INTERNATIONAL EDITION

The official magazine of the British Tunnelling Society

October 2020

CROSS
PASSAGES
Groundwater control and
ground treatment
T E C HNI C A L / C RO S S PA S S AG E S

GROUNDWATER
CONTROL FOR
TUNNEL CROSS
PASSAGES
Dr Martin Preene of Preene Groundwater Consulting looks at the construction of cross
passages and the various techniques for groundwater control and ground treatment

C
ROSS PASSAGES ARE A KEY achieved by the construction of ‘cross passages’ which are spaced
part of many road and rail along the alignment.
tunnelling schemes. Such In the most common geometry, each cross passage is aligned
projects use twin running at right angles to the main tunnels (Figure 1) and is of smaller
tunnels that are constructed parallel diameter. The spacing along the route is usually determined by
to each other. When the tunnels are in regulatory requirements for emergency evacuation and fire-
operation, safety requirements mean that fighting, but spacings of 100 to 500m between cross passages
there must be regular access connections are typical.
to allow emergency evacuation from one The constraint of modest diameter and short length means
running tunnel to another in the event that cross passages are commonly constructed without the use
of a fire or other hazardous event. The of a TBM or shield. Excavation is typically by hand mining or
connection between running tunnels is mechanised excavation using small backactors or roadheaders

Above: Figure 1, Schematic geometry of cross passage between running tunnels

FROM CASHMAN & PREENE, 2020, WITH PERMISSION

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 C RO S S PA S S AG E S / T E C HNI C A L

Above: Figure 2a, Typical drill hole arrays sub-parallel to cross passage for ground treatment
and groundwater depressurisation FROM CASHMAN & PREENE, 2020, WITH PERMISSION

closely followed by the application of a primary lining of cars or vehicles) to allow rapid movement
either sprayed concrete (SCL) or spheroidal graphite iron (SGI). into and out of the tunnel.
Temporary support such as timber propping may be used before
the primary lining is placed. These methods require stable INVESTIGATION AND DATA
conditions and manageable rates of groundwater inflow – GATHERING
effective groundwater control is therefore essential. The lack of surface access often means
that there is little pre-construction ground
PRINCIPLES OF GROUNDWATER CONTROL investigation information at cross passage
Groundwater control for cross passages can be grouped into two locations and there can be significant
categories: uncertainty in ground and groundwater
■ Ground treatment techniques used to exclude groundwater. conditions. Various strategies can be used
Typically, the ground treatment reduces permeability – to gather further information including:
examples include artificial ground freezing and various i. Information from face interventions.
types of grouting. These methods can be applied vertically A strategy that is sometimes adopted
and inclined from ground level (if access allows) and sub- is to plan face interventions during
horizontally from within the tunnels. construction of the running tunnels to
■ Groundwater depressurisation by pumping. Pumping wells coincide with proposed cross passage
can be drilled from ground level (where access is available) or locations. If the TBM support fluid is
in-tunnel wells can be used, where small-diameter wells are lowered to tunnel axis level (or lower)
drilled outwards from the tunnels. and compressed air applied to exclude
groundwater, it can be possible to
Ground treatment and groundwater depressurisation for cross inspect the soil or rock at the face.
passages face two logistical challenges. Firstly, in most cases, This approach was adopted in the
surface access is not available above cross passage locations. United Kingdom for the HS1 and the
Indeed, for sub-aqueous tunnels below rivers and open water, Crossrail projects.
the ‘surface’ above a cross passage may be under many metres ii. Probe drilling. Most cross passage
of water. Therefore, most work (drilling, ground treatment and works include provision for probe
pumping) must be done from within the tunnels. drilling out from the running tunnels
This reveals the second problem, that the groundwater control at cross passage locations. The data
works must be designed and scheduled to inconvenience other gathered can include samples from
works as little as possible. If the running tunnels are still being the drilling flush or drilling tools, and
driven, there is a need to feed materials to, and remove spoil information from the instrumented
from, the TBM, and in any case access may be needed to allow drilling equipment.
multiple cross passage works simultaneously. Fixed equipment
such as in-tunnel pumps and freezeplants should be mounted so DRILLING OUT FROM TUNNELS
they do not block access along the running tunnels. Installation Drilling out from tunnels is often difficult
equipment, such as drilling rigs, must be mobile (on either rail and inconvenient. If surface access

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 T E C HNI C A L / C RO S S PA S S AG E S

Above: Figure 2b, Typical drill hole arrays radiating out from running tunnels for ground treatment
and groundwater depressurisation FROM CASHMAN & PREENE, 2020, WITH PERMISSION

for drilling is available, it is preferable Common geometries of in-tunnel drill holes used for ground
that as much ground treatment and treatment and groundwater depressurisation are shown in Figure
groundwater depressurisation as possible 2. The conical array of holes around the entire circumference
is done from ground level. However, in of the cross passage (Figure 2a) is often used with ground
most cases all of the ground treatment treatment methods. The other geometries (Figures 2b and 2c) are
or depressurisation work will have to be often used for groundwater depressurisation systems where the
done from within the running tunnels via soil/rock is sufficiently permeable to allow wells relatively distant
holes drilled out through the lining. from the cross passage to generate drawdowns over a wide area.
Drilling patterns out from the tunnel In-tunnel drilling is typically carried out by specialist drilling
will need to be planned to fit within rigs with sufficient articulation of the mast to allow drilling at
the constraints of reinforcement and various inclinations and locations within a tunnel.
joints in the tunnel lining, as well as
the temporary support around the cross DRILLING METHODS
passage openings. Drilling locations Various drilling methods have been used successfully on cross-
must also be selected to take account passage works. Roberts et al. (2015) ranked drilling methods in
of existing in-tunnel infrastructure such terms of the ability to control bore stability.
as belt conveyors, ventilation ducts and 1. Auger drilling without a blow out preventer (BOP): this
utilities feeding the TBM. method provides little bore control if pressurised sands or
silts are encountered. However, it can be used in some low-
permeability materials such as clay, where significant water
inflow is not anticipated.
2. Rotary water/polymer flush drilling through a guillotine valve,
Inflows through drill holes without BOP: the drill string passes through the open valve.
When drilling out through a tunnel lining into pressurised, saturated soil or This allows the bore to be sealed with a valve as soon as the
weathered rock, there is a risk that the drill hole will allow inflow of water drill string is removed. This method is used when drilling in
and soil/rock particles, leading to loss of ground and collapse of the drill hole unweathered rock, where the risk of loss of ground is low, and
before any liner can be installed. To avoid these problems, in many cases the the primary concern is high rates of water inflow if significant
drill hole is made through a ‘blow out preventer’ (BOP) connected to a steel fractures are encountered.
standpipe attached and sealed into the tunnel lining. 3. Cased rotary water/polymer drilling through guillotine valve
Common BOP elements include: and BOP: this provides full control of the borehole annulus
■ A guillotine valve to seal the hole in the event of problems during drilling. Drilling is by a rotating casing fitted with a
■ A relief valve and tee piece to relieve high pressures and flows during shoe bit.
drilling 4. As ‘3’ above, but with lost-bit drilling: a bit is attached to the
■ A ‘stuffing box’ or ‘preventer’ (which compresses flexible packing around end of the casing. When the hole is drilled to its final length,
the rotating drilling rods/casing) to provide a seal and prevent excessive the well materials are installed. The bit is then detached
water passing into the tunnel around the rotating rods/casing. by water pressure and the casing withdrawn, leaving the
installation in place.

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 C RO S S PA S S AG E S / T E C HNI C A L

Above: Figure 2c, Typical drill hole arrays with sub-vertical drill holes downward from the running tunnels for
ground treatment and groundwater depressurisation FROM CASHMAN & PREENE, 2020, WITH PERMISSION

Experience indicates that maintaining bore control when drilling

out from a tunnel becomes very difficult if pore water pressures
are more than approximately 100kPa (10m head of water) above
tunnel level.

GROUND TREATMENT
Ground treatment for cross passages can be used in two
principal ways:
■ To reduce the permeability of the soil or rock around the
cross passage to exclude groundwater from the works (any
increase in strength of the treated soil/rock is of benefit, but
is not the primary objective); and/or
■ To create a zone of strengthened soil or rock that can form a
structural member increasing the stability of the excavation.
This might be in the form of an arch or ‘hood’ of treated
ground above the cross passage, or an inverted arch below it.

In-tunnel pumps are also required to deal with any residual

seepage, including any water encountered immediately outside
of the lining of the running tunnel when cross passage
excavation commences.
Methods that have been successfully used in cross passage
construction include permeation grouting and rock grouting;
jet grouting; and artificial ground freezing.
Ground treatment by permeation or rock grouting is often
undertaken via drill holes aligned sub-parallel to the cross
passage with the objective of forming a complete block of
treated ground. The grout type (OPC, microfine cements,
chemical grouts) and injection method (stage grouting or
tube-a-manchette) must be selected carefully to match the
ground conditions. Typically, the grout holes are drilled and
grouted in primary, secondary and tertiary patterns, with ‘water
testing’ (a variation on packer permeability tests) employed
periodically to assess the permeability reduction that has been
achieved.
For ground treatment by artificial ground freezing, closely- Above: Figure 3, Artificial ground freezing used in cross
spaced freezeholes are installed around the cross passage. passage construction PHOTO COURTESY OF SOILFREEZE INC

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T E C HNI C A L / C RO S S PA S S AG E S

Typically, brine freezing is used where,

once the freezeplant is commissioned,
the freeze (Figure 3) is ‘established’ by
circulating chilled brine (typically at
temperatures of -25 to -35°C) through
the freezeholes and surface freeze pipes
(in contact with the tunnel lining).
Temperatures are monitored via sensors
in drill holes, and compared against
predictions from the freeze design.
Typical periods to establish a complete
freeze around a cross passage are two
to four weeks. Thereafter, circulation
of chilled brine continues (at a reduced
thermal load), to ensure the frozen zone
is maintained. At the end of construction,
brine circulation is discontinued, and
the frozen zone allowed to thaw
slowly, over several weeks, with external
temperatures monitored via the
temperature sensors.
Above: Figure 4, In-tunnel wellpoint system used for active pumping of wells
GROUNDWATER for cross passage construction PHOTO COURTESY OF WJ GROUNDWATER LIMITED
DEPRESSURISATION
Groundwater depressurisation
uses localised pumping to create a and reducing the time needed for active pumping to lower
depressurised zone, to reduce seepage groundwater pressures.
gradients and rates of water ingress to Once several wells are installed they are pumped in the active
the cross passage. Possible methods drainage phase. Pumping is often achieved by electrically-driven
include surface wells pumped by duty and standby wellpoint pumps in the running tunnels to
submersible pumps or ejectors, and/or in- apply a suction to the wells (Figure 4). Ejector wells have also
tunnel dewatering wells. In-tunnel sump been used as a pumping method. VWP pressure sensors installed
pumps are also required to deal with any in probe holes at the cross passages are used to monitor pore
residual seepage, including any water water pressures.
encountered immediately outside of the When pore water pressures are reduced to target levels,
lining of the running tunnel. If surface the lining of the running tunnel can be broken out for cross
dewatering methods are used, the wells passage excavation. Post depressurisation, there may be small
can be installed and pumped significantly water inflows when the lining is first penetrated if any trapped
in advance of cross-passage construction. water is present in a disturbed zone outside the tunnel. It is not
Where in-tunnel dewatering wells are uncommon for minor overbleed seepage to occur at clay/sand
used, installation must be carefully interfaces, or other changes in strata. On completion of works
integrated into the tunnel programme. the drainage wells are typically decommissioned by backfilling
Establishment of in-tunnel pumping with grout, and making good the tunnel lining.
comprises the following stages. First,
probe holes are drilled out from the CONCLUSION
tunnel to confirm ground conditions Effective control of groundwater is an essential prerequisite
between the tunnels. The probe holes for construction of cross passages in potentially water-
can have vibrating wire piezometer bearing ground. A range of techniques is available to control
(VWP) sensors installed to monitor water groundwater by pumping, by exclusion or by a combination
pressures before and during cross passage of techniques. In addition to addressing the geotechnical
works, or can be installed as drainage challenges, the methods used should be chosen to be effective
wells to allow them to be used as passive when applied within the logistical constraints of working within
drains to reduce water pressures during the running tunnels.
later drilling.
Next, depressurisation wells are drilled
outward from the running tunnels. The
wells are typically installed with 50- to References
75mm-diameter well liner and slotted Cashman, P M & Preene, M. (2020). Groundwater Lowering in
well screen, with a grout seal or inflatable Construction: a Practical Guide to Dewatering, 3rd Edition. CRC
packer around the well liner at the Press, Boca Raton.
tunnel end. The external groundwater
pressure is above tunnel level, so each Roberts, T O L, Linde, E & Sutton, M. (2015). In-tunnel dewatering
well will naturally flow into the tunnel. for a cross passage in London. Proceedings of the third Arabian
This ‘passive’ flow is of benefit because Tunnelling Conference, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 23–25
it will have some depressurisation effect, November 2015.
making the drilling of further wells easier

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