding a specific amount to
the system will produce a specific change depending on what was
added before.

Example of a linear process is adding an apple will change the weight

of a basket. When you add 10 or 100 apples, you can estimate the
resulting weight.

Lag Time defined as the delay between a cause and the appearance of an
effect. Most problems of environmental systems are non-linear and
may involve delays. Some examples are human population change;
and pollution of land, water and air.

Important System
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Responses complex but there are recurring relationships that can help us
understand them using curves and graphs, we can determine the
fundamental dynamics in these systems

Important system responses:

1. Straight linear
2. Positive exponential
3. Negative exponential
4. Logistic curve
5. Saturation curve (Michaelis-Menten equation)

Figure 3-3. Straight linear and positive exponential

curves. The graph represents the theoretical
population growth of USA since 1776 [2.5 million
people). The linear curve adds 250,000 people every
year but present population is higher than predicted.
However, exponential growth greatly exceeds the
country’s population.
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Figure 3-4. Negative exponential curve. The graph

presents the decline of a bird population as shown by
the green curve. The orange curve represents a pure
negative exponentia1.

Figure 3-5. Logistic curve. The logistic curve is a

positive exponential curve stabilizing at or near a
carrying capacity (often S-shaped). Resource
availability and environmental factors play a role on
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the fluctuation of population around the carrying

capacity. Population may sometimes increase before
suffering decline or crash?

Figure 3-6. Saturation curve. This curve is

characterized by a fast change and then leveling
off at a saturation point. The above example shows
the fixed C02 levelling off for soybean and Oxalis
rubra

Overshoot and collapse

For human population and carrying capacity relationship, the carrying
capacity (maximum population without the degradation of
environment) is much higher / (a condition where the carrying
capacity is reached and overtaken before the population is reduced
drastically). As the exponential growth of human population
continues, it will reach the carrying capacity, overtaking it
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(overshoot), before collapsing to a much lower number. The carrying

capacity will also be reduced in the process. This is also applicable to
other populations such as fish in the oceans or trees in the forest.

Figure 3-7. Overshoot and collapse. Carrying capacity

is much higher in the beginning of time but as human
population exponentially grows, it overshoots the
carrying capacity and population collapse follows.

Environmental Unity provides that everything affects everything else. It may be an

overstatement for all systems but many aspects of the natural
environment are linked together. The establishment of the cities of
Chicago and Indianapolis in the US led to a series of deforestation and
construction of paved streets and buildings. The effect in the
environment is increased surface water runoff and soil erosion. This
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also led to changes in the riverbed depth and shape of the channel
increasing vulnerability to floods. Fish and other wildlife were
affected too aside from the effects of pollution. Likewise, in the
Laguna de Bay watershed, the change in land use also increased the
sedimentation in the rivers and causing shoaling of the lake which in
turn increased flood hazard in Metro Manila and the surrounding
towns and cities.

Uniformitarianism explains that the biological and geological processes in the past is the
same as in the present. Although rates would vary across time, the
process is the same. Thus. the past can be used to study the present
and the present can be used to study the past. Uniformitarianism may
help us understand environmental problems and predict the
future.

James Hutton, considered the father of geology, first proposed this

concept in 1785.

Shoaling shallowing of the lake due to sedimentation or input of sediments

Watershed the region where water flows through rivers, groundwater, streams,
creeks into larger bodies of water such as larger rivers, lakes and
eventually into the sea

Ecosystems

In the Aleutian Islands, the presence of sea otters, which feed on shellfish and sea urchins, has
indirect effect on the abundance of kelp beds. Among its islands, in Amchitka Island. sea urchins
are few in the presence of sea otters, and kelp beds are abundant. In nearby Shemya Island, sea
urchins are abundant with the absence of sea otters, and kelps are few. The presence of sea otters
which feed on sea urchins influence the number of sea urchins and thus, the presence of sea
urchins which feed on kelps influence the abundance of kelps. This is an example of an
ecosystem.

OBJECTIVES:
 Define what is an ecosystem
 Know about the basic characteristics of ecosystems
 Describe ecological communities and food chains
 Learn the importance of ecosystems

An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and

non-living (abiotic) elements interacting as a functional unit. It is a community of organisms
living in their physical environment.

Ecosystems vary in sizes and can be marine, aquatic or terrestrial.

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Ecosystems with higher biodiversity tend to be more stable with greater resistance and resilience
in the face of disturbances, disruptive events.

Ecology is the study of the interactions among the organisms and their environment as an
integrated system / defined as the study of organisms' interaction with one another and their
environment

Basic Characteristics of Ecosystems

The fundamental characteristics of an ecosystem can be grouped together as structure and
processes. The ecosystem structure has two major parts:

1. Nonliving the physical-chemical environment such as the local atmosphere,

water and mineral soil (on land) or other substrate (in water);
2. Living the set of species (organisms and microorganisms) interacting within
the ecosystem and is called as the ecological community.

The most basic ecosystem consists of several species and a fluid mechanism which can be air,
water or both.

Ecosystem processes occur in an ecosystem and are necessary for all life but no single species
can carry out all the necessary processes. Among the processes are:
1. Cycling
of chemical
elements chemical elements required for growth and reproduction of the
organisms must be available in usable form at the right time, in right
amount and right ratio relative to other elements;

2. Flow of
energy carbon dioxide and water in the presence of energy from the sun is
converted to sugar by green plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria.
From sugar and inorganic compounds, organic compounds such as
protein and woody tissues are produced. These organic compounds are
decomposed by bacteria and fungi for energy and their nutrition.

Chemical elements are recycled but energy flows in one way into
and out of the system with small fraction of it stored.

Ecological Communities and Food Chains

Ecological communities are defined in two ways:
1. It is a set of interacting species found in the same location and function together
enabling life to persist. However, it is difficult to determine the entire set of the
interacting species.
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2. It is a community interaction characterized who is feeding on another. Energy, chemical

elements and compounds are transferred from one creature to another along a food chain.
The more complex linkages are called food webs.

Organisms are grouped into trophic levels (nourishing level) which refer to the number of
feeding level away from the sun, the original energy source.

First trophic level — autotrophs (self-nourishing) consist of green plants, algae and
certain bacteria that can produce sugars through photosynthesis.

Other trophic levels — heterotrophs consist of organisms feeding on green plants, algae
and bacteria

a. Herbivores (second trophic level) feed on plants, algae, and / or photosynthetic

bacteria
b. Carnivores (third trophic level) meat-eaters that feed on herbivores
c. Decomposers (highest trophic level) feed on dead organic materials

Importance of ecosystem
Ecosystems support all forms of life. It moderates climates, filter air and water, conserve soil and
nutrients and control pests. Plant and animal species provide humans with food, building
materials, energy and medicines. They also provide important services such as pollination, waste
assimilation, water filtration and distribution of seeds and nutrients.
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Various ecosystem contribution to humans

Ecosystem Management
Ecosystems and natural resources are nonrenewable resources and may be inevitably
destroyed, thus ecosystem management is the key to successful conservation of life on earth.
Quantitative evaluation of tangible natural resources must be done prior to development of an
area. Scientific research on ecosystem for management processes known as adaptive
management must be applied.

Management of fisheries may include establishment of total catch quotas for the entire fishery,
issuance of restricted number of licenses, implementation of tax per catch or effort and allocation
of fishing rights. Different management procedures are implemented for different ecosystems.
Ecological community the set of species (organisms and microorganisms) interacting within
the ecosystem

Ecology study of the interactions among the organisms and their environment
as an integrated system.
Ecosystem dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities
and nonliving [abiotic] elements interacting as a functional unit.
Food chain characterized by the transfer of energy, chemical elements and
compounds from one creature to another
Food web a more complex linkage (of food chains) / of energy. elements and
compounds

OBJECTIVES:
 Biological diversity
 Biological evolution
 Processes leading to evolution of species
 Interactions between species
 Effect of geology and geography to biodiversity
 Biotic provinces and biomes
 Island biogeography theory
 Biological invasion

Biological diversity
or
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biodiversity simply defined as the variety of life on Earth measured in terms of

genetic diversity, species diversity, and habitat or ecosystem
diversity. A fourth measure is functional diversity

Genetic diversity the total number of genetic characteristics

Species diversity a characteristic of species richness (total number of species),

evenness (relative abundance of species) and dominance (most
abundant species)

Habitat or
ecosystem diversity the total number of kinds of habitats or ecosystems in a given unit
area

Functional diversity the variety in the functions such as energy flow and matter cycling
needed for the survival of species and biological communities

Endemism ecological state of species being unique in a defined geographic

location (island, country, habitat type)

Gene contained in the cell and carries a piece of inherited information

from one generation to the next

Figure 4-2. Difference of species evenness and species richness. The two groups (right and left)
have the same number of species but the right group has more variations in species as you go
from row to row. The right group appears to have a higher biodiversity as compared to the left
group which is dominated by one species — the elephant (Image Source: Botkin & Keller, 2011)
Why should we value biodiversity?

According to Botkin & Keller (2011), there are (9) nine reasons why we should value
biodiversity:

1. Utilitarian provides direct value to people

2. Public-service provides essential service valuable to human life
3. Ecological species have values in their ecosystems and to human life
4. Moral

species have a right

to exist
independent of
their value to people
5. Theological

some religions
value nature and its diversity
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6. Aesthetic beauty of nature

7. Recreational healthful activities to enjoy
8. Spiritual contact with nature moves people
9. Creative simulation for creativity in nature and its diversity

Among these, many scientists are beginning to recognize the importance of ecosystem services
that can be lost due to loss of biodiversity. Provision of ecosystem services can affect human
well-being especially people who rely directly on these services. As an example, high
biodiversity of marine ecosystems can increase their resilience and recovery. Furthermore,
biodiversity loss can impair ocean ecosystem services such as provision of food, maintenance of
water quality and coastline protection from waves. For this century, a 100 to 1000 increase in
extinction rates have been observed and another tenfold increase is about to happen for the next
(Figure 4-3). It is said that the world is heading towards the 6th (sixth) great wave of mass
extinction which is derived directly from human impacts.

Figure 4-3. Number of extinctions per thousand species per millennium. The current rate of
extinction of species is one thousand times higher than in the past. Future extinction rate
projections is also much higher (Image Source: May, 2011).

How many species are there on Earth?

The known species richness or the total number of species of life on Earth is 1.6-1.7 million
with an average of 15,000 species added every year. Estimations put it at 3-10 million while
some extremes peg it at 2-100 million. Biodiversity is the difference of speciation and
extinction and hence, is a function
of the two factors. Speciation is
the evolutionary process of
“making” new species.
Biological evolution defined
as a
change
in

inherited characteristics of a population from generation to

generation. It arises when one of these four key processes occur:

1. Mutation — changes in the DNA due to various ways

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2. Natural selection — organisms whose biological

characteristics fit their environment produce more offspring
3. Migration and geographic isolation —when two
populations of the same species become geographically
isolated over geologic time, the two populations may adapt
to their environments into two new species and no longer
reproduce when brought back together.

The process of adapting into a more specialized role in the

ecosystem is called adaptive radiation.

4. Genetic drift — changes in the frequency of the gene not due

to mutation, natural selection, and migration but due to chance.

Biological evolution is a complex process but it must be

noted that adaptations and evolutions occur in the context of
the organisms’ relationship with their environments.

Interactions between species

The number of species on earth has something to do with the way they interact between each
other.

Two concepts explain how they exist in relation to each other - competitive exclusion
principle and ecological niches. While interactions between species are classified according
to:
1. Competition
2. Symbiosis
3. Predation - parasitism

Competitive exclusion principle

competitive exclusion
principle states that two species with exactly the same requirements cannot
coexist in exactly the same habitat. This suggests that there should be
very few species on earth.

Ecological niche described as the “set of all environmental conditions under which a
species can persist and carry out its life functions”. This concept
explains the large number of species on earth — species that
require the same resources coexist by the same resources under
different environment conditions.

Habitat complexity allows the competitor species to coexist with

each other.
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The practical implication for conservation is to conserve not just the

habitat of the species but also its niche — all the other necessary
environmental conditions.

Interactions
Symbiosis beneficial relationship between two organisms; enhances each
organism’s chance of persisting

Predation an organism feeds on other live organisms for survival, usually of

different species

Parasitism an organism (parasite) lives on or within another organism (host)

and depends on it for survival without any beneficial effect to the
host It can harm the host organism too.

Effect of geology and geography

Species and biodiversity are not evenly distributed across earth. Some places tend to have
higher diversity than others. In general, areas in the lower latitudes tend to have higher
diversity. Examples of which are Brazil, Philippines and other tropical areas. Locally, diversity
also varies greatly. The type of soil,
elevation and nearness to a drainage
basin affect diversity. Natural
environmental disturbances can affect
diversity — moderate fires in forests
and grasslands can increase diversity.
On the other hand, humans can lower
diversity through agriculture,
urbanization and industrialization
and favor specific species.

Figure 4-4. Climate and elevation

influences vegetation type when one
travel from the equator to higher and
lower latitudes and altitudes (Image
source: Miller & Spoolman, 2010).
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Biotic province and biome

British biologist Alfred Russell Wallace was the first to introduce the concept of biotic
province which became the start of biogeography (or the study of the geographic distribution
of species). Continental drift over geological time scales caused genetic mixing (unification)
and genetic isolation and evolution (isolation) of species which brought about the different
biotic provinces.
Botkin and Keller (2011) defined biotic province a “region inhabited by a characteristic set
of taxa (species, families, orders) bounded by barriers that prevent the spread of those
distinctive kinds of life to other regions and immigration of foreign species". Species in a biotic
province are more closely related to each other genetically than in other biotic provinces (Figure
4-5).

On the other hand, a biome is a certain kind of ecosystem based on climate and dominant
plant life. Examples are deserts, grasslands and tropical rainforests. Similar biomes can
occur in different continents due to similar environments providing similar opportunities
and constraints for different life forms (Figure 4-6).

Since biomes are shaped by climate and can occur across continents, species with similar
form and function may exist but with different genetic makeup. A biotic province is about
whom is related to whom while a biome is about niches and habitats.
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Figure 4-5.
Biotic
provinces for animals (upper) and plants (lower). Animals and plants in a biotic province are
more genetically similar than those in other provinces
(Image source: Botkin & Keller, 2011).

Figure 4-6. Major biomes of earth according to climate and life forms. Climate has largely
shaped these biomes (Image source: Miller & Spoolman, 2010).

Convergent and divergent evolution

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Convergent evolution (of species) in similar climates result to similar forms

Divergent evolution into different species when a population is separated by a
geographic barrier but the species retain some of the characteristics

Major factors affecting biodiversity

Factors which might increase biodiversity:
1. Physically diverse habitat
2. Moderate amounts of disturbance (fire or storm)
3. Small variation in environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation, nutrient supply)
4. High diversity at one trophic level increases diversity at another trophic level (various trees
can provide different habitats for birds and insects)
5. Environment highly modified by life (rich organic soil)
6. Middle stages of succession
7. Evolution

Factors which might decrease diversity

1. Environmental stress
2. Extreme environments
3. Severe limitation in the supply of essential resource
4. Extreme amounts of disturbance
5. Recent introduction of exotic species (species from other areas)
6. Geographic isolation (being on a real or ecological island)
Island biogeography

The theory of island biogeography states the following:

 Islands have fewer species than continents
 Two new sources in islands: migration from mainland and evolution of species
 Smaller islands have fewer species
 Farther island from the mainland, fewer species
 After a long time, the island tends to maintain a rather constant number of species.

Ecological island not necessarily real islands but comparatively small habitats
separated from major habitats of the same kind.
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Figure 4-7. Summarized relationship of the effect of the island’s size, distance from the
mainland, and number of species to biodiversity

Biological invasion
With your knowledge of biodiversity and biogeography, one can already determine the effects
of biological invasion. Because biomes exist in different continents, propagation of plants and
trees have been possible from one continent to another. This explains the high number of tree
species in Europe and Great Britain where trees were brought from North America.

Biological invasion is also harmful in other cases. The introduction of an “exotic” species
different from the home species may become a problem. This new species has not evolved and
adapted in relation to the home species and may be a super competitor. Take for example the
case of Laguna de Bay. Janitor fish, a species sold for aquarium purposes, has been accidentally
introduced into the lake and has caused damage by replacing the harvested fish or by destroying
the fish cages. In recent years, the ornamental knife fish has proliferated in the lake and has
threatened fish supp1y.

Philippine biodiversity
The Philippines, although relatively smaller as compared to other countries, has one of the
highest number of species and endemism in the world (Figure 4-8). However, it also belongs to
the world’s biodiversity hotspots with the most elevated risk due to the high human population
density.
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OBJECTIVES:
 Background of the human population growth
 Earth’s carrying capacity
 Environmental impacts of human population growth
 Factors affecting human population size
 Age structure and population relationship
 Slowing human population growth

History of human population growth

In 2011, the population of the world reached 7 billion, 12 years after it reached the 6 billion
mark. Ten thousand years ago, there were only 5 to 8 million humans living in Neolithic
settlements. By 1800, the world’s population was pegged at 1 billion, 2 billion in 1930, 3
billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1975, 5 billion in 1987, 6 billion in 1997 and 7 billion in 2011.
Every billionth mark has diminished the number of years in between. The following
simplification shows the history of the human population growth. (Figure 5-2):
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Figure 5-2. Human population growth in the last 8,000 years. Population has experienced an
exponential growth with more humans being added in only the last 200 years (Image source:
Botkin & Keller, 2011).

As shown in Figure 5-2, the human population has experienced an exponential growth. In fact, in
the US, population growth has even exceeded that of an exponential growth (Figure 5-3).
Although growth has already declined in developed countries this has been offset by the rapid
increase in the developing regions of Asia, South America and Africa.

For a visualization of the growth of human population, check this video from the American
Museum of Natural History: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PUwmA3Q0_OE

This slow but exponential growth of humans is the result of three phenomena:
1. Developed ability to expand in all the climate zones and habitats
2. Early and modern agriculture grew more food for people
3. Death rates dropped sharply due to improved sanitation and health care
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Figure 5-3: US population in the millions. Growth has exceeded exponential projections

Earth’s carrying capacity

This increase in population poses the question of how long will the earth be able to support its
inhabitants. Humans have changed and modified earth in a large scale using technological
advances. However, science tells us that no population will be able to grow indefinitely. Perhaps
it is difficult know the number of people that earth will be able to support indefinitely. What we
know now is the continuous degradation of our environment that supports us, our economies, and
all the other species.

Some say that what needs to be asked is the earth’s cultural carrying capacity. This is the
"maximum number of people that the earth could support at a reasonable level of comfort and
freedom without impairing the planet’s ability to sustain future generations in the same way"

Environmental impacts of human population growth

Many scientists agree that human population growth is linked to the past and present
environmental problems. Some of the major ways that humans have altered our natural
environment are: / impact of human population growth

 Reduction of biodiversity
 Increasing use of earth’s net primary productivity
 Increasing genetic resistance of pest species and disease-causing bacteria
 Elimination of many natural predators
 Introduction of potentially harmful species to communities
 Using some renewable sources faster than they can be replenished
 Interfering with the earth’s chemical cycling and energy flow processes
 Relying mostly on polluting and climate-changing fossil fuels

Factors affecting human population size

Global population is based only on two factors — births and deaths. Simply put, an increase in
population occurs when you have more births than deaths. In terms of countries, cities or other
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areas, migration is considered too — that is immigration and emigration. Population change
in an area can be determined using the following equation:

Population change = (Births + immigration) — (Deaths + Emigration)

Another key factor for measuring human population growth and size is the total fertility rate
(TFR). This is the average number of children born to women during their fertility years. Both
TFR in developed and developing regions have decreased but a TFR of 2.1 I needed to level off
the world’s population.

Factors affecting birth rates and fertility rates

 Importance of children to labor force
 Costs of education and raising children
 Availability and lack of pension systems
 Urbanization and access to family planning
 Education and employment opportunities for women
 Average age at marriage
 Availability of abortion and other birth control methods
 Religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural norms

Factors affecting decline in death rates

 Increased food supplies and distribution
 Better nutrition
 Medical advances such as immunization and antibiotics
 Improved sanitation
 Safer water supplies

Two indicators of overall health:

Life expectancy average number of years an infant is expected to live
Infant mortality rate number of infant deaths every 1000 babies before their first birthday

Age structure, population and economics

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Age structure the portion of males and females in each age class - young, middle and
older age groups. It has implications on population and economics.
Generally, a country’s age structure can be classified with rapid, slow,
zero and negative population growth rates (Figure 5-4).
Figure 5-4. Different age structure diagrams of countries based on population growth rates.

Classification according to population growth rate:

1. Rapid — 1.5 — 3%
2. Slow — 0.3 — 1.4%
3. Zero —0 — 0.2%
4. Negative — declining

Most developing countries have rapid population growth rates with most of the population
under the age of 15. On the other hand, most developed countries have slow to declining
population growth rates.

Age structures can be used to predict whether a population will grow or decline in the future.
Japan, with the world’s highest rate of elderly people and lowest rate of young people, is
projected to decrease its current population to 95 million by 2050. Developing countries in most
of Asia, South America and Africa have an inverted pyramid age structure. In the next few
decades, most people that would be added to the world’s population will come from these
countries.

Population and age structure are also closely linked to economics. A declining population can
spell economic and social disasters. An ageing country with less people working and putting in
taxes will have problems due to increasing demands for medical care, social security funds, and
other costly public services. Aside from Japan, examples of such countries with rapidly
declining population are Russia, Germany, Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, Spain, etc.

Philippine setting
The country is currently experiencing rapid growth in human population as expected with
developing countries. In the 2010 census, 30.7 million or 33.4 percent of the 92 million
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Filipinos are under the age of 15. The age structure shows the inverted pyramid characteristic
of a developing country.

Figure 5-5. The Philippine age structures

Slowing human
population growth
Three main
factors that can
slow down human
population growth are:
1. Reducing
poverty and
promoting
economic

development
2. Promoting family planning
3. Empowering women

Economic development
When developed countries industrialize the during the 19th century, the population change
hypothesis of demographic transition was proposed. This transition involves four stages and
many developed countries believe that developing countries can transition too.
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Figure 5-6. The demographic transition stages

Promoting family planning

Family planning is defined as educational and clinical services for couples that help in
choosing the number and frequency of children. It differs from country to country but mostly
are composed of birth spacing methods, birth control and health care for pregnant women
and infants. Family planning is an effective tool in reducing births throughout most of the
world. It has also reduced mortality rates of mothers and fetuses during pregnancy. Data has
also shown that money spent on family planning actually saves cost for health, education and
social services.

Empowering women
Studies have shown that women who are educated tend to have fewer children, take charge of
her fertility, hold a paying job outside home and live in a society that do not suppress them.

In most developing countries, women do the domestic and agricultural work without or little
pay. Some societies also value men over women — leaving women at home and with no
education. Women who can’t read tend to have an average of five to seven children as compared
to those who can who have two to three children.

All these three factors have been proven to slow down and reduce human population growth.
This has been done in a decade or two by countries such as Japan, Thailand, South Korea,
Taiwan, Iran and China.

Emigration (out migration) act of leaving one’s residence in the intent of settling
in another place
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Immigration (in migration) moving in of people from one place to another with the
aim of settling or residing in that place.

Neolithic settlements refer to the humans who lived during the Neolithic age about 10,000
years ago. This is also called as the New Stone Age.

Net primary
productivity rate at which ecosystems accumulates biomass or energy, typically
related to rate of photosynthesis less respiration.

OBJECTIVES:
 Realize the importance of food and identify undernourishment and malnutrition problems
with the lack of it
 Define agriculture and aquaculture and value the different sources of human food
 Determine the use of science in food production

One of the earliest sites of agriculture is in the land between the Rivers of Tigris and
Euphrates that marked the beginning of Western civilization.

In 1970s, famine occurred in Sahel region, Africa. Half million people starved to death and
several million others were affected by malnutrition. Two decades after, developing countries
experienced crisis when the cost of basic crops such as rice, corn and wheat increased as the
cost of oil to produce food continue to increase.

Agriculture is an evidence of human attempt to overcome environmental limitations and

problems. Currently, about 38% of the world's land area, excluding Antarctica, is in
agriculture. The combination of different land use, and allocation of best agricultural lands
for crops and of poor lands for pasture and rangeland are among the wisest approaches to
sustainable agriculture for food production.

There are two conditions by which people ‘starve’. These are undernourishment and
malnutrition.

Undernourishment results from insufficient calories on available food when one has little or no
ability to work or even move and eventually dies from the lack of energy.

Marasmus, a progressive emaciation caused by a lack of protein and calories.

Kwashiorkor, a condition caused by a lack of sufficient protein in the diet are the major
problems of undernourishment.

Malnutrition results from a lack of specific chemical components of food such as proteins,
vitamins, or other essentials chemical elements. Malnourishment is long term and insidious
condition.

Agriculture is the method of growing crops and rearing of animals for food and other
essential products for human population.
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Half million of plant species exist on Earth, however, not even half has been used for agricultural
crops. Only 3,000 species have been used as agricultural crops and only 150 species have been
cultivated on a large scale. Only 14 species provide most of the world’s food. These include
wheat, rice, maize, soy beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes, manioc, sugar cane, sugar beet,
common beans, barley, sorghum, coconuts and bananas.

Agriculture in an area is influenced by two factors. These are the physical and human factors.
 Physical factors include rainfall, temperature, growing season, altitude, aspect, relief
and soil of the area
 Human factors include labor, market, accessibility, subsidies, quotas and attitudes

In agriculture, advanced technology is needed to provide water supply, prevent soil

erosion, maintain soil fertility, inter-cropping and food storage.

Ecological perspective of agriculture

In growing agricultural crops, pests exist. Pests are undesirable competitors, parasites or
predators in agricultural crops. The major agricultural pests are insects that feed on the live
parts of plants such as leaves and stems.

Other pests include

(1) nematodes (live on the soil and feed on the roots and other plant tissues)
(2) bacteria and viruses
(3) weeds (plants that compete with the crops)
(4) vertebrates (rodents and birds that feed on grains or fruits)

With modern science-based agriculture, people began to search for chemicals that could reduce
the abundance of pests. Biological control is used to solve the problem but it has not solved all.
Artificial pesticides, though integrated in pest management, are used along with other
techniques so the application can be sparing and specific.

With agriculture, people influence the environment. Poor farming practices that may be
enhanced by drought condition may result to soil erosion and deforestation. Overuse of
fertilizers may also result to nitrate pollution.

Future of agriculture
With the application of science in agriculture, there is increased agricultural production and a
better understanding of population growth and food demand, and also ways to conserve the
natural resources.

Biotechnology is the application of biological concepts and systems to make products

beneficial to man. In agriculture, biotechnology is used to (1) increase crop yield, (2) improve
crop quality and (3) reduce production cost

Genetically modified (GM) crops include seedless watermelons, longer-shelf-life bananas,

extra-large tomatoes, and vitamin-fortified corns. There are also genetically-engineered crops
that fight plant diseases.
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The Philippines is the 12th biggest grower of genetically modified (GM) crops as more
farmers planted Bt (Basillus thuringionsis) corn. It is one of the first countries which allowed
planting and commercialization of GM corn since 2002 and has permitted GM crops imports for
more than a decade. It has also exported corn to other countries such as South Korea. Among
the global agribusiness giants which provide transgenic seeds to the Philippines are Mosanto
Co and Syngenta AG.

Since the country has begun cultivating and commercializing GM corn, the government has not
done any review regarding the effects on the environment and farmers. Critics argued that
technology may pose risk to public health, thus the country challenge a ban on GMO imports.
This would mean that Philippine buyers need to buy a non-GMO supply which would be $80-
100 a ton more expensive. However, many respected scientists around the world including those
in the Philippines believe that GMO crops are not a harm to man and the environment.

Livestock: the agriculture of animals

Animals are another important source of food. Worldwide, people keep 14 billion chickens, 1.3
billion cattle, more than 1 billion sheep, more than a billion ducks, almost a billion pigs,
700 million goats, more than 160 million water buffalo and about 18 million camels for food.

Herds and domestic animals are kept either in rangeland or pasture. Rangeland provides food
for grazing and browsing animals without plowing and planting. Pasture is plowed, planted
and harvested to provide forage for animals.

Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the farming of protein in both marine and freshwater habitats. In the
Philippines, mussels, tilapia and milkfish are among the aquacultural animals. In other
countries, these include carp, oyster, shrimp, yellowtail (Japan), crayfish (United States),
eels and minnows (China), catfish (United States), salmon (Canada, Chile, Norway and
United States), and trout (United States).

Some of the negative effects of aquaculture are the release of wastes from the fish and
chemicals such as pesticides from fishponds polluting local environment. Aquaculture can also
damage biological diversity.

Agriculture the method of growing crops and rearing of animals for food and other
essential products for human population

Aquaculture the farming of protein in both marine and freshwater habitats

Biotechnology the application of biological concepts and systems to make products

beneficial to man

Malnutrition results from a lack of specific chemical components of food such as

proteins, vitamins, or other essentials chemical elements
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Undernourishment results from insufficient calories on available food when one has little or
no ability to work or even move and eventually dies from the lack of
energy