Illumination

Introduction
When body is gradually heated above room temperature, it begins to radiate energy in the
surrounding medium in the form of electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. This radiant energy
depends on the temperature of the hot body. Thus, when the temperature is low, the radiated energy is in
the form of heat waves only, but when a certain temperature is reached, light waves are also radiated out
in addition to heat waves and the body becomes luminous .An increase in the temperature produces an
increase in the amount of both kinds of radiations but the color of light or visual radiations change from
bright red to orange, to yellow and finally, if the temperature is high enough, to white. As the
temperature is increased, the wavelength of visible radiation goes on becoming shorter.

NB: The heat waves are identical to light waves except that they are of longer wavelength and hence
produce no impression on retina. Obviously, from the point of view of light emission, heat energy
represents wasted energy.

What is Light?
Light is simply a very small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, sandwiched between ultraviolet and
infrared radiation. What distinguishes this part of the electromagnetic spectrum from the rest is that
radiation in this region is absorbed by the photoreceptors of the human visual system and thereby
initiates the process of seeing. The visible spectrum extends from about 380 to about 780 nanometers
(nm) which is associated with 5 colors; violet, blue, green, yellow and red in order. Light can be defined
as “radiant energy that is capable of exciting the retina and producing a visual sensation.”

Radiant efficiency of the luminous source is defined as the ratio of “energy radiated in the form of light”
to “total energy radiated out of the hot body” and it depends on the temperature of the source. It is found
that maximum radiant efficiency would occur at about 62000 C and even then the value of this maximum
efficiency would be 20%. Since this temperature is far above the highest that has yet been obtained in
practice, it is obvious that the actual efficiency of all artificial sources of light i. e. those depending on
temperature incandescence, is low.

Infrared Radiation
Infrared (IR) radiation has slightly longer wavelengths than visible light. The CIE also divides the IR
region of the electromagnetic spectrum into three segments: IR-A (780–1400 nm), IR-B (1400–3000
nm) and IR-C (3000–106 nm).

Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, sometimes incorrectly referred as “UV light,” has shorter wavelengths than
visible radiation (light). UV radiation is divided into three segments: UV-A (400-315 nm), UV-B (315-
280 nm), and UV-C (280-100 nm). The UV-A segment, the most common type of UV radiation,
overlaps slightly with the shortest wavelengths in the visible portion of the spectrum. UV-B is
effectively the most destructive UV radiation from the sun, because it penetrates the atmosphere and can

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injure biological tissues. UV-C radiation from the sun would cause even more injury, but it is absorbed
by air, so it almost never reaches the Earth’s surface.
Light is a radiant energy that propagates as a wave motion at velocity of 3 x 108 m/s.
The wave length of light can be expressed in Angstrom Unit (1 A.U. = 10-8 cm= 10-10 m). Thus the visible
radiation lies between 4000 AU to 7500 AU. Typically a wavelength of 6000 AU produce yellow color
and 4000 AU produces violate color. In wave motion we use the following relationship;

1. Basic Optical Concepts

Light can either be reflected or refracted when it hits the surface. Once in the material, it can be
transmitted, absorbed, or diffused (or some combination) by the material. These properties apply to
both light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
State the laws of Reflection and with the aid of diagrams distinguish the types of reflection.

Refraction (Snell’s law)

When light travels from one material to another (such as from air to glass), it refracts — bends and
changes velocity. Refraction depends on two factors: the incident angle (θ) and the refractive index of
the material, denoted by the letter n.
Refractive index; ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in that material:

n = speed of light in vacuum /speed of light in the material = c/v

The index of refraction for almost all other substances is greater than 1, because the speed of light is
lower as it passes through them.
Snell’s law of refraction shows the relationship between the incident angle and the refractive index
as shown in the figure below;

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

With
n1 = the refractive index of medium 1, n2 = the refractive index of
medium 2.
θ1 = the incident angle of the light ray (with respect to the normal) θ´1 = the reflected
angle (with respect to the normal) θ2 = the refracted angle (with respect to the normal)

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 Using this law, sin 0° = 0, which means that light with a normal incident angle does not bend at a
boundary.

For example, a light ray entering a piece of crown glass (n = 1.52) from the air (n = 1) at an incident
angle of 45° bends to a refracted angle of 28°, as shown below

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
1sin 45° = 1.52sin θ2 = 28°

Reflection and the Index of Refraction

A transparent substance transmits most light, but it reflects a little bit of light from each of its two
surfaces. This reflection occurs whenever light travels through a change in the refractive index. At
normal incidence (incident angle = 0°), Fresnel’s law of reflection quantifies the effect:

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 Where
rλ = the reflection loss
n1 = the refractive index of medium 1 n2 = the refractive index of
medium 2

For example, when light strikes a material that has a refractive index of 1.5 (such as glass) at a normal
incident angle, each of the two boundaries with air reflects approximately 4% of the light.
As the angle of incidence increases, so does the amount of reflected light.

Qn 2 Explain Total Internal Reflection TIR

Qn 3 Explain the term Dispersion in light

. Transmission
When light passes through an object, it is called transmission..

Absorption
Instead of completely transmitting light, an object can absorb part or all of the incident light, usually by
converting it into heat. Many materials absorb some wavelengths while transmitting others, which is
called selective absorption.
Lambert’s law of absorption states that equal thicknesses of a given homogenous material absorb the
same fraction of light that is to say if a 1-cm block of material absorbs half of the incoming light, a second
1-cm block of the same material would again absorb half of the beam as shown below, so that only 0.5 X
0.5, or 0.25, of the original light is transmitted through a total of 2 cm of material.

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 Qn 4 Explain beer’s law of absorption and state the combination of beer-lambert law

Diffusion (Scattering)
When light strikes a perfectly smooth surface, the reflection is specular and when it strikes a rough
surface, it is reflected or transmitted in many different directions at once, which is called diffusion or
scattering.

Diffuse transmission and reflectance.

The amount of diffuse transmission or reflection that occurs when light moves through one material to
strike another material depends on two factors:

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 · the difference in refractive index between the two materials
· the size and shape of the particles in the diffusing material compared to the wavelength of the
light
For example, the molecules in air happen to be the right size to scatter light with shorter
wavelengths, giving us blue sky.

Filtering
A transmissive filter is a material that absorbs some wavelengths and transmits others, while a reflective
filter absorbs some wavelengths and reflects others. For example, a red filter absorbs all but the longest
wavelengths of visible light; a reflective red filter reflects the longest wavelengths, and a transmissive
red filter transmits the longest wavelengths. The amount of light absorbed by a filter depends on the
filter’s thickness.

2. Basic Radiometric and Photometric Principles

Definitions

Radiometry is the study of optical radiation — light, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation.
Photometry is concerned with humans’ visual response to light.
Radiometry is concerned with the total energy content of the radiation, while photometry examines only the
radiation that humans can see. Thus, the most common unit in radiometry is the watt (W), which measures
radiant flux (power), while the most common unit in photometry is the lumen (lm), which measures luminous
flux.
a) Plane angle- Is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius.
In radians, plane angle is the Ratio .

b) Solid angle- A solid angle (ω) is subtended at a point in space by an area and is the angle enclosed
in the volume formed by an infinite number of lines lying on the surface of the volume and meeting
at the point. In steradian, solid angle is the ratio area/radius 2 . It can also be the angle subtended
at the center of the sphere by a part of its surface having an area equal to (radius) 2 .

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 The solid angle subtended by a point at the center by whole of the spherical surface in all directions

in space =
𝜽
Relationship between plane angle (θ) and solid angle (ω) is given by ω= 𝟐𝜫(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐)

c) Luminous flux is the light energy radiated out per second from the body in the form of luminous
light waves (the rate of energy radiation in the form of light). It is measured in Lumen and can
be compared to electric power. 1 lumen=0.0016 watt or 1 watt=625 lumen (approximate)

d) Lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted in a unit solid angle by a source of one candle
power. (Lumen=candle power x solid angle= cp x ω)

e) Luminous intensity (I) or Candle-power of a point source in a given direction is the luminous
flux (number of lumens) radiated out per unit solid angle. In other words, it is solid angular flux
density of a source in a specified direction. Its unit is Candela (cd) or lumens per steradian. A
source of one candela emits one lumen per steradian. Hence total flux emitted by it, is 4πx1=4π
lumen.
An ordinary 60-watt lamp as used for domestic lighting, when viewed from the floor, has a
luminous intensity of about 70- candle power, while such light as viewed from above the beam
may have a luminous intensity of as much as a million candle power.

f) Mean spherical candle-power (MSCP): In general, the luminous intensity or candle power of a
source is different in different directions. The average candle-power of a source is the average
value of its candle power in all the directions. It’s given by flux (in lumen) emitted in all directions
in all planes divided by 4π. This average candle-power is also known as mean spherical candle-
power (MSCP).

Mean Hemispherical candle-power (MHSCP): It is given by the total flux emitted in a

hemisphere (usually the lower one) divided by the solid angle subtended at the point source by the
hemisphere.

g) Illumination (E) or Illuminance: When the luminous flux falls on a surface, it is said to be
illuminated. Illumination is the luminous flux received by a surface per unit area. Its unit is Lux
or metre-candle or lumens per m2 .

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 Imagine a sphere of radius of one meter around a point source of one candela. This flux falls
normally on the curved surface of the sphere which is 4π m2 . Illumination at every point on the
inner surface is given below

Also, Illumination= = . But ω where is the distance between the area and the point
where solid angle is formed.

h) Brightness of a surface is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of the surface
in the given direction. Unit of brightness is Lambert.
i) Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived color of objects.
A low CRI indicates that some colors may appear unnatural when illuminated by the lamp.
j) Specific output or efficiency of a lamp is the ratio of luminous flux to the power intake. Its unit
is lumens per watt (lm/w).

Type of light source Typical Luminous Efficiency

(lm/W)
Incandescent bulb 8-18
Fluorescent Lamp 46-60
Mercury Vapour Lamp 44-57
CFL 40-70
Sodium Vapour Lamp (Low 101-175
Pressure or LPSV)
Sodium Vapour Lamp (High 67-121
Pressure or HPSV)
Metal Hallide 60-80
LED 30-50
Best LED 105

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 Lamps and Their Working Principle

The lighting industry makes millions of electric light sources, called lamps. Those used for providing
illumination can be divided into three general classes: incandescent, discharge, and solid-state lamps.
Incandescent lamps produce light by heating a filament until it glows.
Discharge lamps produce light by ionizing a gas through electric discharge inside the lamp.
Solid-state lamps use a phenomenon called electroluminescence to convert electrical energy directly to
light.
I. Incandescent Lamps
Incandescent lamp technology uses electric current to heat a coiled tungsten filament to incandescence.
The glass envelope contains a mixture of nitrogen and a small amount of other inert gases such as argon.
Some incandescent lamps, such as some flashlight lamps, also contain xenon. Some of these
incandescent lamps are called xenon lamps, but are not the same as the high-pressure xenon lamp

II. Sodium Vapor Lamps

These have the highest theoretical luminous efficiency and gives monochromatic orange-yellow light that
makes objects look grey, and these lamps are mainly used for street and highway lighting.

It consists of a discharge tube composed of glass to withstand the high temperature of the electric
discharge. The discharge tube is surrounded by an outer tube as shown below. A transformer is included
to heat the cathode. Sodium below 600 C is in solid state. To start the lamp, the electric discharge takes
place in neon gas. The temperature inside the discharge tube rises and vaporizes sodium. Operating
temperature is around 3000 C. It takes about 10 minutes for the sodium vapor to displace the red color of
the neon by its own yellow color. The lamp takes around half an hour to reach full output. A choke is
provided for stabilizing the electric discharge and a capacitor for power factor improvement. Although
the theoretical efficiency is 475 lumens/watt, the practical light output is around 40-50 lumen/watt.

HPSV lamps are used for lighting of public thoroughfares, storage yards, open-air work sites, process
plants, interiors with high ceiling heights, etc.

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 S U P P LY

C
CH O K E
T R A N S F O R M E R F O R H E A TI N G C A TH O D E

OU T E R T U B E

C A T HO DE

IN N E R T U B E

SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP

III. Mercury Vapor Lamp

Its construction is similar to sodium vapor lamp. The electrodes are tungsten coils containing an electron
emitting material, which can be small piece of thorium or an oxide mixture. Argon is introduced to help
start the lamp. The electric discharge first takes place through argon and this vaporizes the mercury drops
inside the discharge tube. The electron emitting material supplies electrons to maintain the arc.

The space between two bulbs is filled with an inert gas. The pressure inside the discharge tube may range
from one to ten atmospheres in lamps used for lighting purposes, since it is at these pressures that the
radiation is in visible spectrum. Although the theoretical efficiency is 298 lumens/watt, the practical light
output is around 20-30 lumen/watt. (The ordinary tungsten filament or incandescent bulb has practical
efficiency of 10-20 lumens/watt as against theoretical efficiency of 143 lumens/watt)

HPMV Lamps are used for lighting of secondary roads, car parking areas, parks and gardens, factory
sheds, etc.

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 S UP P LY

C
C A P AC ITO R
CHO K E

O UT E R T UB E

E LE C TR OD E

E LE CT RO DE

DIS CH A RG E TU B E

MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP

IV. Fluorescent Lampas:

In the mercury vapor lamp considerable amount of radiation is in ultra-violate range. By coating the inside
of the tube by phosphor, this ultra-violate radiation is converted in visible light. Phosphors have definite
characteristic colors, but when mixed together, they produce a large variety of colors. These phosphors
are stable compounds and give a high output throughout the life of the lamps. The colors of fluorescence
produced by various phosphors are given below:

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 Phosphor Color
Zinc Silicate Green
Calcium tungstate Blue
Cadmium Borate Pink
Calcium Halo White of various
Phosphate shades
Magnesium tungstate. Bluish white

Tungsten cathode Preheated Type Fluorescent lamp: In these types, the electrons are produced by
thermionic emission. Lower starting and operating voltages are adequate. A transient voltage of 300-600
V, applied by the starter, initiates the arc stream. The cathodes, which are coated with emitting materials,
lose a little bit of this material every time the lamp is started. The constant impact of electrons on the
cathode also dislodges some of the emitting material. Finally so little of the materials remain that it is not
possible to emit any electrons and the lamp becomes dead. This type of lamp is not suitable for frequent
starting.

The efficiency is dependent on the mercury vapor pressure (and hence temperature) inside the tube. For
efficient light production, these types of lamps are not used below a temperature of 100 C surrounding.

Fluorescent lamps produce flicker or stroboscopic effect, since on 50 Hz supply; they are extinguished
100 times a second. Single lamps cannot be operated without flicker. Flicker correction can be applied to
pairs of lamps. Radio interference is another effect produced by fluorescent lamps and has to be removed
by suitable filter circuits.

Starters of automatic starting switches care of two types;

i) thermal type
ii) Glow discharge type.
iii) The thermal starter has a heater coil which heats a bimetallic strip. The heater coil remains
energized to keep the bimetallic switch open throughout the operation of lamp. It, therefore,
consumes a small amount of power.

1.condenser
for radio
interference

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 el ec tr od es
2.bimetallic
switch
3.heater
1
coil
2

C hok e or bal l as t

T h erm al s ta rt er

P .f . ca pa cit o r

sup pl y

FLUORESCENT LAMP USING

THERMAL STATE
When the supply is switched on, the contacts of the bimetallic switch are closed and the current passes
through the electrodes and heat them. But after an interval of few seconds, the heater coil heats up the
bimetal strip and the bimetallic switch contacts open. This starts a high voltage transient across the
electrode due to the presence of choke or ballast in the circuit. An arc is struck between the electrodes,
due to the high voltage transient. The high frequency radio interference is bypassed through the filter
circuit provided by the radio interference suppression condenser.

The glow starter is enclosed in a glass bulb filled with neon or argon gas. One of the electrodes is a
bimetallic strip.

When the normal voltage is applied to the lamp, a glow discharge takes place across the glow switch and
a small amount of current flows through the electrodes. The bimetallic strip expands due to the heating
effect of current in the glow discharge. The expansion of bimetallic strip causes the electrodes touch each
other and the electrodes get pre-heated due to the flow of appreciable amount of current. Meanwhile the
bimetal cools, the glow switch opens and the resultant high voltage transient starts the arc discharge
through the tube. If the lamp does not strike, the foregoing cycle is repeated. The switch cannot glow after
the lamp has started operating, as the available electrical potential is not high enough to establish the glow
discharge. Thus the starter consumes no power during the normal lamp operation.

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 ELE CTRODES

STA RTER

GLOW
SW ITCH

CHOKE OR BLAS T
SUP PLY

FLOURESCENT LAMP USING GLOW STARTER

Design of Lighting Schemes and Layouts

A well designed lighting scheme is one which

 Provides adequate illumination

 Avoids glare and hard shadows
 Provides sufficiently uniform distribution of light all over the working plane.

Following two factors are important for lighting design:

i) Utilization factor or Coefficient of Utilization: This is the ratio of the lumens actually received
by a particular surface to the total lumens emitted by a luminous source. It is an indication of the effect of
both the lighting equipment and its interior in producing horizontal illuminance. For example UF of 0.3
means that the lumen reaching horizontal plane is 30% of the lumens of the lamp operated bare under
standard conditions.

The value of this factor varies widely and depends on the following factors:

Type of lighting system, whether direct, indirect etc

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 The type and mounting height of fittings
The colour and surface of walls and ceiling
To some extent the shape and dimensions of the room.

ii) Depreciation factor/ Maintenance factor: It is the ratio of illuminance halfway through a
cleaning cycle, to what the illuminance would be if the installation was clean. This factor considers the
fact that the effective candle power of all lamps or luminous sources deteriorates due to blackening and/
or accumulation of dust or dirt on the globes and reflectors etc. Similarly walls and ceilings also don’t
reflect as much light as when they are clean.

Taking into consideration the utilization and depreciation or maintenance factors, the expression for gross
lumens required is:

Total lumens

Example:

The illumination in a drawing office 30 m x 10 m is to have a value of 250 lux and is to be

provided by a number of 300-Watts filament lamps. If the coefficient of utilization is 0.4 and
depreciation factor is 0.9, determine the number of lamps required. The luminous efficiency of each
lamp is 14 lm/W.

Solution: Given E= 250 lm/sqm, A=30x10= 300 sq m, D.F. = 0.9, U.F. = 0.4.

Total lumens

Flux emitted per lamp = 300x14= 4200 lm. Number of lamps required = 208333/4200 = 50.

References:

i. A course in Electrical Power by Soni, Gupta, Bhatnagar

ii. A Text book of Electrical Technology by B. L. Theraja, A. K. Theraja
iii. Utilisation of Electrical Energy by E. Openshaw Taylor

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 Questions:

A. Explain construction and working of sodium vapor lamp.

B. Explain various factors related to illumination.
C. Write a short note on Polar Curves.
D. Define following terms: Lumen, Candle power, MHCP, MSCP, Luminous flux, depreciation
factor,
Maintenance factor, Coefficient of utilization.
E. Derive relationship between plane angle & solid angle.
F. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the working principle of mercury vapor lamp and compare
the same with the other light sources.
G. Explain working principle of fluorescent lamps.
H. Which type of lighting fittings is used for a section having hazardous chemicals in a factory?
I. Give a list of different types of lamps available in market and discuss their luminous efficacy
(lm/W)

Numerical

1. A playground of 10 meters x 45 meters size is to be illuminated by 10 lamps of 1000 W each. The

luminous efficiency of each lamp is 20 lumens/ watt. Allowing a depreciation factor of 0.75 and
utilization of 0.45, determine the illumination on ground.
2. Design a suitable lighting scheme for a factory 120 m x 40 m with a height of 7 met. Illumination
required is 60 lux. State the number, location and mounting height of 40 W fluorescent tubes giving
45 lumens/ Watt. Assume depreciation factor of 1.2, utilization factor of 0.5)
3. A hall measuring 15 m x 30 m is illuminated by 20 lamps of 500 Watts each. The luminous
efficiency of each lamp is 15 lumens/ watt. Allowing a depreciation factor of 0.7 and coefficient
of utilization of 0.5, determine the illumination on floor.

4. A hall measuring 40 m x 16 m is illuminated by certain number of tube light fixtures of 80 W each.

The illumination efficiency of each fixture is 80 lumens/ W. Allow depreciation factor of 0.65 and
coefficient of utilization of 0.75. Determine the total number of fixtures required to achieve an
average illumination
of 175 lux on the floor.
5. A hall of 50 m x 30 m is illuminated by indirect lighting. An average illumination of 150 lumens/
sqm is to be provided on a horizontal plane parallel to the floor and 0.75 m above it. The walls and

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 ceilings are brightly painted. Design a suitable scheme of illumination using filament lamps.
Coefficient of utilization is 0.35 and depreciation factor is 0.9.
If instead of indirect lighting, 80 W fluorescent lamps are used, what would be the saving in power
consumption? The flux emitted by a lamp in all the directions is 800 lumens. Calculate MSCP.

6. A lamp having a uniform CP of 200 in all directions is provided with a reflector which directs 60
% of total light uniformly on a circular area of 10 m diameter. The lamp is hung 6 m above the
area. Calculate the illumination (i) at the center (ii) at the edge of the surface; with and without
reflector.
Determine also the average illumination over the area without reflector.
7. A room 12x 8 m is to have indirect lighting giving illumination of 80 lux on the working plane 70
cm above floor. Coefficient of utilization is assumed to be 0.5 and depreciation factor is 0.8. Find
out the number of lamps and their ratings. Lamp efficiency may be taken as 15 lumens per watt.

Page

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