Mahsa Mohaghegh et al, / (IJCSIT) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technologies, Vol.

7 (3) , 2016, 1524-1530

Computational Thinking: The Skill Set of the 21st

Century
Mahsa Mohaghegh#1, Michael McCauley*2

#
Department of Computing, Unitec Institute of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
*
Faculty of Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Abstract- Computational thinking is a relatively new term, characteristics with mathematics, and therefore it is implied
and is the topic of much discussion in the educational realm that it will also share problems and problem-solving
today. Research shows that computational thinking is a highly techniques with other scientific domains. Secondly,
valuable skill that is becoming a topic of increasing interest computer science often deals with creating tools to solve
among computational education researchers, as well as problems, rather than just using the tools. It should follow
computer scientists. The reason for this is due to the
significant benefits associated with it in terms of problem
naturally that other problems external to computer science
solving. as a discipline can be addressed using the same or similar
techniques. These techniques can be defined or abstracted
This review begins with an introduction to computational
thinking as a term, and gives some characteristics in an algorithm, a step-by-step instruction set.
surrounding the skill set. We then examine the benefits and Computer science – and more specifically
advantages of computational thinking in general, and areas in computational thinking – is bringing about a fundamental
which it may be applied. We also explore the importance of change in every field of science. Computing technology is
computational thinking in education and teaching practice, no longer just a tool to aid scientific research, but is
specifically at years 1 - 13, and note areas in which this is becoming woven “into the very fabric of science”. These
currently being implemented. We also search for the use of
computational thinking in Kaupapa Māori, again noting
fundamental developments in problem solving strategy
current work in this area. Finally, we make recommendations pose significant implications and opportunities in a wide
for the inclusion of computational thinking as a core topic in range of fields, and, as we argue further in this review, for
primary and secondary education. primary and secondary school curriculum (Grover, 2013).
Computational thinking is a very broad term in its
1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTATIONAL THINKING definition, with numerous and sometimes disagreeing
definitions and descriptions of what the term entails.
Like many scientific terms and phrases, computational However most agree that Jeannette M. Wing, Head of
thinking as a term is reasonably well known, however a Department of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon
clear definition, what it entails, and areas in which it is University, is still one of the greatest pioneers of
applied are generally not so clear. However, according to computational thinking. Wing’s energies in this area in the
Curzon, Black et al., (2009), computational thinking is the mid-2000s attracted the attention of Microsoft, who in 2007
skill of the 21st Century. As such, a growing number of granted Carnegie Mellon University 1.5 million dollars to
people in academia are beginning to realise the importance establish a research and study centre dedicated to this area
of bringing computational thinking to the core of many (Curzon, Black et al., 2009).
areas of study such as business and commerce, biology, and
biomedical engineering. According to Wing (2006), computational thinking can
be defined as a method or approach of “solving problems,
At such an early stage in its observed history, it is designing systems, and understanding human behavior, by
difficult to settle on a concise definition of computational drawing on the concepts fundamental to computer science”
thinking that is widely agreed on. However, it can be (Wing, 2006, pp 33-35). Wing also describes computational
generically stated to the agreement of most that thinking as a type of analytical thinking, or computing
computational thinking is a collection of multiple problem- concept-driven approach to solving problems, modelling
solving skills based on fundamental principles of computer situations, or designing and implementing systems.
science (Curzon, Black et al., 2009). Computational thinking can be envisioned as a thought
Computer science itself is a somewhat misunderstood process by which problems are represented in such a way
term – most probably because of the word “computer”. that their solutions may be evaluated using information
Rather than being “the study of computers”, computer processing techniques. Solving a computational problem
science can be briefly described as using computers and involves logical and algorithmic thinking approaches. The
computational technology to solve problems; the main key skill is in logically breaking down a problem and
focus is in problem solving. Jaokar (2013) draws some systematically devising an algorithm suitable for solving it
important points from such a description of computer (Grover, 2013). Computational thinking and problem
science. Firstly, computer science shares many solving strategy enables those who implement it to model

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problems and situations that may yield a computational 2.1.3 Efficiency

solution. Instead of separating problems and their solutions, In computer science, and in particular in algorithm
computational thinking promotes problem decomposition, design, efficiency deals with the minimization of resources
and the use of logic, algorithms and often innovation to required by an algorithm to solve a problem. Although
solve them. It is a combination of logical, arithmetic, many computational resources may be defined, two are of
efficiency, scientific and innovative thinking, together with significant importance: the time it takes for an algorithm to
qualities such as creativity and intuition (Curzon, Black et solve a problem, and the memory space required while
al., 2009). Computational thinking involves skills or solving. Of these two however, time required is usually the
techniques which often include decomposition of a task or most important. This means that specific thought must go
problem, pattern recognition and abstraction, and into designing an algorithm to best handle a specific type of
formulating algorithms to solve this and similar problems problem: it is not possible to simply “speed up” an
or situations (Exploring Computational Thinking, 2015).. algorithm at runtime to improve its time complexity
Phillips (2007) takes an interesting perspective while (Goodrich & Tamassia, 2002). In terms of algorithm
addressing secondary school teachers regarding design, an “efficient algorithm” is one which takes the least
computational thinking, and defines what computational number of steps to solve a problem. A good example of
thinking does not entail. Phillips’ points help eliminate efficient problem solving is the Rubik’s cube (Curzon,
misconceptions mistaking computational thinking for Black et al., 2009) . While it is true that making faster
“thinking like a computer”, involving only programming, moves and spending less time calculating the best next
or thinking that a physical computer is also central to the move will result in a solution being reached in less time, it
term. is more beneficial to determine the fewest possible steps
Despite the numerous differing opinions on what is needed from any given starting point. It is this kind of
encompassed by the term, most agree on the significance of efficiency which plays a major part in computational
computational thinking as a skill set that has an important thinking.
place in the 21st century, and must be explored in greater
depth across a range of levels. 2.1.4 Innovative Thinking
Innovation is a key characteristic of computational
2.1 COMPUTATIONAL THINKING IN DETAIL thinking, and is best evidenced in the fact that computer
Computational thinking can be broken down into science lies at the forefront of modern innovation.
different facets of thought, each with its own particular According to the Cable News Network (CNN, 2014), the
strengths and applications. The following sections describe top ten inventions are currently all results of amazing
computational thinking aspects in more detail. innovations in computer science. Innovative thinking trains
the mind to question things which already exist, to
challenge assumptions, and ultimately to think “outside the
2.1.1 Logical thinking box” (Curzon, Black et al., 2009). This aspect gives
Logical thinking is perhaps the most important part of computational thinkers a significant advantage in problem
computational thinking. Logic in this sense may be solving.
confused with a computer’s logical calculation, however in
terms of computational thinking it refers to a deduction or
2.2 OBJECTIVES
extrapolation of new information or data based on existing
information. According to Curzon, Black et al., (2009) , the We seek to address computational thinking in an
logical aspect is in forming realistic conclusions, not educational context, and explore the benefits that exist in
reaching correct assumptions by chance. One prime this space, highlighting areas in which they could or should
example of logical thinking in action is the Sudoku puzzle be utilized. While many of these areas encompass all
game: answers to each cell in the grid must be correctly educational levels in general, we focus specifically at years
deduced based on “existing information” in the completed 1-13. We also search for evidence of computational
cells. A process of elimination can be utilised to determine thinking within Kaupapa Maori.
correct choices.
3 BENEFITS OF COMPUTATIONAL THINKING
2.1.2 Algorithmic Thinking Computational science has taken a stand with theory
Algorithms play a major part in problem solving in and experimentation as a pillar of science Phillips (2007).
computer science, especially in repetitive problems. This This is due to the power with which simulations and
aspect of computational thinking is perhaps the most models of various phenomena may be created using
closely aligned to computer science itself. Algorithmic computational thinking and application, enabling computer
thinking can also be thought of as strategic thinking, or science to drive huge advances to multiple fields of science.
step-by-step processing. Algorithmic thinking in general Physicists have been able to computationally simulate
problem solving can greatly improve efficiency, especially supernovas, and cell shapes and accelerator cavity to learn
when dealing with problems of similar nature (Curzon, more about the big bang (Southern Methodist University,
Black et al., 2009). 2010); computational biologists, have used computational
resources to model the functions of sub-cell molecular

 
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motors. Geologists and environmental engineers use that are computable, helps thinkers to determine the correct
computers to model potential flow of groundwater- tools and methods for solving certain problems, as well as
contained contaminants. Geotechnical and structural helping the exploration of method limitations. Almost all
engineers computationally model earthquakes to test disciplines have now been influenced by computational
simulated structures and ensure their designs are thinking in some way, in both the sciences and humanities.
structurally sound. Upon deeper inspection, it is actually There are numerous examples of this influence in many
the computational thought processes, the skills and fields – machine learning has influenced the
mindsets that thinking computationally brings about, that implementation of probabilistic graphical models in
are the real cause to these advances. statistics, greatly improving pattern recognition for
Although computational thinking is a core concept extended data sets (Machine Learning Department, 2008);
behind most areas of computer science, it has attracted in biology, computational thinking has advanced human
significant attention in recent years as a skill that should be genome sequencing (Fisher & Henzinger, 2007); even in
discovered and exercised in a much greater way than it is. fields such as economics, computational thinking has had
Wing (2006) published an article introducing influence: online auctioning, ad placement, and banking.
computational thinking as a term, and began to discuss the In 2011, the Institute for the Future (Institute for the
importance of this approach as an attitude and a skill set Future, 2011) published a document overlooking future
that deserves much more attention. Wing states that work skills that will be necessary by 2020. The report
computational thinking is increasingly influencing many highlights six “drivers of change”: longevity, smart
other disciplines since it possesses many characteristics machines and systems, a computational world, new media
which are beneficial and even necessary in these fields. ecology, superstructure organisations, and a globally
Computational thinking has been boldly labelled as the connected world. The report also highlights ten key skills
21st Century literacy, since it allows non-computer that are of paramount importance (Figure 1). On this list is
scientists to benefit from a computational approach to computational thinking, which IFTF describe as the skill to
problem-solving (Cuny et al., 2010). Computational conceptualise and draw abstractions from data sets, and
thinking helps us to understand problems and sub-problems model problems computationally.

Figure 1 - Ten Skills for the future

 
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Jaokar (2013) speculates even further than the thinking that may be used to solve many problems in
immediate future, and suggests that computational thinking numerous areas. In this instance, mathematics can be seen
may evolve to the extent of being able to be used to address as a tool to be used in computational representation and
even more complex problems and situations, to ultimately problem solving.
drive our level of innovation higher than ever before. There are a number of benefits of computational
thinking that can be seen from a secondary school
4 COMPUTATIONAL THINKING IN YEAR 1-13 classroom perspective. Computational thinking has the
EDUCATION potential to equip students with more than just “technology
literacy”, or a working knowledge of how to use computers
The importance of computational thinking as a skill to
for everyday tasks. It enables students to be more effective
be taught in schools has been recognised be a number of
problem solvers for situations beyond the computer science
high profile individuals. Wing (2006) goes beyond the
realm, and encourages them to create tools to solve
tertiary sector to state that computational thinking should
problems, rather than use existing tools (Phillips, 2007).
be learned by everyone and used not just by those at
Computational thinking is a skill that needs to be developed
university-level academic fields. She promotes
in the next generation. According to Hunt (2012), a clear
computational thinking as a vital skill for today and the
understanding of what computational thinking is, together
future, equating its importance to that of reading, writing,
with how and where it can be implemented is of paramount
and basic arithmetic.
importance in preparing our next generation for a world
The drive for more attention on computational thinking filled with technology and constant technological advance.
is gaining momentum, with many universities’ computer
Computational thinking involves a number of core
science departments modifying their curriculum to focus
principles from computer science, such as abstraction and
more on fundamental computer science concepts and
algorithm design, decomposition, pattern matching,
principles rather than having programming their main area
generalization, and inference. However computational
of focus. Dr. Wing’s efforts have also carried even further,
thinking is a skill of significant benefit to multiple
and there is now significant work being done to bring these
disciplines, and is not just limited to computer science and
fundamentals to primary and secondary schools (albeit at a
technological fields (Hunt, 2012). The reason for this is that
suitable level of complexity). The importance of this move
it helps students define what can and can’t be solved, and
is evident to many, including international ICT giants such
prompts them to research computational models for
as Google and Microsoft. In 2007, Microsoft Research
situations that are traditionally unrelated to computer
awarded Carnegie Mellon University a grant of several
science. Even if a student chooses a career other than
million dollars to establish a research centre for
computing, the skills learned and developed through
computational thinking, and continues with its support. In
computational thinking will benefit them in whatever field
2006, Google initiated its CS4HS (Computer Science for
they eventuate.
High Schools) workshop at Carnegie Mellon University, a
two-day workshop open to high school teachers to show Grover (2013) identifies a significant advance in
them emerging technology, and new and energetic methods elementary school computer science learning with
to introduce computer science and computational thinking programming languages such as Scratch, MIT’s App
at primary and secondary level. Several years later in 2010, Inventor, Kodu and Alice, which enable students to
CS4HS had spread to a total of 34 tertiary institutes construct working programmes and apps in most cases very
worldwide, and is currently one of the largest single quickly. While this is advantageous in learning
workshops aimed at bringing computational principles into programming skills, the degree of conceptual knowledge
schools (Blum & Cortina, 2007). Google also launched a obtained through using these tools can be questioned,
website as an extension of its Google for Education specifically to what extent students learn computational
programme in 2010, aimed at promoting computational thinking skills. Grover (2013) draws from first-hand
thinking and providing numerous links to web-based experience in teaching high school students various
resources at both tertiary and secondary levels (Google, computational principles and exercises in Scratch, robotics
2015). and App Inventor, and identifies the need to concentrate on
how to construct solutions, and why some solutions are
One programme originating in New Zealand is the
more suitable and effective than others, rather than simply
work by Bell, Fellows and Witten in creating Computer
learning the coding syntax of a particular language. Grover
Science Unplugged, a website and programme aimed at
encourages going beyond “the tools”: programming
teaching K-12 computer science principles without
languages, syntax ‘quick solution’ methods. Instead she
computer (Bell et al., 2009).
promotes the need to use young students’ learning ability
Computational terms may be more effectively and creativity to develop key computational thinking skills.
understood if students are able to see them effectively A deeper understanding of computational problem solving
demonstrated in areas they are already familiar with. is more valuable than exploring the surface of tools in this
Teachers need to be constantly evaluating areas in which area without realising their full potential.
they could demonstrate the use of computational
Computer science professionals and teaching
terminology and analogy. Students need to see computer
professionals at all levels have a responsibility to begin
science as more than just programming, but instead an
driving computational thinking to various degrees across all
immensely broad field and the initiation of a branch of

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disciplines. However, incorporating computational thinking what the concept actually entails. This can present
into non-computer science curriculum requires careful difficulties in infrastructure change, and in presenting a
planning in its approach, and despite the fact that it is in comprehensive strategy for change, which in turn
education that the drive for computational thinking is most challenges the most appropriate direction to take in
needed, both computer science researchers and educators preparing suitable resources.
need to work together towards this goal. Computational The importance of computational thinking is becoming
thinking springs from the principles of computer science, more apparent to tertiary institutes, and as a result they are
but the methods of incorporating computational thinking beginning to incorporate it into their curriculum. Wing
into general education will be different than those used in (2008) extrapolates from this the necessity of enhancing the
computer science. Guzdial (2008) proposes several focus of computational thinking at primary and secondary
questions that must be answered to determine the best school levels, and challenges computer science and
approach. It is important to correctly determine the level of education communities worldwide to investigate effective
understanding non-computer science students have of methods of bringing sound computational thinking to
computing principles, and what areas pose significant school students.
challenges to students.
Wing (2008) proposes several fundamental
To help pave the way for computational thinking in the characteristics and principles of computational thinking
classroom, it is necessary to revisit and improve the way which as she puts, are either extremely helpful or of
computing is taught. This fact is well supported by Guzdial particular necessity in the classroom. At undergraduate
(2008), and Barr & Stephenson (2011). Two areas of tertiary level, courses are continually being developed
research are of particular importance to this goal: human- which bring focus to core principles of computing, and
computer interaction, and computing education. Human- Wing suggests attention of this nature should be given to
computer interaction involves exploring new methods with primary and secondary level education. One principle she
which humans interact with computers, while computing suggests is parallel and sequential processing, which can be
education research involves investigating how humans explained very effectively to younger students by analogy
reach an understanding of computer science principles. Of and real-world examples. Another principle is that of the
these two however, computing education is arguably of the parity bit, where an extra ‘check’ bit is added to the end of
greatest importance. According to Guzdial, “research in a binary string, indicating whether the number of bits with
computing education will pave the way to make a value of one is even or odd (simple error-checking code).
computational thinking a 21st century literacy that we can
Wing (2008) also warns against letting the “tool” (i.e.,
share across the campus” (Guzdial, 2008, p27). It is also
the computer, or the programming language, etc) hinder a
necessary to make changes to current curriculum and
solid understanding of the concept. Just as teaching a child
pedagogy in order to construct an atmosphere that is more
arithmetic operations only by calculator will hamper their
conducive to exposing classrooms to emerging technology.
understanding of basic mathematic skills, so teaching a
Tertiary-level education is no longer the right place to
student to code, create programs and form solutions
introduce computational concepts, even though it is at this
without teaching them the correct steps in breaking down a
level that most students make choices for a future career.
problem, forming abstractions and designing algorithms
The reason for this is the simple fact that the next
will hinder their understanding of the core principles. This
generation of students, regardless of what career path they
seems extreme, but the situation of students learning to
choose, are already in an ever-increasing technology-driven
code and assuming (or worse yet, being told) that they
world, filled with computers and computer-led solutions.
understand the concepts of computer science is
Logical problem solving, an understanding of how to
frighteningly prevalent. What is necessary is an effective
manipulate algorithmic problem solving and abstraction,
integration of the “tool” with the concepts. Cuny et al..
together with other computational thinking skills are now
(2010) also impress the importance of the algorithm (and
required at both primary and secondary school levels.
solution) design process, rather than the solution itself, and
There is significant complexity in introducing while coding and programming language syntax is
computational thinking to primary and secondary school important, conceptualisation is more essential, as it can be
curriculum. The vision and belief in the necessity for the transferred to other areas of study.
drive must be shared by a several groups. Educators must
This generation’s familiarity with technology helps
be made aware of the necessity, and computing education
form a strong background for understanding key underlying
researchers must communicate with computer science
computational concepts. Technology’s fast-paced advance
researchers to explore optimum ways to incorporate it into
can often be overwhelming, and can cause concerns
curriculum. The whole change requires a paradigm shift in
particularly for parents. American musician Bill Laswell
education, enhanced teacher engagement, together with
once stated “People are afraid of things they don't
research-led resource development and collaborative work
understand. They don't know how to relate. It threatens
with educators in computer science. This shift and advance
their security, their existence, their career, their image”.
in education necessitates two main directions of effort:
However, computer science is becoming such an
educational policy, and resources (Barr and Stephenson,
underlying part of our culture, and an understanding and
2011). The biggest challenge in educational policy is
knowledge of not just how technology works, but the
perhaps the fact that computational thinking as a term in
still relatively new, and there is still some discussion on

 
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fundamental computational steps to problem solving can after-school classes and workshops, holiday programmes
help dispel these fears. and courses aimed at teaching computer programming
United States educator and technology advisor Brian fundamentals to whanau with the use of real-world teaching
Puerling suggests that the fear of technology felt by parents aids. DNA hopes to promote creative and computational
and teachers must be overcome, since our current thinking, systematic and logical reasoning, and
generation of children can be viewed as ‘technology collaborative work with the use of online and mobile
natives’. Children as young as 18 months are already technologies, and ultimately contribute to preparing the
manipulating tablets and smartphones with ease. He advises next generation for a digitally-rich future.
that technology must be used in conjunction with One significant learning programme that has been
traditional learning, rather than replacing it altogether. developed and implemented on trial is the Te Ika Unahi
Puerling states that the fact that today’s children are Nui in Okato, Taranaki (Ministry of Education, 2015). One
immersed in technology is prime evidence that main goal of the programme is to introduce and promote
computational concepts are a necessary aspect of early digital emerging technologies in the classroom in order to
education (Jones, 2013). This generation’s familiarity with improve and strengthen learning and literacy. The
technology helps form a strong background for programmed was trialled with Coastal Taranaki School
understanding key underlying computational concepts. students, with reports of significant success. A great
A drive towards the inclusion of computational improvement in students’ connection to their language,
thinking in standard education curriculum is particularly culture and heritage was noted, and the development of
important for people groups who are not traditionally leadership skills, and ability to approach and solve
heavily represented in computer science and technology, problems, but students also found a connection to the
since these groups can benefit vastly from being exposed to relevance of technology, and how principles in technology
the methods, thought processes and problem solving could be used to enhance their learning (Ruakere, 2015).
strategies that are employed in computational thinking. Another group aimed at improving digital learning
Regardless of their representation, these are technology among Māori is the Learning with Digital Technologies for
consumers all the same, and to the same degree as others. Māori and Pasifika Learners group (White, 2015). This is
On top of this, a reworking of curriculum content to include essentially a forum of approximately 400 members, and
focused attention on computational thinking can be coupled provides a networking platform for teachers and educators
with a drive for enhanced focus on development of these to connect with each other to share and discuss strategies,
groups also. A prime example of this is in Te Ao Māori in approaches and resources in order to improve the
New Zealand. engagement of Māori and Pasifika learners.
Clubhouse 274 is a community-formed initiative
5 COMPUTATIONAL THINKING IN KAUPAPA MĀORI sponsored by the Tindall Foundation (Tindall Foundation,
2013). It was the first clubhouse under the Intel Computer
Traditionally, computer science has not been as
Clubhouse Network, an international network of groups
popular an area for Māori students as others such as
started by MIT Media Labs and the Museum of Science in
literature, design and arts (Hook, 2008). In terms of
Boston Massachusetts (Intel Computer Clubhouse
computational thinking, there is currently no major work
Network, 2015). Clubhouse 274’s goal is to open digital
involving, or of significant influence to Māori. However,
opportunities to young students in Otara, and provides
the need to promote technology and computer science to
tutorials and workshops in areas such as digital media
Māori has been identified by a number of groups.
production, photography, animation and 3D modelling.
TangataWhenua.com, a Māori ICT company founded
While there is evidence of early steps being taken to
in 2002, is a current pioneer of digital technology originally
introduce computational thinking and problem solving
formed to counter a negative impression from mainstream
skills in Kaupapa Māori, there is still much room for
Māori representations, and is now a leading independent
improvement. Certain groups are taking great steps in the
Māori news and information portal. This company was one
development in this area – such as White (2015) – however
of the main facilitators of the Google Māori Project
this needs to be scaled to a greater degree, with a greater
(Tahana, 2008), an initiative aimed at enabling Māori users
awareness of the value of computational thinking and
to use a Māori-translated Google Search Interface,
problem solving.
completed in 2008. TangataWhenua.com recognises the
necessity for Māori to be trained as developers and creators
of technology and digital solutions, rather than just users 6 CONCLUSIONS
and consumers of existing technology. In a bid to initiate We are currently standing on the brink of a new era of
this effort, the company is currently developing Digital learning. As technology advances, and computers and
Natives Academy (DNA), a “real life space” to provide computational solutions are involved more and more in our
tamariki, rangatahi, pakeke and kaumatua support and everyday lives, all levels of education must at some point
resources to inspire them to experiment with and create and take a turn to frame young minds to prepare for an
develop their own digital tools (Digital Natives Academy, increasingly digital world. Computational thinking has
2015). DNA’s chief objective is to give children the facility been named by a number of computer science and
to equip themselves in an age driven by technological educational authorities as the literacy of the 21st century,
advance. To accomplish this, DNA is planning to hold

 
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and something which is being addressed at tertiary level Curzon, P., Black, J., Meagher, L. R., & McOwan, P. (2009). cs4fn. org:
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