OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY AGO-IWOYE, NIGERIA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
COURSE CODE/TITLE: GRP 132 Introduction to Elements of Physical Geography II
LECTURE WEEK 3: Heat and water balance of the earth
LECTURER – Dr Olumide Onafeso

Air temperature, precipitation, soil moisture, and evapotranspiration are related through the
balance of incoming and outgoing energy, in combination with water at the earth’s surface.

The incoming energy (directed toward the earth’s surface) is comprised of solar or shortwave
radiation from the sun and thermal or longwave radiation from the atmosphere. Longwave
radiation is a result of the absorption and re-emission of energy by atmospheric gases, such as
carbon dioxide. The outgoing energy (directed away from the earth’s surface) is comprised of
longwave radiation and heat that is associated with evaporation (latent heat) and the
difference in temperature between the air and the surface (sensible heat).

The earth’s water budget is driven by precipitation and evaporation. The incoming component
of the water balance is precipitation and the outgoing component is evaporation, where
evaporation is the link between the energy and water balances. Some precipitation is lost to
evaporation, some runs off and some is stored in the ground; the latter two combine into
streamflow. Evapotranspiration is the total amount of moisture that leaves the earth’s surface
by way of evaporation from surfaces and transpiration from plants.

The Earth’s climate is a solar powered system. Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth
system—land surfaces, oceans, and atmosphere—absorbs an average of about 240 watts of
solar power per square meter (one watt is one joule of energy every second). The absorbed
sunlight drives photosynthesis, fuels evaporation, melts snow and ice, and warms the Earth
system.

The Sun doesn’t heat the Earth evenly. Because the Earth is a sphere, the Sun heats equatorial
regions more than Polar Regions. The atmosphere and ocean work non-stop to even out solar
heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and
ocean circulation. This coupled atmosphere and ocean circulation is known as Earth’s heat
engine.

The climate’s heat engine must not only redistribute solar heat from the equator toward the
poles, but also from the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere back to space. Otherwise, Earth
would endlessly heat up. Earth’s temperature doesn’t infinitely rise because the surface and the
atmosphere are simultaneously radiating heat to space. This net flow of energy into and out of
the Earth system is Earth’s energy budget.
When the flow of incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, Earth is
in radiative equilibrium, and global temperature is relatively stable. Anything that increases or
decreases the amount of incoming or outgoing energy disturbs Earth’s radiative equilibrium;
global temperatures rise or fall in response.

INCOMING SUNLIGHT
All matter in the universe that has a temperature above absolute zero (the temperature at
which all atomic or molecular motion stops) radiates energy across a range of wavelengths in
the electromagnetic spectrum. The hotter something is, the shorter its peak wavelength of
radiated energy is. The hottest objects in the universe radiate mostly gamma rays and x-rays.
Cooler objects emit mostly longer-wavelength radiation, including visible light, thermal
infrared, radio, and microwaves.

The surface of the Sun has a temperature of about 5,800 Kelvin (about 5,500 degrees Celsius, or
about 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit). At that temperature, most of the energy the Sun radiates is
visible and near-infrared light. At Earth’s average distance from the Sun (about 150 million
kilometers), the average intensity of solar energy reaching the top of the atmosphere directly
facing the Sun is about 1,360 watts per square meter, according to measurements made by the
most recent NASA satellite missions. This amount of power is known as the total solar
irradiance. (Before scientists discovered that it varies by a small amount during the sunspot
cycle, total solar irradiance was sometimes called “the solar constant.”)

A watt is measurement of power, or the amount of energy that something generates or uses
over time. How much power is 1,360 watts? An incandescent light bulb uses anywhere from 40
to 100 watts. A microwave uses about 1000 watts. If for just one hour, you could capture and
re-use all the solar energy arriving over a single square meter at the top of the atmosphere
directly facing the Sun—an area no wider than an adult’s outstretched arm span—you would
have enough to run a refrigerator all day.

The total solar irradiance is the maximum possible power that the Sun can deliver to a planet at
Earth’s average distance from the Sun; basic geometry limits the actual solar energy
intercepted by Earth. Only half the Earth is ever lit by the Sun at one time, which halves the
total solar irradiance.

In addition, the total solar irradiance is the maximum power the Sun can deliver to a surface
that is perpendicular to the path of incoming light. Because the Earth is a sphere, only areas
near the equator at midday come close to being perpendicular to the path of incoming light.
Everywhere else, the light comes in at an angle. The progressive decrease in the angle of solar
illumination with increasing latitude reduces the average solar irradiance by an additional one-
half.

Averaged over the entire planet, the amount of sunlight arriving at the top of Earth’s
atmosphere is only one-fourth of the total solar irradiance, or approximately 340 watts per
square meter.
When the flow of incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, Earth is
in radiative equilibrium, and global temperature is relatively stable. Anything that increases or
decreases the amount of incoming or outgoing energy disturbs Earth’s radiative equilibrium;
global temperatures must rise or fall in response.

HEATING IMBALANCES
Three hundred forty watts per square meter of incoming solar power is a global average; solar
illumination varies in space and time. The annual amount of incoming solar energy varies
considerably from tropical latitudes to polar latitudes. At middle and high latitudes, it also
varies considerably from season to season.

If the Earth’s axis of rotation were vertical with respect to the path of its orbit around the Sun,
the size of the heating imbalance between equator and the poles would be the same year
round, and the seasons we experience would not occur. Instead Earth’s axis is tilted off vertical
by about 23 degrees. As the Earth orbits the Sun, the tilt causes one hemisphere and then the
other to receive more direct sunlight and to have longer days.

The total energy received each day at the top of the atmosphere depends on latitude. The
highest daily amounts of incoming energy occur at high latitudes in summer, when days are
long, rather than at the equator. In winter, some polar latitudes receive no light at all. The
Southern Hemisphere receives more energy during December (southern summer) than the
Northern Hemisphere does in June (northern summer) because Earth’s orbit is not a perfect
circle and Earth is slightly closer to the Sun during that part of its orbit. Total energy received
ranges from 0 (during polar winter) to about 50 (during polar summer) megajoules per square
meter per day.

In the “summer hemisphere,” the combination of more direct sunlight and longer days means
the pole can receive more incoming sunlight than the tropics, but in the winter hemisphere, it
gets none. Even though illumination increases at the poles in the summer, bright white snow
and sea ice reflect a significant portion of the incoming light, reducing the potential solar
heating.

The differences in reflectivness (albedo) and solar illumination at different latitudes lead to net
heating imbalances throughout the Earth system. At any place on Earth, the net heating is the
difference between the amount of incoming sunlight and the amount heat radiated by the
Earth back to space. In the tropics there is a net energy surplus because the amount of sunlight
absorbed is larger than the amount of heat radiated. In the Polar Regions, however, there is an
annual energy deficit because the amount of heat radiated to space is larger than the amount
of absorbed sunlight.

The net heating imbalance between the equator and poles drives an atmospheric and oceanic
circulation that climate scientists describe as a “heat engine.” (In our everyday experience, we
associate the word engine with automobiles, but to a scientist, an engine is any device or
system that converts energy into motion.) The climate is an engine that uses heat energy to
keep the atmosphere and ocean moving. Evaporation, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean
currents are all part of the Earth’s heat engine.

EARTH’S ENERGY BUDGET

Earth’s heat engine does more than simply move heat from one part of the surface to another;
it also moves heat from the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere back to space. This flow of
incoming and outgoing energy is Earth’s energy budget. For Earth’s temperature to be stable
over long periods of time, incoming energy and outgoing energy have to be equal. In other
words, the energy budget at the top of the atmosphere must balance. This state of balance is
called radiative equilibrium.

About 29 percent of the solar energy that arrives at the top of the atmosphere is reflected back
to space by clouds, atmospheric particles, or bright ground surfaces like sea ice and snow. This
energy plays no role in Earth’s climate system. About 23 percent of incoming solar energy is
absorbed in the atmosphere by water vapor, dust, and ozone, and 48 percent passes through
the atmosphere and is absorbed by the surface. Thus, about 71 percent of the total incoming
solar energy is absorbed by the Earth system.

Of the 340 watts per square meter of solar energy that falls on the Earth, 29% is reflected back
into space, primarily by clouds, but also by other bright surfaces and the atmosphere itself.
About 23% of incoming energy is absorbed in the atmosphere by atmospheric gases, dust, and
other particles. The remaining 48% is absorbed at the surface.

When matter absorbs energy, the atoms and molecules that make up the material become
excited; they move around more quickly. The increased movement raises the material’s
temperature. If matter could only absorb energy, then the temperature of the Earth would be
like the water level in a sink with no drain where the faucet runs continuously.

Temperature doesn’t infinitely rise, however, because atoms and molecules on Earth are not
just absorbing sunlight, they are also radiating thermal infrared energy (heat). The amount of
heat a surface radiates is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature. If temperature
doubles, radiated energy increases by a factor of 16 (2 to the 4th power). If the temperature of
the Earth rises, the planet rapidly emits an increasing amount of heat to space. This large
increase in heat loss in response to a relatively smaller increase in temperature—referred to as
radiative cooling—is the primary mechanism that prevents runaway heating on Earth.

The atmosphere and the surface of the Earth together absorb 71 percent of incoming solar
radiation, so together, they must radiate that much energy back to space for the planet’s
average temperature to remain stable. However, the relative contribution of the atmosphere
and the surface to each process (absorbing sunlight versus radiating heat) is asymmetric. The
atmosphere absorbs 23 percent of incoming sunlight while the surface absorbs 48. The
atmosphere radiates heat equivalent to 59 percent of incoming sunlight; the surface radiates
only 12 percent. In other words, most solar heating happens at the surface, while most
radiative cooling happens in the atmosphere. How does this reshuffling of energy between the
surface and atmosphere happen?

Surface Energy Budget

To understand how the Earth’s climate system balances the energy budget, we have to consider
processes occurring at the three levels: the surface of the Earth, where most solar heating takes
place; the edge of Earth’s atmosphere, where sunlight enters the system; and the atmosphere
in between. At each level, the amount of incoming and outgoing energy, or net flux, must be
equal.

Earth’s energy budget describes the balance between the radiant energy that reaches Earth
from the sun and the energy that flows from Earth back out to space.
Credits: NASA

Remember that about 29 percent of incoming sunlight is reflected back to space by bright
particles in the atmosphere or bright ground surfaces, which leaves about 71 percent to be
absorbed by the atmosphere (23 percent) and the land (48 percent). For the energy budget at
Earth’s surface to balance, processes on the ground must get rid of the 48 percent of incoming
solar energy that the ocean and land surfaces absorb. Energy leaves the surface through three
processes: evaporation, convection, and emission of thermal infrared energy.
The surface absorbs about 48% of incoming sunlight. Three processes remove an equivalent
amount of energy from the Earth’s surface: evaporation (25%), convection (5%), and thermal
infrared radiation, or heat (net 17%).

About 25 percent of incoming solar energy leaves the surface through evaporation. Liquid
water molecules absorb incoming solar energy, and they change phase from liquid to gas. The
heat energy that it took to evaporate the water is latent in the random motions of the water
vapour molecules as they spread through the atmosphere. When the water vapour molecules
condense back into rain, the latent heat is released to the surrounding atmosphere.
Evaporation from tropical oceans and the subsequent release of latent heat are the primary
drivers of the atmospheric heat engine.

An additional 5 percent of incoming solar energy leaves the surface through convection. Air in
direct contact with the sun-warmed ground becomes warm and buoyant. In general, the
atmosphere is warmer near the surface and colder at higher altitudes, and under these
conditions, warm air rises, shuttling heat away from the surface.
So, a net of about 17 percent of incoming solar energy leaves the surface as thermal infrared
energy (heat) radiated by atoms and molecules on the surface. This net upward flux results
from two large but opposing fluxes: heat flowing upward from the surface to the atmosphere
(117%) and heat flowing downward from the atmosphere to the ground (100%).

Remember that the peak wavelength of energy a surface radiates is based on its temperature.
The Sun’s peak radiation is at visible and near-infrared wavelengths. The Earth’s surface is much
cooler, only about 15 degrees Celsius on average. The peak radiation from the surface is at
thermal infrared wavelengths around 12.5 micrometers.

The Atmosphere’s Energy Budget

Just as the incoming and outgoing energy at the Earth’s surface must balance, the flow of
energy into the atmosphere must be balanced by an equal flow of energy out of the
atmosphere and back to space. Satellite measurements indicate that the atmosphere radiates
thermal infrared energy equivalent to 59 percent of the incoming solar energy. If the
atmosphere is radiating this much, it must be absorbing that much. Where does that energy
come from?

Clouds, aerosols, water vapor, and ozone directly absorb 23 percent of incoming solar energy.
Evaporation and convection transfer 25 and 5 percent of incoming solar energy from the
surface to the atmosphere. These three processes transfer the equivalent of 53 percent of the
incoming solar energy to the atmosphere. If total inflow of energy must match the outgoing
thermal infrared observed at the top of the atmosphere, where does the remaining fraction
(about 5-6 percent) come from? The remaining energy comes from the Earth’s surface.

WATER BALANCE OF THE EARTH

The word ‘water balance’ was first of all used in 1944 by the famous meteorological and climate
scholar C. Warren Thornthwaite (1899-1963), who meant that it is a balance between
precipitation, water obtained by melting of snow and evaporation, groundwater recharging and
surface flow of water.

For its assessment, statistics of soil moisture, transpiration, groundwater recharging and figures
of flow of rivers are collected from meteorological department and of moisture and vegetation.
Water balance is useful for assessment of demand for irrigation water and geographical as well
as climatic image of soil moisture.

Water balance study gives information about increase or decrease of water of lakes and water
ponds as well as their salinity. For utilization of land and water resources and to assess
possibilities of economic and ecological study, statistics regarding soil moisture, groundwater
and river water flow can be obtained only on the basis of water balance.

Water balance also explains the effect of human activities on hydrological cycle. Changes in
climate, vegetative cover etc. can be studied on the basis of water balance, hence water
balance is an important tool for analyzing water problems in a geographical region.
Measurement of Water Balance:
The following formula can assess measurement of water balance of a micro drainage area:

P = I +AET+OF + ▲SM+▲GWS+GWR

It is an area of non-permeable rocks up to a certain depth.

Here, these symbols explain changes in precipitation, interception, transpiration, sub-soil

surface flow, soil moisture, quantity and flow of groundwater. First of all, precipitation and
interception are measured.

According to the above formula, actual transpiration can also be assessed:

P = Precipitation, I = Interception, AET = Actual Evapotranspiration, OF= Over Land
Flow▲ ASM= Change in Soil Moisture, ▲GWS = Change in Ground Water Storage, GWR=
Ground Water Runoff

Computation of Water Balance:

The method first suggested by C. Warren Thornthwaite had suggested the method of assessing
water balance which has been transformed many times for different objectives. Thornthwaite
and Mather (1957) have given suggestions from time to time regarding changes in the formula
related to water balance.

For assessing water balance, analytical study of precipitation, interception, transpiration,

evaporation, overland flow, changes in soil moisture, changes in groundwater storage and
groundwater flow is made, the detailed description of which is as under:

Precipitation: It is the quantity of water which reaches the surface of earth after movement in
different forms in the atmosphere.

Evaporation: Evaporation is that seasonal process in which water from independent ground
level evaporates and reaches in the atmosphere in the form of vapour. This process takes place
when temperature reaches boiling point of thermal energy.
Factors like quantity of solar radiation on earth, temperature of air, quantity of water vapour
existing in the atmosphere, nature of ground level, current air etc. determine the rate of
evaporation. Quantity of evaporation is maximum in case of high temperature, fast flow of air
and presence of vast water surface.

Evapo-transpiration: It is the total moisture which mixes with atmosphere as a result of

evaporation and action of transpiration from plants. Rate of evapo-transpiration is mainly
based on temperature. It is an important factor in climatic studies because it decides all the
atmospheric conditions.
Potential evapo-transpiration: This process depends on the availability of water. If sufficient
moisture is available to meet the needs of vegetation, the resulting evaporation is called
potential evapo-transpiration.

Actual evapo-transpiration: Actual evapo-transpiration is found in special conditions. Its

quantity is found out by adding precipitation and changing soil moisture.
AET = P + ▲ASM
where AET = Actual Evapo-transpiration
P = Precipitation
▲SM = Changing soil moisture

Infiltration: Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface. After rain
or irrigation, as soon as the water comes on the surface of the earth, it inclines to enter soil
from the nearest point. Thus, entry of water into the soil is called infiltration.

Run-off: That part of water from rain or of melted snow which flows as drainage on the surface,
is called ‘run-off.

Percolation: Percolation is downward movement of water in soil profile. Percolation is not the
same as infiltration. It is the first stage of infiltration. Thus, till water does not percolate, its
infiltration cannot take place.

Method of Assessment of water Balance:

1. First of all, assessment of potential evapo-transpiration is done.
2. P = PET is counted where P = Precipitation.
3. Loss of storage water is estimated, which is added by reducing analysis method (P = PET).
Only for dry season, moist climate is counted in the end.
4. Soil moisture (Soil Moisture – SM) is counted from figures of potential loss of storage water
and soil and land utilization.
5. Changes in soil moisture (▲SM) is counted from soil moisture rules, i.e., difference between
current month and next month.
6. Actual evapo-transpiration (AET) is counted Precipitation –i- changes in soil moisture. If
rainfall is more than potential evapo-transpiration, then actual transpiration is equal to actual
transpiration.
7. Loss of soil moisture (D) is counted by deducting actual evapo- transpiration from potential
evapo-transpiration (PET-AET).
8. Excess soil moisture (S) is analyzed. Once the shortage of soil moisture is calculated, then in
humid climate additional rainfall after collection of water soil moisture becomes excessive.
Thus, more than required soil moisture is counted.
9. Additional moisture mixes with underground water sources. It cannot flow fully in the same
month. Its remaining part flows in the next month. Its quantity differs according to texture and
depth of soils of that basin. Thus, during any month, actually 50 per cent of water becomes
available for flow.