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COURSE MATERIAL

SUBJECT SIGNALS & SYSTEMS (19A04301)

UNIT 1

COURSE B.TECH

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

DEPARTMENT ENGINEERING

SEMESTER 21

Dr.T. Kalpalatha Reddy

Professor
PREPARED BY Mr.P. Suresh Babu
(Faculty Name/s) Associate Professor
Mr.K. Yuvaraj
Assistant Professor

Version V-1

PREPARED / REVISED DATE 30-12-2020

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – UNIT 1

S. NO CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 3
2 PREREQUISITES 3
3 SYLLABUS 3
4 COURSE OUTCOMES 3
5 CO - PO/PSO MAPPING 4
6 LESSON PLAN 4
7 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 5
8 LECTURE NOTES 5
1.1 INTRODUCTION 5
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS 5
1.3 PROBLEMS 13
1.4 BASIC ELEMENTARY SIGNALS 20
1.5 OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS AND PROBLEMS 32
1.6 SYSTEM AND CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS 40
1.7 PROBLEMS 52
1.8 CONCEPT OF CONVOLUTION & CORRELATION 56
1.9 ANALOGY BETWEEN VECTORS AND SIGNALS 59
1.10 ORTHOGANALITY & MEAN SQUARE ERROR 61
1.11 PROBLEMS 64
1.12 FOURIER SERIES 68
1.13 TRIGONOMETRIC FOURIER SERIES 68
1.14 COMPACT FOURIER SERIES 69
1.15 EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES 69
1.16 PROPERTIES OF FOURIER SERIES 70
1.17 CONCEPT OF DISCRETE SPECTRUM 74
1.18 PROBLEMS 75
9 PRACTICE QUIZ 84
10 ASSIGNMENTS 85

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11 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS (2 MARKS QUESTIONS) 85

12 PART B QUESTIONS 87
13 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 87
14 CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS 87
15 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 88

1. Course Objectives
The objectives of this course is to
1. To introduce students to the basic idea of signal and system analysis and its
Characterization in time and frequency domains.
2. To present Fourier tools through the analogy between vectors and signals.
3. To teach concept of sampling and reconstruction of signals.
4. To analyze characteristics of linear systems in time and frequency domains.
5. To understand Laplace and z-transforms as mathematical tool to analyze
continuous and discrete-time signals and systems.
2. Prerequisites
Students should have knowledge on
1. Mathematics-II

3. Syllabus
UNIT I
Signals & Systems: Basic definitions and classification of Signals and Systems
(Continuous time and discrete time), operations on signals, Concepts of
Convolution and Correlation of signals, Analogy between vectors and signals-
Orthogonality, mean square error, Fourier series: Trigonometric & Exponential,
Properties of Fourier series, concept of discrete spectrum, Illustrative Problems.

4. Course outcomes
1. Understand different types of signals and systems.(L1)
2. State principles of vector spaces and concept of Orthogonality.(L2)
3. Describe continuous time signal and discrete time signal.(L2)
4. Analyze the periodic signals by applying Fourier series.(L3)

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5. Co-PO / PSO Mapping

Machine
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 P10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
Tools
CO1 3 2 2 1

CO2 3 2 2

CO3 2 2

CO4 3 2 2

6. Lesson Plan

Lecture No. Weeks Topics to be covered References

1 Introduction about subject, Definition of signal and system T1, R2

2 Elementary signals in continuous time domain T1, R2

3 1 Elementary signals in discrete time domain T1, R2

4 Classification of signals T1, R2

5 Classification of signals T1, R2

6 Operation performed on signals T1, R2

7 Operation performed on signals T1, R2

8 2 Problems related to the operation of signals T1, R2

9 Classification of different types of systems T1, R2

10 Classification of different types of systems T1, R2

11 Problems T1, R2

12 Problems T1, R2

13 3 Problems T1, R2

14 Analogy between vector and signals Orthogonality T1, R2

15 Mean square error T1, R2

16 Fourier series in Trigonometric form T1, R2

17 Fourier series in exponential form T1, R2

18 4 Concept of discrete spectrum T1, R2

19 Concept of Convolution T1, R2

20 Concept of Correlation T1, R2

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7. Activity Based Learning

1. Classification of Signals through crossword puzzle
2. Stable and Unstable Systems through Role play
8. Lecture Notes
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Definition of Signal:
In a communication system, the word ‘signal’ is commonly used. Therefore,
we must know its exact meaning.
1. Mathematically, signal is described as a function of one or more
independent variables.
2. Basically, it is a physical quantity which varies with some dependent or
independent variables.
3. So, the term signal is defined as “A physical quantity which contains
Some information and is also a function of one or more independent
variables.”

Examples: speech signal, ECG signal, radio signal, TV signal.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

Signals can be one dimensional or multidimensional based on the function
of number of variables.

One dimensional signal: when the function depends on a single variable,

the signal is said to be one dimensional.
Example: speech signal
Multidimensional signal: When the function depends on two or more
variables, the signal is said to be multi-dimensional.
Example: image
There are various types of signals. Every signal has its own characteristics. The
processing of signals mainly depends on the characteristic of that particular
signal. So, classification of signal is necessary. Broadly the signals are classified
as below:
• Continuous and Discrete time signals
• Periodic and Non-periodic or Aperiodic signals
• Deterministic and Random signals
• Even (Symmetric) and Odd (Asymmetric) signals
• Energy and Power signals
• Causal and Non-causal signals

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1.2.1 Continuous and Discrete time signals

Continuous Time signal: A signal is said to be continuous when it is
defined for all instants of timeor a signal of continuous amplitude & time
is known as Continuous Time signal.
Examples: Electrical signals derived in proportion with the physical
quantities such as temperature, pressure, sound etc.

Fig. 1.1 Continous time signal

Discrete Time Signals: A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined

at only discrete instants of time.
Example: if we take blood pressure readings of a patient after every
one hour & plot the graph then it is discrete signal.

Fig. 1.2. Discrete time signal

1.2.2 Periodic and (Non-periodic or Aperiodic) Signals

Periodic signal: A signal which repeats itself after a fixed time period is
called as Periodic signal. Alternatively, a signal is said to be periodic if it
satisfies the condition
x(t) = x (t + T0) for CT signal

x(n) = x (n + N) for DT signal

Where T0 = fundamental time period. The minimum possible interval

over which a function repeats is called fundamental period T0.
1/ T0= F= fundamental frequency.

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Fig 1.3 Periodic signal

The above signal will repeat for every time interval T0 hence it is
periodic with period T0.
Examples: sine, cosine waves, square waves etc.

Aperiodic Signal: A signal which does not repeat at regular interval

is called as Aperiodic Signal. Alternatively, a signal is said to be
Non- periodic if it satisfies the condition
x(t) ≠ x(t + T0) for CT signal
x(n) ≠ x(n + N) for DT signal
Examples: exponential signal, rectangular pulse, noise etc.

Fig 1.4 Aperiodic Signal

The above signal is an exponential signal which does not repeat for
a particular time interval. So, it is a non-periodic signal.

Condition for periodicity of CT signal

For CT signal, the condition of periodicity is x(t) = x (t + T0)
Let x(t)= A cos [ 2 π f0t +θ]
So, x (t + T0) = A cos [ 2 π f0 (t+T0) +θ]

According to the condition of periodicity

A cos [ 2 π f0t +θ] = A cos[ 2 π f0 (t+T0) +θ]
= A cos [ 2 π f0t + 2 π f0T0 +θ]
To satisfy this condition, 2 π f0T0 = 2 π k
f0 = k/T0
Thus, CT signal is periodic if its frequency f0 isrational.
Periodicity condition for x(t) = x1(t)+x2(t)

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According to the Periodicity f1 = k1/ T1 f2 = k2 / T2

The resultant signal is periodic if T1/ T2 is a rational number
The period of x(t) will be least common multiple of T1, T2.
Condition for periodicity of DT signal

For DT signal, the condition of periodicity is x(n) = x(n + N)

Let x(n)= A cos [ 2 π f0 n +θ]
So, x (n + N) = A cos [ 2 π f0 (n+N) +θ]
According to the condition of periodicity
A cos [ 2 π f0 n +θ] = A cos [ 2 π f0 (n+N) +θ]
= A cos [ 2 π f0 n + 2 π f0 N +θ]
To satisfy this condition, 2 π f0 N = 2 π k
f0 = k/N
Here k,N are integers. Thus, DT signal is periodic if its frequency f0 is
rational.
Periodicity condition for x(n) = x1(n)+x2(n)
According to the Periodicity f1 = k1/ N1 f2 = k2 / N2
The resultant signal is periodic if N1/ N2 is the ratio of two integers.
The period of x(n) will be least common multiple of N1, N2.
1.2.3 Deterministic and random Signals
Deterministic signal: A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no
uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant of time. Or, signals
which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula, look up
table or some well-defined rule are known as deterministic signals.
Example: sine, cosine wave.

Fig 1.5 Deterministic signal

Random Signals: A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is
uncertainty with respect to its value at some instant of time. Non-
deterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called
random signals. Random signals cannot be described by a
mathematical equation. They are modeled in probabilistic terms.
Example: noise generated in electronic components, transmission
channels etc.

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Fig 1.6 Random signal

The following Table 1.1 show the difference between Deterministic
and Random signals
Table 1.1 Differences between Deterministic and Random Signals
Deterministic signal Random Signal
A random signal is one
A deterministic signal is one which
which cannot be
can be completely represented by
represented by any
Mathematical equation at any time.
mathematical equation.
Noise generated in electronic
Examples. Sine wave, cosine wave. components, transmission
channels, cables.
These signals can be periodic or non- These signals are non-
periodic. periodic.

1.2.4 Even and Odd Signals

Even or symmetrical signal
A signal x(t) is said to be symmetrical (or) even if it satisfies the following
condition: x(t) = x(-t) for CT signal
x(n) = x(-n) for DT signal
Example: cosine waveform, rectangular pulse.
As shown in the following diagram, rectangular function satisfies the
condition x(t) = x(-t) so it is also even function.

Fig 1.7(a) Example of Even signal Fig 1.7(b) Example of odd signal

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Odd (or) Anti symmetrical signal

A signal x(t) is said to be anti symmetrical (or) odd if it satisfies the
following condition: x(t) = -x(-t) for CT signal
x(n)= -x(-n) for DT signal
Example: sine waveform
Decomposing a CT signal into even & odd parts:
Any CT signal can be expressed as the summation of even part & odd
part.
x(t)= xe(t)+ xo(t)
() ( )
Even part of x(t) is expressed as, xe(t)=

() ( )
Odd part of x(t) is expressed as, xo(t)=
The even part of a signal is an even signal, since
() ( )
xe(-t) = = xe(t)
Similarly, any DT signal can be expressed as the summation of even part
& odd part. x(n)= xe(n)+ xo(n)
( ) ( )
Even part of x(n) is expressed as, xe(n) =
( ) ( )
Odd part of x(n) is expressed as, xo(n) =
Steps to be followed to find even and odd component of the given
signal x(t) is:
1) Draw the signal x (t).
2) Draw its folded version x (-t)
3) Add x (t) and x (-t) or subtract x (-t) from x (t)
4) Divide the addition by 2 to get xe(t)& subtract by 2 to get xo(t).
The same can be applied for Discrete time signal
1.2.5 Energy and Power Signals
Energy signal
CT-A signal x(t) is said to be energy signal if and only if the total
normalized energy is finite and non-zero. (0 ≤ E <∞, P = 0)
The total energy contained in the signal is defined as
E=∫ |x(t)| dt
DT-A signal x(n) is said to be energy signal if and only if the total
normalized energy is finite and non-zero. (0 ≤ E <∞, P = 0)
The total energy contained in the signal is defined as

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E =∑ |x(n)|
Power signal:
CT-A signal x (t) is said to be power signal, if and only if the normalized
average power p is finite and non-zero. (0 < P <∞, E→ ∞).
Almost all the periodic signals are power signals.
The average normalized power is given by
P=lim →

∫ |x(t)| dt
For periodic signals, the power P can be computed using a simpler form
based on the periodicity of the signal as
T 2
P= ∫−T |x(t)| dt
where T is the period of the signal.
DT-A signal x (n) is said to be power signal, if and only if the normalized
average power p is finite and non-zero. (0 < P <∞, E→ ∞).
Almost all the periodic signals are power signals.
The average normalized power is given by
1 2
P=lim → 2N+1 ∑Nn=−N |x(n)|
For periodic signals, the power P can be computed using a simpler form
based on the periodicity of the signal as
2
P= ∑N n=−N |x(n)|
Comments:
1. The square root of the average power of a power signal is what is
usually defined as the RMS value of that signal.
2. If a signal approaches zero as t approaches ∞ then the signal is an
energy signal. This is in most cases true but not always.
3. All periodic signals are power signals (but not all non–periodic signals
are energy signals).
4. Any signal f that has limited amplitude (|f| <∞) and is time limited
(f = 0 for |t| > t0 for some t0> 0) is an energy signal.

The following Table 1.2 Shows the Comparison between Energy and
Power Signals

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Table 1.2 Comparison between Energy and Power Signals

Power signals Energy signals

The normalized average Total normalized energy is

power is finite and non zero. finite and non- zero.

Almost all periodic signals are Almost all non-periodic

power signals. signals are energy signals.

Energy of the power signal is Power of the energy signal is

infinite. zero.

Power signals can exist over Energy signals exist over a

an infinite time. They are not short period of time. They
time limited. are time limited.

1.2.5 Causal and Non-causal signals

Causal signal
A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for t≥0 (CT) , n ≥0 (DT) .
x(t) = 0 fort< 0 - CT
x(n) = 0 forn< 0 - DT

Fig 1.8(a) Causal signal (CT) (b) Causal signal (DT)

Non-causal signal
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for
t< 0 for both t< 0 and t ≥ 0 (CT) ,n< 0 for bothn< 0 n ≥ 0(DT)
x(t) ≠ 0 for t< 0 (CT)
x(n) ≠ 0 forn< 0 (DT)

When a non-causal signal is defined only for t<0 (CT) , n<0 (DT) , it is
called as anti-causal signal
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Fig 1.9(a)Non-causalsignal (CT) (b) Anti-causal signal (CT)

Fig 1.9(c)Non-causalsignal (DT) (d) Anti-causal signal (DT)

1.3 PROBLEMS
1. Prove that the sine wave is a periodic signal.
Sol: -The sinewave is mathematically expressed as, x (t) = A sin w0t
If it is a periodic signal it should satisfy the condition x(t) = x(t+T0)
Now let us calculate x (t+T0) = A sin w0( t + T0)
= A sin (w0t + w0T0)
= A sin (w0t + 2 πT0 / T0)
= A sin (w0t + 2 π)
= A [sin w0t cos 2 π + cos w0t sin 2 π)
= A [sin w0t .1+ cos w0t .0]
= A sin w0t
= x(t)
Therefore x (t+T0) = x (t).The sine wave is a periodic signal.

2. Prove that the exponential signal is non periodic.

Sol: - The exponential signal is expressed as, x(t) = e-αt
Put t= t+T0 in above equation, we get
x(t+T0) = e-α(t+T0)
= e-αt e-αT0
But for exponential signal T0=∞.
So, e-αT0 = 0
x (t+T0) = e-α.t .0=0
x(t) ≠ x(t+T0).
Hence the exponential signal is non periodic signal.

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3. State whether the following signals x(t) is periodic or not. If it is periodic

find the corresponding period.
(a) x(t)= 3 sin 4t
The given equation is a sine wave. So, it is a periodic signal.
To find time period, compare the given equation with standard sine
wave x(t)= A sin wt
w =4
f = 4 / 2π = 2 / π.

So, time period T= π / 2.

(b) x(t)= 2 cos 100πt + 5 sin 50t
The given signal x(t) is the addition of two signals x1(t) & x2(t).
Let x1(t) = 2 cos 100πt & x2(t)= 5 sin 50t
If x(t) is a periodic, the ratio T1/T2 is the ratio of two integers. (rational
no)
So, calculate T1& T2.

Compare x1(t)= 2 cos 100πt with the standard cosine wave

equation x1(t)= A cos w1t
w1 = 100π
2 π f1 = 100π
2 π/T1 = 100π
T1 = 1/50
Similarly Compare x2(t)= 5 sin 50t with the standard sine wave
equation x2(t)= A sin w2t,
w2 = 50
2 π f2 = 50
2 π/T2= 50
T2 = 2π /50
Therefore the ratio T1/ T2 = 1/2π.
It is not the ratio of two integers. Thus x (t) is non periodic signal.
4. Find the fundamental period and frequency of the following signals
(a) x(t) =5 sin(24 π t) +7 sin(36 πt) (b) x(t) =5 cos(πt) sin(3 πt)
(a) x(t) =5 sin (24 π t) +7 sin (36 πt)
x(t) =x1(t) +x2(t)

where x1(t) =5 sin (24 π t) and x2(t)= 7 sin (36 πt)

w1=24 π
T1=2π/w1 = 2π/24π =1/12 (Rational)
T2=2π/w2 = 2π/36π =1/18 (Rational)
T1/T2= (1/12)/ (1/18) = 3/2(Rational)
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Let T1 &T2 be the fundamental periods of x1(t) x2(t) respectively

The composite signal is periodic signal. Since T1&T2 are rational,x(t) is
periodic. The fundamental period is the LCM of T1&T2.
In this case, T1&T2are fractions; they are made integers by multiplying
by a least number. for T1&T2thus obtained,LCM is found.T0 is obtained
by dividing by the same number which was chosen to make T1&T2as
integers.

(1) T1=1/12 and T2=1/18

(2)By multiplying T1&T2by 36, T1 = 3 T2 = 2.
(3)The LCM for the new T1&T2is easily obtained as 6.
(4)T0 is obtained by dividing LCM by 36.

T0 = LCM/36 =6/36 =1/6 sec

(b) x(t) = 5 cos(πt) sin(3πt)

= x1(t) x2(t)
Where x1(t) = 5 cos(πt), x2(t) = 5 sin(3πt)
Let T1 &T2 be the fundamental periods of x1(t) x2(t) respectively.

The composite signal is periodic with fundamental period is

5. Determine whether the following signal is periodic. If periodic find the

fundamental time period.x(n) =cos(nπ/2) cos(nπ/4)

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Sol: -

The signal is periodic with fundamental period N=8.

6. Find whether the following signals are even or odd. Find the even and
odd components.

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7. Sketch the even and odd components of exponential signal

x(t)=10 e-2t
Sol: -
1) Draw the signal x (t).
2) Draw its folded version x (-t).
3) Add x(t) and x(-t) or subtract x(-t) from x(t).
4) Even & odd component is calculated by
xe(t) =[x(t)+x(-t)]/2 and xo(t) =[x(t)- x(-t)]/2

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8. Determine whether the following signals are even or odd.

(a) x(n) =sin(2πn) (b) x(n) = cos(2πn)

9. Determine the following signals are energy or power signal?

(a)x(t)= u(t)
The unit-step function is defined by

The Energy of the Unit step function is

E = ∫ |x(t)| dt = ∫ |u(t)| dt = ∫ |1| dt = ∞
The Power of the Unit step function is
P= lim →
∫ |x(t)| dt= lim →
∫ |u(t)| dt
= lim → ∫ |1| dt = ½ watts (finite)

As Energy is Infinite and Power is finite the given signal is a power signal.
(b) x(t)= A sin ( + )
Here given sine signal is a periodic signal so, Energy is Infinite

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The Energy is Infinite and the Power if finite so, the given signal is
Power signal.

1.4 BASIC ELEMENTARY SIGNALS

In the analysis of communication system, standard test signals play very
important role. Such signals are used to check the performance of the
system. Applying such signals at the system; the output is checked. Now
depending on the input-output characteristic of that particular system study
of different properties of a system can be done. Some standard test signals
are as follows:
1) DC signal 2) Unit impulse signal 3) unit step function
4) Unit ramp signal 5) Signum function 6) Sinusoidal signal
7) Rectangular pulse 8) Triangular function 9) Sinc function
10) Exponential signal
1.4.1 DC Signal
The amplitude of DC signal remains constant & is independent of time.
Mathematically It is expressed as x(t) = A - ∞< t <∞ - CT
x(n) = A - ∞<n<∞ - DT

Fig 1.10 Dc Signal

1.4.2 Unit delta function
CT unit impulse δ(t): A continuous time delta function is denoted by δ(t).
Mathematically it is expressed as follows:
δ(t)=1 for t=0
δ(t)=0 for t≠0
The graphical representation of delta function for C.T. signal is shown in
below figure 1.11(a)

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Fig 1.11(a) Unit Impulse (CT)

CT Unit impulse
The delta function is an extremely important function used for the analysis
of communication systems.The unit impulse, δ(t), is a function that is zero
for all t ≠ 0 and for which
∫ δ(t)dt = 1
The area under the pulse is unity. Due to its unity area it is called as a unit
impulse function.
Importance of impulse function:
1. By applying impulse signal to a system one can get the impulse
response of the system. From the impulse response it is possible to get the
transfer function of the system.
2. For a LTI system if the area under the impulse response curve is finite,
then the system is said to be stable.
3. From the impulse response of the system, one can easily get the step
response by integrating it once &twice respectively.
4. It is easy to generate &apply to any system.
Properties of impulse response:
δ(at)= 1/a δ(t)
δ(-t) = δ(t)
δ(t)dt = 1

x(t)* δ(t) = x(t)

x(t)* δ(t-t0) = x(t0)
DT unit impulse δ(n):
A discrete time unit impulse function is denoted by δ(n). Its amplitude is 1
at n=0 and for all other values of n; its amplitude is zero.

In the sequence form it can be represented as,

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In the above sequence the arrow represents 0th sample. The above
sequence can also be written as δ(n) = {1}
The graphical representation of delta function for D.T. signal is as shown in
figure 1.11(b)

Fig 1.11(b) Unit Impulse (DT)

1.4.3 Unit Step signal
CT unit step u(t):A continuous time unit step signal is denoted by u(t). Its
value is unity (1) for all positive values of t. that means its value is one for t
≥ 0. While for other values of t, its value is zero.Unit step function is defined
as u(t )= 1 for t ≥ 0
= 0 Otherwise
The graphical representation of CT unit step function is as shown in figure
1.12(a)

Fig 1.12(a) Unit step function (CT)

DT unit step sequence u(n)

A discrete time unit step signal is denoted by u(n) and all its samples have
value of 1 for n ≥ 0. While for other values of n, its value is zero.
DT Unit step function is defined as

In the form of sequence, it can written as,

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Fig 1.12(b) Unit step function (DT)

The unit step and the impulse functions are related to one another by
u(t) = ∫ δ(t) dt
( )
δ(t) =
1.4.4 Unit Ramp signal
CT unit Ramp signal r(t) : A continuous time unit ramp signal is denoted by
r(t). Its value is t for all positive values of t. While for other values of t, its
value is zero.
Unit ramp function is defined as r(t) = t for t ≥ 0
= 0 otherwise
The graphical representation of CT unit ramp signal is as shown in figure
1.13(a)

Fig 1.13(a)unit Ramp signal (CT)

DT unit Ramp r(n) :
A discrete time unit ramp signal is denoted by r(n). Its value increases
linearly with sample number n. mathematically it is defined as,
r(n) = n for n ≥ 0
= 0 otherwise
From above equation, it is clear that the value of signal at a particular
interval is equal to the number of interval at that instant.
r(n) ={ 0,1,2,3,4,5,…………..}

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Fig 1.13(b)unit Ramp signal (DT)

Relationship between unit impulse, step and ramp signal

1. Integrating the unit step signal we get,

By integrating the unit step function, unit ramp function is obtained. In the
reverse process, by differentiating unit ramp function, the unit step function
is obtained.
2. The continuous time unit step function is the running integral of unit
impulse function which is expressed as,

3. By differentiating the ramp function twice, the impulse function is

obtained.

Thus impulse function is obtained by differentiating the ramp function

twice. In reverse process, By integrating unit impulse function twice, the
ramp function is obtained which is mathematically expressed as follows:

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The relationship between unit step, impulse and ramp signals are
represented below

1.4.5 Signum function

The CT signum function(sgn(t)) is defined as

Fig 1.14(a) Signum function (CT)

Signum function is an odd function.

The relation between sgn(t) and u(t) as follows:
Sgn(t) = -1+ 2 u(t) or
Sgn(t) = u(t)- u(-t)

DT Signum function(sgn(n))
The DT signum function is defined as Sgn(n) = 1 for n> 0
= -1 for n< 0
= 0 for n=0

Fig 1.14(b) Signum function (DT)

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1.4.6 Sinusoidal signal

Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals: A simple harmonic oscillation is

mathematically described by the following continuous-time sinusoidal
signal as shown in
figure.

The subscript a used with x (t)denotes an analog signal. This signal is

completely characterized by three parameters:
A is the amplitude of the sinusoid.
Ω is the frequency in radian s per second (rad/s),
Өis the phase in radians.
Instead of Ω, we often use the frequency F in cycles per second or hertz
(Hz), where

xa(t) can be written as

We will use both forms for representing sinusoidal signals.

Fig 1.15(a) sinusoidal signal (CT)

Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals
A discrete-time sinusoidal signal may be ex pressed as

Where n is an integer variable, called the sample number.

A is the amplitude of the sinusoid,
ώ is the frequency in radians per sample, and
Өis the phase in radians.
If instead of ώ we use the frequency variable f defined by

The x(n) relation becomes

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Fig 1.15(b) sinusoidal signal (DT)

In contrast to continuous time sinusoids, the discrete time sinusoids are
characterized by the following properties:
A discrete-time sinusoid is periodic only if its frequency f is a rational
number.
By definition, a discrete time signal x(n) is periodic with period N ( N> 0) if
and only if

The smallest value of N for which the above is true is called the
fundamental period.
The proof of the periodicity property is simple. For a sinusoid with frequency
to be periodic, we should have

This relation is true if and only if there exists an integer k such that

According to the above discrete-time sinusoidal signal is periodic only if its

frequency f can be expressed as the ratio of two integers (i.e.f0 is rational).
1.4.7 Rectangular pulse
The Rectangular signal is having constant amplitude A for the time interval
between –T/2 to T/2. Mathematically it is defined as,
x(t) = A rect(t/T) = A for –T/2 <t< T/2
= 0 Otherwise

Fig 1.16(a) Rectangular pulse (CT)

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DT Rectangular signal is defined as

The above equation can also be written as,

Fig 1.16(b) Rectangular pulse (DT)

1.4.8 Triangular Function

CT Triangular function
A Continuous time triangular function is defined as

x(t) = Δ(t/τ) = A(1- (|t|/ τ)) - τ < t < τ

Fig 1.17(a) Triangular pulse (CT)

DT Triangular function
A discrete time triangular function is defined as

x(n) = Δ(n/N) = A(1-(|n|/ N)) - N < n < N

Fig 1.17(b) Triangular pulse (DT)

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1.4.9 Sinc Function

A CT Sinc function is defined as follows:

x(t) = sinc(t) = (sinπt)/ πt -∞ < t < ∞

Sinc(t) = 1 at t=0 and Sinc(t) = 0 at t =1,-1,2,-2,3,-3 …..

Fig 1.18(a) SINC function (CT)

A DT Sinc function is defined as follows:

x(n) = sinc(n) = (sinπn)/ πn -∞ <n< ∞

Sinc(n) = 1 at n=0 and Sinc(n) = 0 at t =1,-1,2,-2,3,-3 …..

Fig 1.18(b) SINC function (DT)

1.4.10 Complex Exponential Signal

CT complex exponential signal
The CT complex exponential signal is of the following form x(t) =c eαt
Where c,αare parameters.
Types of CT complex exponential signal:
Depending on the type of c,α, the complex exponential signal can be
classified as,
1. Real exponential signal: If c,α are real.
a) Decaying exponential x(t)= e-αt b) Rising exponential x(t)= eαt

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Fig 1.19(a) Decaying exponential signal(b) Rising exponential signal

2. Periodic complex exponential signal.
The complex exponential signal is described as x(t)=ejw0t
The most important property of this signal is that it is a periodic signal.

Discrete time exponential signal

A discrete time exponential signal is expressed as,
x(n) =an
Here ‘a’ is a real constant. Depending upon the value of ‘a’ we have four
different cases:
Case 1: if a > 1, then x (n) becomes the rising exponential sequence.
Case 2: if 0 < a < 1, then x (n) becomes decaying exponential sequence.
Case 3: if a < -1, then x (n) becomes double sided rising exponential
sequence.
Case 4: if -1 < a < 0, then x (n) becomes double sided decaying
exponential sequence

Fig 1.20 (a) Rising exponential sequence (b) Decaying exponential sequence

(c) Double sided rising exponential sequence (d) Double sided decaying
exponential sequence

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The exponential sequence can be real or complex valued. If ‘a’ is complex

valued then it can be represented as,

Here r is the magnitude of ‘a’ & θ is the phase of ‘a’. Hence the sequence
x(n) becomes

Using Euler’s identity, the above equation becomes,

Thus each sample of sequence x(n) has real and imaginary part.ie

Similarly, we can write magnitude and phase of x (n) as,

1.4.11 Representation of Discrete time signals

Graphical representation

Tabular representation
n -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x(n) 2 -1 0 2 1 1 0 -1

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Sequence representation

Arrow indicates n=0 value.

Note: If there is no arrow in sequence representation, then first signal
value indicates n=0 value
Example:

Functional representation

1.5 OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS

The basic operations performed on the signal are
(1) Amplitude Scaling (2) Time Reversal (3) Time Shifting (4) Time Scaling
(5) Signal Addition and Subtraction (6) Signal Multiplication
1.5.1 Amplitude Scaling
CT-Amplitude scaling of continuous time signals x(t) is obtained by
multiplying the amplitudes of the signal x(t) by a. If a> 1 we get
amplitude magnified version of signal x(t) and if a< 1 we get amplitude
attenuated version of signal.
Example: - Let x(t) be the signal show in figure 1.21(a), the
corresponding Amplitude magnified signal by a factor of 3 i.e., 3x(t) and
Amplitude attenuated signal by a factor of ½ i.e., ½(x(t)) are shown in
figure 1.21(a) (b) and (c)

Fig 1.21 (a) Original signal

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Fig 1.21 (b) Amplitude Magnified signal (c) Amplitude Attenuated signal

DT-Amplitude scaling of discrete time signals x(n) is obtained by multiplying

the amplitudes of the signal x(n) by a. If a> 1 we get amplitude magnified
version of signal x(n) and if a< 1 we get amplitude attenuated version of
signal.
Example: - Let x(n) be the discrete signal show in figure 1.21(d), the
corresponding Amplitude magnified signal by a factor of 3 i.e., 3x(n) and
Amplitudeattenuatedsignal by a factor of ½ i.e., ½(x(n)) are shown in
figure 1.21(e) and (f)

Fig 1.21 (d) Original sequence (e) Amplitude Magnifiedsequence

(f) Amplitude Attenuated sequence

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1.5.2 Time reversal

CT-Time reversal of continuous time signal x(t) is obtained by changing
the sign of t which is x(-t). x(-t) is the mirror image of x(t) with respect to
timeorigin t=0
Example: - If x(t) is the original signal shown in figure 1.22(a) then the
time reversal of x(t) i.e., x(-t) is shown in figure 1.22(b)

Fig 1.22 (a) original signal (b) Time reversed signal

DT-Time reversal of discrete time signal x(n) is obtained by changing
the sign of n which is x(-n). x(-n) is the mirror image of x(t) with respect to
time origin n=0
Example: - If x(n) is the original sequence shown in figure 1.22(c) then
the time reversal of x(n) i.e., x(-n) is shown in figure 1.22(d)

Fig 1.22 (c) original sequence (d) Time reversed sequence

1.5.3 Time shifting
CT-Time shifting of continuous time signals x(t) is obtained by replacing
the time variable t by t-m, where m may be positive or negative integer.
If m is positive, we get delayed signal i.e., original signal gets shifted to
right. If m is negative, we get advanced signal i.e., original signal gets
shifted to left.
Example: - If x(t) is original signal shown in figure 1.23 (a) then the signal
delayed by 1 unit is shown in figure 1.23(b) and advancement of the
signal by 2 units is shown in figure 1.23(c)

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Fig 1.23 (a) original signal (b) Delayed signal

(c) Advanced signal

DT-Time shifting of discrete time signals x(n) is obtained by replacing the

time variable n by n-m, where m may be positive or negative integer. If
m is positive, we get delayed signal i.e., original signal gets shifted to
right. If m is negative, we get advanced signal i.e., original signal gets
shifted to left.
Example: - If x(n) is original signal shown in figure 1.23 (d) then the
sequence delayed by 2samples is shown in figure 1.23(e) and
advancement of the sequence by 3samples is shown in figure 1.23(f)

Fig 1.23 (c) original sequence (e) Delayed sequence

(f) Advanced sequence

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1.5.4 Time scaling

CT-Time scaling of continuous time signal x(t) is obtained by replacing
the time variable t by at. If a> 1 we get time compressed signal. If a< 1
we get time expanded signal
Example: - If x(t) is original signal shown in figure 1.24(a) then the signal
Compressed by factor of 2 is shown in figure 1.24(b) and signal
expanded by a factor of 3 is shown in figure 1.24(c)

Fig 1.24 (a) original signal (b) Compressed signal

(c) Expanded signal

DT-Time scaling of discrete time signal x(n) is obtained by replacing the
time variable n by an. If a> 1 we get time compressed signal. If a< 1 we
get time expanded signal
Example: - If x(n) is original sequence shown in figure 1.24(d) then the
sequence compressed by factor of 2 is shown in figure 1.24(e) and
sequence expanded by a factor of 3 is shown in figure 1.24(f)

Fig 1.24 (d) original sequence (b) Compressed sequence (f) Expanded
sequence

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1.5.5 Signal Addition and Subtraction

Signal Addition
CT- The addition of two continuous time signals is obtained by adding
the value (amplitude) of two signals at same instant of time.
Example: - If x1(t) and x2(t)are two signals shown in figure 1.25(a) and (b)
then the signal addition is shown in figure 1.25(c)

Fig 1.25 (a) First signal (b) Second signal

(c) Signal Addition

DT- The addition of two discrete time signals is obtained by adding
the value (amplitude) of two sequences at same instant of time.
Example: - If x1(n) and x2(n)are twosequences shown in figure 1.25(d)
and (e) then the addition of sequences is shown in figure 1.25(f)

Fig 1.25 (d) First sequence (e) Second sequence

Fig 1.25 (f) Sum of sequences

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Signal subtraction
CT- The subtraction of two continuous time signals is obtained by
subtracting the value (amplitude) of two signals at same instant of
time.
Example: - If x1(t)=u(t) and x2(t)=u(t-2)are two signals shown in figure
1.26(a)then the signal subtraction is shown in figure 1.26(b)

Fig 1.26 (a) Two signalsx1(t) and x2(t) (b) Signal Subtraction

DT- The subtraction of two discrete time signals is obtained by

subtracting the value (amplitude) of two sequences at same instant of
time.
Example: - If x1(n) =u(n) and x2(n)=u(n-2)are twosequences shown in
figure1.26(c) and (d) then the sequence subtraction is shown in figure
1.26(e)

Fig 1.26 (c) x1(n)(d) x2(n)(e) Subtraction of sequence

1.5.5 Signal Multiplication
CT- Multiplication of two continuous time signals is obtained by
multiplying the value (amplitude) of two signals at same instant of
time. Let us consider two continuous time signals as shown in figure
1.24(a) and(b), then the signal multiplication is shown in figure 1.27(a)

Fig 1.27 (a) Signal Multiplication

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DT- Multiplication of two discrete time signals is obtained by multiplying

the value (amplitude) of two sequences at same instant of time. Let us
consider two discrete time signals as shown in figure 1.25(d) and(e), then
the sequence multiplication is shown in figure 1.27(b)

Fig 1.27 (b) Sequence Multiplication

1.5.6 Problems
1. Consider the triangular waveform x (t) shown in figure below.
Sketch the following waveforms. (a) x(2t+3) (b) x [(t+3)/2] (c) x (t/2-3)
(d) x(-2t+3)(e) x (-2t-3)

(a) To sketch x(2t+3)

Figure (a) shows x(t) = tri(t).by shifting by t=3 towards left,x(t+3) is obtained
and this is sketched in figure (b).x(t+3) is time compressed by a factor to
get x(2t+3).this is sketched in figure(c).

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(b) To sketch x [(t+3)/2]

The signal x [(t+3)/2] is written as x(t/2+1.5). The signal x (t) is time

shifted to the left by 1.5 unit to get x(t+1.5) which is nothing but
x[(t+3)/2].This is sketched in figure(e).

(c) To sketch x (t/2-3)

x(t-3) is obtained from x(t) by shifting the signal x(t) to the right by 3
unit and is shown in figure(f).by time expansion of x(t-3) by a factor 2,
x(t/2-3) is obtained and sketched as shown in figure (g).

(d) To sketch x(-2t+3):

Signal x(-t) is obtained by folding and it is shown in figure (h).x(-t) is time
shifted to the right by 3 unit to get x(-t+3).this is shown in figure(i).the
signal x(-t+3) is time compressed by a factor 2 to get x(-2t+3).

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(e)To sketch x (-2t-3)

x(-t) is time shifted towards left by 3 units to get x(-t-3).this is shown in
figure(k).x(t-3) is time compressed by a factor 2 to get x(-2t-3).this is
sketched in figure (l)

2. Draw r(t+3) where r(t) is ramp signal

Solution:
r(t)=t; t≥0
Put t+3=0; t=-3. So left shift r(t) by 3.

3. For the signal x(t) find (1/3) x(t)

Solution: - 1/3 x(t) can be obtained by simply multiplying amplitude of

the signal x(t) by 1/3

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4. Sketch x(t)=3r(t-1)+r(-t+2)

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5. Given

Sketch (i) x1(n) + x2(n) (ii) x1(n) - x2(n) (iii) x1(n) * x2(n)

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

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6 Sketch (i) u(n+4) and (ii) u(n-2)

Solution:
u(n)=1 for n≥0 and u(n)=0 for n<0

i) u(n+4) is obtained by left shift of u(n) by 4

ii) u(n-2) is obtained by right shift of u(n) by 2

1.6 SYSTEM AND CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

1.6.1 System
A system is a physical device (or an algorithm) which performs required
operation on a discrete time signal. Alternatively, a system is defined as a
set of elements or functional blocks that are connected together and
produces an output in response to an input signal.
Example: An audio amplifier, attenuator, TV set etc.The block diagram of
CT/DT system is shown in figure below.

Fig 1.28 CT/DT system

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Here x(t) (or) x(n) is the input signal applied to the system. It is also called
as excitation.Output of the system is denoted by y(t) (or) y(n). It is also
called as response of the system.
Example: A filter is good example of a system. A signal containing noise is
applied to the input of the filter. This is an input signal to the system. The
filter cancels or attenuates noise signal. This is the processing of the signal.
A noise-free signal obtained at the output of the filter is called as response
of the system.
1.6.2 Classification of systems
Generally, systems are broadly classified into two categories, such as
continuous time system (CT) and discrete time system (DT), depending
upon the type of given input to the system.
CT system: if the input and output signals x(t) & y(t) are continuous time
signals, then the system is continuous time system. The output y(t)= T[ x(t)]

DT system: if the input and output signals x(n) & y(n) are discrete time
signals, then the system is discrete time system. The output y(n)= T[ x(n)]

Both CT System & DT system are classified into the following categories:
A. Linear and Non-linear Systems
B. Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems
C. Static and Dynamic Systems
D. Causal and Non-causal Systems
E. Stable and Unstable Systems
F. Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
A. Linear and Non-linear Systems

Linear Systems:A system is said to be linear if it obeys superposition

theorem.Superposition theorem states that the response of a system
to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to the corresponding
weighted sum of responses to each of the individual input signals.

Condition for Linearity:

Continuous time domain:T[ax1 (t) +bx2 (t)]=ay1(t) +by2 (t)
Where y1(t) and y2(t) are responses of x1 (t) and x2 (t) respectively.
Discrete time domain:T[ax1 (n) + bx2 (n)]= ay1(n) + by2(n)
Where y1(n) and y2(n) are responses of x1(n) and x2(n) respectively.

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Communication channels and filters are example of linear systems.

Non-linear Systems: If the system does not satisfy the superposition
theorem, then it is said to be a nonlinear system.
Continuous time domain:T[ax1 (t) +bx2 (t)]≠ay1 (t) +by2 (t)
Where y1(t) and y2(t) are responses of x1(t) and x2(t) respectively.
Discrete time domain:T[ax1 (n) + bx2 (n)]≠ ay1 (n) + by2 (n)
Where y1(n) and y2(n) are responses of x1(n) and x2(n) respectively.
How to determine whether the given system is Linear or not?
To determine whether the given system is Linear or not, we have to
follow the following steps:
Step 1: Apply zero input and check the output. If the output is zero
then the system is linear. If this step is satisfied then follow the
remaining steps.
Step 2: Apply individual inputs to the system and determine
corresponding outputs. Then add all outputs. Denote this addition by
y’(t)(CT) or y’(n)(DT). This is the R.H.S. of the 1st equation.
Step 3: Combine all inputs. Apply it to the system and find out
y”(t)(CT)or y”(n)(DT). This is L.H.S. of equation (1).
Step 4: ify’(t) = y”(t) (CT) or y’(n) = y”(n)(DT) then the system is linear
otherwise it is non-linear system
1.Determine whether the following system is linear or not?
(a) y(n)= n x(n)
Solution:
Step 1: When input x(n) is zero then output is also zero. Here first step is
satisfied so we will check remaining steps for linearity.
Step 2: Let us consider two inputs x1(n) and x2(n) be the two inputs
which produces outputs y1(n) and y2(n) respectively. It is given as
follows:

Now add these two output to get y’(n)

Therefore y’(n) = y1(n) + y2(n) = n x1(n) + n x2(n)
Therefore y’(n) = n [x1(n) + x2(n)]
Step 3: Now add x1(n) and x2(n) and apply this input to the system.

Therefore, we know that the function of system is to multiply input by

‘n’.
Here [x1(n) + x2(n)] acts as one input to the system. So the
corresponding output is,
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y”(n) = n [x1(n) + x2(n)]

Step 4: Compare y’(n) and y”(n).
Here y’(n) = y”(n). Hence the given system is linear.
(b) y(t) = x2(t)
Solution: y1(t) = T[x1(t)] = x12(t)
y2(t) = T[x2(t)] = x22(t)
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = [ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)]2
Which is not equal to a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence the system is said to be
non linear.
B. Time Variant and Invariant Systems
Time invariant system:
A system is said to time invariant if the relationship between the input
and output does not change with time.
Continuous time domain:
If y(t)=T[x(t)] then y(t- ) = T[x(t – )] should be satisfied for the system to
be time invariant
Discrete time domain:
If y(n)=T[x(n)] then y(n-k) = T[x(n-k)] should be satisfied for the system
to be time invariant
Time variant system:
A system is said to time variant if the relationship between the input
and output changes with time.
Continuous time domain:
If y(t)=T[x(t)] then y(t- ) ≠ T[x(t – )] should be satisfied for the system to
be time variant
Discrete time domain:
If y(n)=T[x(n)] then y(n-k) ≠ T[x(n-k)] should be satisfied for the system to
betime variant
Now let us discuss about How to determine that the given system is
Time invariant or not?
To determine whether the given system is Time Invariant or Time
Variant, we have to follow the following steps:
Step 1: Delay the input x(n) by k samples i.e. x(n-k). Denote the
corresponding output by y(n,k).That means x(n-k) → y(n,k)
Step 2: In the given equation of system y(n) replace ‘n’ by ‘n-k’
throughout. Thus the output is y(n-k).
Step 3: If y(n,k) = y(n-k) then the system is time invariant (TIV) and if
y(n,k) ≠ y(n-k) then system is time variant (TV).

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Same steps are applicable for the continuous time systems.

1) Determine whether the following system is time invariant or not.
y(n) = x(n) – x(n-2)
Solution:
Step 1: Delay the input by ‘k’ samples and denote the output by y(n,k)
Therefore y(n,k) = x(n-k) – x(n-2-k)
Step 2: Replace ‘n’ by ‘n-k’ throughout the given equation.
Therefore y(n-k) = x(n-k) – x(n-k-2)
Step 3: Compare above two equations. Here y(n,k) = y(n-k).
Thus the system is Time Invariant.
2) Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not?
y(n) = x(n) + n x(n-2)
Solution:
Step 1: Delay the input by ‘k’ samples and denote the output by y(n,k)
Therefore y(n,k) = x(n-k) + n x(n-k-2)
Step 2: Replace ‘n’ by ‘n-k’ throughout the given equation.
Therefore y(n-k) = x(n-k) + (n-k) x(n-k-2)
Step 3: Compare above two equations. Here y(n,k) ≠ y(n-k).
Thus the system is Time Variant.

3) Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not?

y(t) = x(-t)
Step 1: Delay the input by ‘ ’ units and denote the output by y(t, )
y(t, ) = T[x(n- )] = x(-t-τ)
Step 2: Replace ‘t’ by ‘t- ’ throughout the given equation
y(t- ) = x(-(t- )) = x(-t + )
Step 3: Compare above two equations. Here y(t, ) ≠ y(t- ).
Thus the system is Time Variant.
C. Static and Dynamic Systems
Static system: A system is said to be static or memory less if its output
depends upon the present input only.
Why static systems are memory less systems?
Observe the input output relations of static system. Output does not
depend on delayed [x(n-k)] or advanced [x(n+k)] input signals. It only
depends on present input (nth) input signal. If output depends upon
delayed input signals then such signals should be stored in memory to
calculate the output at nth instant. This is not required in static
systems. Thus for static systems, memory is not required. Therefore,
static systems are memory less systems.

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Dynamic systems:
Definition: It is a system in which output at any instant of time depends
on input sample at the same time as well as at other times.
Here other time means, other than the present time instant. It may be
past time or future time. Note that if x (n) represents input signal at
present instant then,
1) x (n-k); that means delayed input signal is called as past signal.
2) x (n+k); that means advanced input signal is called as future signal.
Thus in dynamic systems, output depends on present input as well as
past or future inputs.
Why dynamic system has a memory?
Observe input output relations of dynamic system. Since output
depends on past or future input sample; we need a memory to store
such samples. Thus dynamic system has a memory.
1) Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic?
a) y(t) = 2 x(t)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0). Here, the
output is only dependent upon present input. Hence the system is
memory less or static.
b) y(t) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(-3).
Here x(-3) is past value for the present input for which the system
requires memory to get this output. Hence, the system is a dynamic
system.
c) y (n) = 9x(n)
In this example 9 is constant which multiplies input x(n). But output at
nth instant that means y (n) depends on the input at the same (nth)
time instant x(n). So this is static system.
d) y (n) = x2(n) + 8x(n) + 17
Here also output at nth instant, y (n) depends on the input at nth
instant. So this is static system.
e) y (n) = x(n) + 6x(n-2)
Here output at nth instant depends on input at nth instant, x(n) as well
as (n-2)th instant x(n-2) is previous sample. So the system is dynamic.
f) y (n) = 4x(n+7) + x(n)
Here x (n+7) indicates advanced version of input sample that means
it is future sample therefore this is dynamic system.
D. Causal and Non-causal Systems
A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and
past inputs, and does not depend upon future input.
For non causal system, the output depends upon future inputs also.

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Example 1: y (t) = 2 x (t) + 3 x(t-3)

For present value t=1, the system output is y (1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2).Here,
the system output only depends upon present and past inputs.
Hence, the system is causal.
Example 2: y(t) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3) + 6x(t + 3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2) + 6x(4)
Here, the system output depends upon future input. Hence the system
is non-causal system.
E. Stable and Unstable Systems
Continuous time domain:
A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability
criterion.
BIBO stable condition:
Every bounded input yields bounded output.i.e., if 0<x(t)< ∞ then
0<y(t)<∞ should be satisfied for the system to bestable
Impulse response should be absolutely integrable
∫ | ( )| < ∞

If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to
be unstablesystem

Discrete time domain:

A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability

criterion. BIBO stable condition:Every bounded input yields bounded
output.i.e., if 0<x(n)< ∞ then 0<y(n)<∞ should be satisfied for the
system to bestable

Impulse response should be absolutely summable

∑ | ( )| < ∞

If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to
be unstable system
1. Determine whether the following functions are stable or not.
1. y(n) = x(-n)
Solution: we have to check the stability of the system by applying
bounded input. That means the value of x(-n) should be finite. So
when input is bounded output will be bounded. Thus the given
function is Stable system.
2) y(t) = x2(t)
Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) =
u2(t) = u(t) = bounded output. Hence, the system is stable.
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3) y(t) = ∫ x(t) dt
Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t)
= ∫u(t)dt = ramp signal (unbounded because amplitude of ramp is not
finite it goes to infinite when t → infinite).
Hence, the system is unstable.
F. Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
A system is said to invertible if the input of the system appears at the
output.

Fig 1.29 Invertible System

Let the output of first system is y1(t) then y1(t) = x(t) *h1(t)
output of the Second system is y(t) = y1(t)*h2(t)
y(t) = (x(t)*h1(t))*h2(t) = x(t) *(h1(t)*h2(t))
If h1(t)*h2(t) = δ(t) then y(t)=x(t)
Then the system is Invertible system
If y(t) ≠ x(t), then the system is said to be non-invertible.
The same can be applicable even for discrete time systems
1.7 PROBLEMS
1. Determine whether the system described by the following input output
equations are linear, time invariant, stable, memory less and casual or not.
1) y(t)=cos[x(t)]
(i) memory less / system with memory
A system is said to be static or memory less if its output depends upon the
present input only.

at time t=0; y(0)= cos[x(0)] ; the present output y(0) depends only on present
input x(0).

at time t=1; y(1)= cos[x(1)] ; the present output y(1) depends only on present
input x(1).

From the above equations, we can say that the present output is only
dependent upon present input. Hence the system is memory less or static
system.

(ii) casual / non casual system

A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past
inputs, and does not depend upon future input.

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For present value t=1, the system output is y(1)= cos[x(1)] ;.Here, the
system output only depends upon present inputs. So the system is a causal
system.

(iii) Time variant/ time invariant

A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics
vary with time. Otherwise, the system is considered as time invariant.
The condition for time invariant system is : y (t , T) = y(t-T)
The condition for time variant system is : y (t , T) ≠ y(t-T)
y (t , T) = cos[x(t-T)]
y(t-T) = cos[x(t-T)]
∴ y (t , T) = y(t-T) . Hence, the system is time invariant.
(iv) Stable
For the bounded input the system produces bounded output. So the
system is said to be stable.

(v) linear / nonlinear

A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and
homogenate principles. Consider two systems with inputs as x1(n), x2(n),
and outputs as y1(n), y2(n) respectively. Then according to the
superposition and homogenate principles,
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 T[x1(t)] + a2 T[x2(t)]
y1 (t) = T[x1(t)] = cos[x1(t)]
y2(t) = T[x2(t)] = cos[x2(t)]

a1 T[x1(t)] + a2 T[x2(t)] = a1 cos[x1(t)] + a2 cos[x2(t)] …………(1)

T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] =cos[a1x1(t)+ a2x2(t)] .………..(2)
(1) ≠ (2)
Comparing the above two equations it does not satisfy the superposition
property. So the system is said to be non linear.

(2) y(n)= x(-n)

(i) Memory less / system with memory

A system is said to be static or memory less if its output depends upon the
present input only.
at time n=0; y(0)=x(0); the present output y(0) depends only on present
input x(0).
at time n=1; y(1)=x(-1); the present output y(1) depends only on past input
x(-1).

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at time n=-1; y(-1)=x(1); the present output y(-1) depends only on future input
x(1).
From the above equations, we can say that the present output is not only
depends upon present input. Hence the system is said to be dynamic system.
(ii) Casual / noncasual system
A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past
inputs, and does not depend upon future input. Otherwise it is non casual.
at time n=0; y(0)=x(0); the present output y(0) depends only on present input
x(0).
at time n=1; y(1)=x(-1); the present output y(1) depends only on past input x(-
1).
at time n=-1; y(-1)=x(1); the present output y(-1) depends only on future input
x(1).
Here, the system output depends upon present input, past and future inputs.
So the system is said to be non causal system.
(iii) Time variant/ time invariant
A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary
with time. Otherwise, the system is considered as time invariant.
The condition for time invariant system is : y (n , k) = y(n-k)
The condition for time variant system is : y (n , k) ≠ y(n-k)
y(n, k) = T[x(n-k)] = x(-n-k)
y(n-k) = x(-(n-k))=x(-n+k)
y(n, k) ≠ y(n-k). Hence, the system is time variant.
(iv)Stable/unstable
For the bounded input this system produces bounded output. So the system is
said to be stable.
(v) Linear / nonlinear
A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and homogenate
principles. Consider two systems with inputs as x1(n), x2(n), and outputs as y1(n),
y2(n) respectively. Then according to the superposition and homogenate
principles,
T [a1 x1(n) + a2 x2(n] = a1 T[x1(n)] + a2 T[x2(n)]
y1 (n) = T[x1(n)] = x 1(-n)
y2(n) = T[x2(n)] = x 2(-n)
a1 T[x1(n)] + a2 T[x2(n)] = a1 x 1(-n)+ a2 x 2(-n)…………(1)

T [a1 x1(n) + a2 x2(n] = [a1 x 1(-n)+ a2 x 2(-n)]………..(2)

Comparing the above two equations it satisfy the superposition property. So

the system is said to be linear.

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(3) y(t)= t x(t)

(i) Memory less / system with memory

A system is said to be static or memory less if its output depends upon the
present input only.

At time t=0; y(0)= 0 x(0) ; the present output y(0) depends only on present
input x(0).

At time t=1; y(1)= x(1) ; the present output y(1) depends only on present
input x(1).

From the above equations, we can say that the present output is only
dependent upon present input. Hence the system is memory less or static
system.

(ii) Casual / noncasual system

A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past
inputs, and does not depend upon future input.

For present value t=1, the system output is y(1)= x(1) ;.Here, the system output
only depends upon present inputs. So the system is a causal system.

(iii) Time variant/ time invariant

A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary
with time. Otherwise, the system is considered as time invariant.

The condition for time invariant system is : y (t , T) = y(t-T)

The condition for time variant system is : y (t , T) ≠ y(t-T)

y (t , T) = t x(t-T)

y(t-T) = (t-T) x(t-T)

∴ y (t , T) ≠ y(t-T) . Hence, the system is time variant.

(iv)Stable
For the bounded input the system produces bounded output. So the
system is said to be stable.

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(v) Linear / nonlinear

A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and homogenate

principles. Consider two systems with inputs as x1(t), x2(t), and outputs as y1(t),
y2(t) respectively. Then according to the superposition and homogenate
principles,

T [ x1(t) + x2(t)] = T[x1(t)] + T[x2(t)]

y1 (t) = T[x1(t)] = t x1(t)

y2(t) = T[x2(t)] = t x2(t)

T[x1(t)] + T[x2(t)]=t x1(t)+ t x2(t)…………(1)

T [ x1(t) + x2(t)] =t [x1(t)+ x2(t)]………..(2) (1) = (2)

Comparing the above two equations it satisfy the superposition property. So

the system is said to be linear.

1.8 CONCEPT OF CONVOLUTION AND CORRELATION

CONCEPT OF CONVOLUTION
Convolution is a mathematical operation used to express the relation between
input and output of an LTI system. It relates input, output and impulse response
of an LTI system as y(t)=x(t)∗h(t)
Where y (t) = output of LTI, x(t) = input of LTI, h(t) = impulse response of LTI
There are two types of convolutions:
• Continuous convolution
• Discrete convolution
Continuous Convolution

or

Discrete Convolution

y(n) = x(n)∗h(n)

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Or

PROPERTIES OF CONVOLUTION
Commutative Property
x1(t)∗x2(t)=x2(t)∗x1(t)
Distributive Property
x1(t)∗[x2(t)+x3(t)]=[x1(t)∗x2(t)]+[x1(t)∗x3(t)]
Associative Property
x1(t)∗[x2(t)∗x3(t)]=[x1(t)∗x2(t)]∗x3(t)
Shifting Property
x1(t)∗x2(t)=y(t)
x1(t)∗x2(t−t0)=y(t−t0)
x1(t−t0)∗x2(t)=y(t−t0)
x1(t−t0)∗x2(t−t1)=y(t−t0−t1)
Convolution with Impulse
x1(t)∗δ(t)=x(t)
x1(t)∗δ(t−t0)=x(t−t0)
Convolution of Unit Steps
u(t)∗u(t)=r(t)
u(t−T1)∗u(t−T2)=r(t−T1−T2)
u(n)∗u(n)=[n+1]u(n)
Scaling Property
If x(t)∗h(t)=y(t)
then x(at)∗h(at)=(1/|a|) y(at)
Differentiation of Output
If y(t)=x(t)∗h(t) then dy(t)/dt=(dx(t)/dt)∗h(t)
Or dy(t)/dt=x(t)∗(dh(t)/dt)

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CONCEPT OF CORRELATION
Correlation of the Signals

 Correlation is a measure of similarity between two signals. The general

formula for correlation is

There are two types of correlation:

 Auto correlation
 Cross correlation
Auto Correlation Function
 It is defined as correlation of a signal with itself. Auto correlation function
is a measure of similarity between a signal & its time delayed version. It is
represented with R( ).
Consider a signal x(t).

 The auto correlation function of x(t) with its time delayed version is given
by

If x(t) is complex, then

Cross Correlation Function

It is defined as correlation of a signal with other. Cross correlation
function is a measure of similarity between a signal & time delayed
version of the other. It is represented with Rxy(τ).
Consider signals x(t) and y(t).
• The crosscorrelation function of x(t) with time delayed version of y(t)
is given by

If the signals are complex, then

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1.9 ANALOGY BETWEEN VECTORS AND SIGNALS

Vector
A vector contains magnitude and direction. The name of the vector is
denoted by bold face type and their magnitude is denoted by light face
type.
Example.: V is a vector with magnitude V. Consider two vectors V1 and V2 as
shown in the following diagram. Let the component of V1 along with V2 is
given by C12V2. The component of a vector V1 along with the vector V2 can
obtained by taking a perpendicular from the end of V1 to the vector V2 as
shown in diagram:

The vector V1 can be expressed in terms of vector V2

V1= C12V2 + Ve
Where Ve is the error vector.
But this is not the only way of expressing vector V1 in terms of V2. The alternate
possibilities are:

V1=C1V2+Ve1 V2=C2V2+Ve2

Dot Product of Two Vectors

V1 . V2 = V1 X V2cosθ , θ = Angle between V1 and V2
V1. V2 =V2.V1
From the diagram, components of V1along V2 = C 12 V2

The error signal is minimum for large component value.

When vectors V1 and V2 are orthogonal, their dot product is zero
V1 . V2 = 0
C12=0

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Signal

The concept of orthogonality can be applied to signals. Let us consider

two signals f1(t) and f2(t). Similar to vectors, you can approximate f1(t) in
terms of f2(t) as
f1(t) = C12 f2(t) + fe(t) for (t1< t < t2)
⇒fe(t) = f1(t) – C12 f2(t)
One possible way of minimizing the error is integrating over the interval t1 to
t2.

This step also does not reduce the error to appreciable extent. This can be
corrected by taking the square of error function.

Where ε is the mean square value of error signal. The value of C12 which
minimizes the error, you need to calculate dε/dC12=0

Derivative of the terms which do not have C12 term are zero.

If component is zero then two signals are

orthogonal.

Put C12 = 0 to get condition for orthogonality.

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1.10 ORTHOGANILITY AND MEANSQUARE ERROR

Orthogonal Vector Space

A complete set of orthogonal vectors is referred to as orthogonal vector

space. Consider a threedimensional vector space as shown below:

Fig.1.30 Three dimensional Vector space

Consider a vector A at a point (X1, Y1, Z1). Consider threeunit vectors (VX, VY ,
VZ) in the direction of X, Y, Z axis respectively. Since these unit vectors are
mutually orthogonal, it satisfies that

we can write above conditions as

The vector A can be represented in terms of its components and unit vectors
as

Any vectors in this three dimensional space can be represented in terms of

these three unit vectors only.
If you consider n dimensional space, then any vector A in that space can be
represented as

As the magnitude of unit vectors is unity for any vector A

The component of A along x axis = A.VX
The component of A along Y axis = A.VY
The component of A along Z axis = A.VZ
Similarly, for n dimensional space, the component of A along some G axis
=A.VG

Substitute the value of A in the above Equation

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Orthogonal Signal Space

Let us consider a set of n mutually orthogonal functions x1(t), x2(t)... xn(t) over
the interval t1 to t2. As these functions are orthogonal to each other, any two
signals xj(t), xk(t) have to satisfy the orthogonality condition. i.e.

Let a function f(t), it can be approximated with this orthogonal signal space by
adding the components along mutually orthogonal signals i.e.

All terms that do not contain Ck are zero. i.e. in summation, r=k term remains
and all other terms are zero.

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MEANSQUARE ERROR
The average of square of error function fe(t) is called as mean square
error. It is denoted by ε (epsilon).

The above equation is used to evaluate the mean square error.

CLOSED OR COMPLETE SET OF ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS
Let us consider a set of n mutually orthogonal functions x1(t), x2(t)... xn(t)
over the interval t1 to t2. This is called as closed and complete set when
there exist no function f(t) satisfying the condition.

For k=1,2,.. then f(t) is said to be orthogonal to each and every function of
orthogonal set. This set is incomplete without f(t). It becomes closed and
complete set when f(t) is included. f(t) can be approximated with this orthogonal
set by adding the components along mutually orthogonal signals i.e.

If the infinite series converges to f(t) then the mean square

error is zero.

ORTHOGONALITY IN COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

If f1(t) and f2(t) are two complex functions, then f1(t) can be expressed in terms
of f2(t) as f1(t)=C12f2(t). with negligible
error

Where f2*(t) is the complex conjugate of f2(t), If f1(t) and f2(t) are orthogonal
then C12 = 0

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The above equation represents orthogonality condition in complex

functions
1.11 PROBLEMS
1) Show that the following signals are orthogonal over an interval [0,1]

We know that two signals are said to be orthogonal over an interval (t1,t2)

if

The given signals are orthogonal to each other over [0,1]

2) Show that the functions sin(n ) and cos (m ) are orthogonal over

any interval [ t0 to t0 + ] for integer values of n and m

To Show that the functions sin(nω t) and cos (mω t) are orthogonal

over any interval [ t0 to t0 + ] for integer values of n and m. we have

to show that

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This shows that the signals sin(nω t) and cos (mω t) are orthogonal over

any interval [ t0 to t0 + ] for integer values of n and m

3) Prove that the Complex Exponential signals are orthogonal functions

Consider two complex exponential signals

Let the interval be [ t0 to t0 + ] x1(t) and x2(t) are orthogonal over

[ t0 to t0 + ] if

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This proves that the complex exponential signals are orthogonal

functions
4) Prove that the functions xp(t) and xq(t) where

xr(t) = (cos(r ) + sin(r )) T=2π/ are orthogonal over period (0,T)

√

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Thus, the functions xp(t) and xq(t) are orthogonal over (0,T)

5) Prove that the functions show below are orthogonal over the interval
[0,4]

The signals shown in the above figures can be mathematically

expressed as

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This proves that the signals x(t) and y(t) are orthogonal to each other
over [0,4]
1.12 FOURIER SERIES
A Fourier Series is an accurate representation of a periodic signal and consists
of the sum of sinusoids at the fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
Fourier Series are classified into,
1.Trignometric Fourier Series
2.Polar or Cosine or Compact Fourier Series
3.Exponential Fourier Series
The fourier series exists for a function x(t) if it satisfies the following conditions
which are known as Dirichlet’s conditions.
1. x(t) is a single-value function except at possibly a finite number of points.

2.The integral for any t0.

3. x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities within the period T.
4. x(t) has a finite number of maxima and minimawithin the period T.

1.13 TRIGNOMETRIC FOURIER SERIES

The function x(t) over the interval (t0,t0+T) can be represented by a
trigonometric series as:

a0, corresponds to the zeroth harmonic or DC. The expression for the constant
term a0 and the amplitudes of the harmonic can be derived as

T0 - fundamental period of x(t) in seconds

F0 - fundamental frequency in Hz ω0 - radian frequency in rad/sec.

1.14 COMPACT OR POLAR OR COSINE FOURIER SERIES

The trigonometric fourier series of x(t) contains sine and cosine terms of
the same frequency

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Where A0 is called DC Component and is called nth

Harmonic component of x(t)
1.15 EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES
By using Euler’s identity, the complex sinusoids can always be expressed in terms of
exponentials. Thus, the Exponential Fourier series for a signal x(t) can be represented
as

Where and

Cn is the coefficient of the exponential Fourier series.

1.16 PROPERTIES OF FOURIER SERIES
1.16.1 Linearity

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1.16.2 Time Shifting property

1.16.3 Time Reversal property

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1.16.4 Time Scaling property

1.16.5 Time differentiation property

1.16.6 Time integration property

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1.16.7 Convolution theorem or property

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1.16.8 Modulation or Multiplication property

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1.16.9 Conjugate and Conjugate symmetry property

1.16.10 Parsevals Relation or Theoremor property

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In Trigonometric Fourier series

 Odd functions[x(-t) =-x(t)] contains only Sine terms i.e. bn Coefficients.

 Even functions[x(-t) =x(t)] contains only Constant and Cos terms i.e.
a0 ,an Coefficients.
 Half wave Symmetry[ x(t)= -x(t ± T/2)] contains only odd harmonics i.e.
an, bn are defined for n is odd and a0,an,bn are zero for n is eve
 Quarter wave Symmetry[ x(-t) =- x(t) or x(-t) = x(t) and x(t)= -x(t ± T/2)]
 If x(-t) = x(t) and x(t)= -x(t ± T/2) then a0,bn are zero ,only an defined for n is
odd
 If x(-t) = - x(t) and x(t)= -x(t ± T/2) then a0,an are zero ,only bn defined for n is
odd

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1.17 CONCEPT OF DISCRETE SPECTRUM

The Fourier spectrum of a periodic signal x(t) is a plot of its Fourier coefficients
versus frequency ω

It is of two types (i) Amplitude spectrum (ii) Phase spectrum

• The plot of the amplitude of Fourier coefficients versus frequency is known
as the Amplitude spectrum.
• The plot of the phase of Fourier coefficients versus frequency is known as
the Phase spectrum.
• The two plots together are known as Fourier frequency spectrum of x(t).This
type of representation is known as frequency domain representation.
The fourier spectrum exists only at discrete frequencies nω0,
where n=0,1,2,….. Hence it is known as Discrete Spectrum or Line Spectrum.
• The Trigonometric representation of a periodic signal x(t) contains both sine
and cosine terms with positive and negative amplitude coefficients (a0 and
an ) but with no phase angles.
• The polar representation of a periodic signal contains only positive
amplitude coefficients with phase angle (θn),Therefore we can plot
amplitude spectra (An versus ω ) and Phase spectra (θn versus ω).
• In this representation Fourier coefficients exist only for positive frequencies,
so the spectrum is called single sided spectra.
• The exponential representation of a periodic signal x(t) contains amplitude
coefficients Cn which are complex. Hence, they can be represented by
magnitude and phase. so, we can plot Magnitude spectrum (|Cn| versus
ω) and phase spectrum (∟Cn versus ω).
• The spectrum can be plotted for both positive and negative frequencies.
Hence it is called a two-sided spectra.
1. Spectrum of Trigonometric Fourier series is one-sided
2. Spectrum of Exponential Fourier series is Two-sided
3. In Exponential Fourier series, the magnitude spectrum is always
symmetrical about vertical axis passing through origin and phase spectrum
is always anti-symmetrical about vertical axis passing through origin.

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1.18 PROBLEMS
1. Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the periodic signal as shown in figure
below.

1. From the figure, it is evident that the waveform is symmetrical with respect
to the axis t.
So a0=0.
2. By folding x(t) across the vertical axis, it is observed that x(t)=x(-t) which
shows that the function of the signal is even. Hence bn=0.
3. From figure it is obtained that the fundamental period T0 = 4 sec and the
fundamental radian frequency w0= π/2 rad/sec.
The trigonometric Fourier series is written as

The given signal is expressed as

The signal is symmetrical with respect to time axis and hence a0=0.Also from
figure, it is evident that x(t) = x(-t) and therefore the signal is an even signal so
bn=0.
Substituting a0=0 & bn=0 in x(t) equation, we get

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The signal x(t) can be expanded as follows

2. For the periodic signal shown in figure, determine the trigonometric Fourier
series.

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1. From figureT0 = 2 sec and the fundamental radian frequency w0= π

rad/sec.The signal is symmetrical with respect to time axis and hence
a0=0.Also from figure, it is evident that x(t)=-x(-t) and therefore the signal is an
odd signal and an=0.The Fourier series for such a signal is therefore

2. The coefficient bn is determined as follows:

The above integral is solved using the infinite integral

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3. Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the periodic signal.

Solution:

1. From figureT0 = 2π sec and the fundamental radian frequency w0= 1

rad/sec.The signal is neither odd nor even. Further it is not symmetrical with
respect to the time axis. So the coefficients, a0,an& bn are to be evaluated.

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4. Find the exponential Fourier series of half wave rectified sine wave as shown
in figure. Also plot magnitude and phase spectrum.

Solution: The given signal can be expressed as,

The Fourier series coefficient can be calculated as,

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With these consideration,cn becomes

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5. Find the exponential Fourier series of unit impulse train as shown in figure. Also
plot magnitude and phase spectrum.

Solution: The unit impulse train can be written as,

Cn is calculated by,

Assuming that only one impulse is present and T0 tends to infinity.

The above equation is arranged for use of sifting property of delta function.
The shift property is given as,

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9. Practice Quiz
1. Convolution is used to find
(a) Amount of similarity between the signals (b) response of the system
(c) multiplication of the signals (d) Fourier transform

2. The system characterized by the equation y(t) = a x(t) + b is

(a) linear for any value of b. (b) linear if b > 0.
(c) linear if b < 0. (d) Non-linear.
3. Given a unit step function u(t), its time-derivative is
(a) a unit impulse (b) Another step function.
(c) a unit ramp function. (d) a sine function.
4. The system having input x(n) related to output y(n) as y(n) = log10 x(n) is
(a) Nonlinear, causal, stable. (b) Linear, Non-causal, stable.
(c) Nonlinear, causal, not stable (d) Linear, Non-causal, not stable.
5. A continuous-time periodic signal x(t) having a period T, is convolved with itself.
The resulting signal is
(a) not periodic (b) periodic having a period T
(c) periodic having a period 2T (d) periodic having a period T/2
6. The period of the Signal x(t) = 10 sin(12πt) + 4 cos (18πt)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. Which of the following is true for the system represented by y (n) = x (− n)
(a) Linear (b) Time invariant (c) Causal (d) Non-Linear
8. For an energy signal, which one is correct
(a) 0<E<∞, P=0 (b) E=∞, P=0 (c) E=0, 0<P<∞ (d)) E=0,P=∞
9. A signal which can be accurately predicted by mathematical equation is
(a) Continuous time signal (b) Deterministic signal
(c) Random signal (d) Even signal
10. A useful property of the unit impulse δ (t) is that
(a) δ(at) = a δ(t) (b) δ (at) = δ(t) (c) δ (at) = δ(t) (d) δ (at) = a-2 δ(t)
Practice Quiz Answers
Q. NO ANSWERS
1. B
2. D
3. A
4. A
5. B
6. D
7. A
8. A
9. B
10. C

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10. Assignments

S.No Question BL CO

1 Explain in detail about the classification of signals? 1 1

2 Evaluate the convolution of the x1(t) =t2 u(t) & x2(t)=e-tu(t) ? 4 3
3 Explain in detail about the classification of systems? 2 3
Evaluate the complex exponential Fourier series representation
4 for the following signals 4 4
(i) x(t)=cos(2t+π/4) (ii) x(t)=cos4t+sin6t (iii) x(t)=sin2(t)
Check whether the following systems are:
(i) Static or dynamic. (ii) Linear on non-linear. (iii) Causal or non-
5 1 3
causal. (iv) Time invariant or time variant. (v) Stable on not stable.
The given system is y(n) = an x(n).
Sketch the following signals
6 (a)Y(t) = π(0.5t-1)+π(2t-3.5) (b)Y(t) = 3u(t)+2sin2t 1 1
(c)Y(t)=u(t)+u(t-2)-3u(t-5)+u(t-7)

11. Part A- Question & Answers

S.No Question& Answers BL CO

Define Signal?
Ans. Signal is a physical quantity that varies with respect to
time, space or any other independent variable.
1 1 1
Or
It is a mathematical representation of the system
Example: y(t) = t and x(t)= sin t
Define discrete time unit step &unit impulse.
Ans. Discrete time Unit impulse is defined as
δ [n]= 0, n≠ 0
1, n=0
2 1 1
Unit impulse is also known as unit sample.
Discrete time unit step signal is defined by
U[n] = 0, n=0
1, n≥0
Define Energy and power signal.
Ans. A signal is said to be energy signal if it have finite energy
and zero power.
3 A signal is said to be power signal if it have infinite energy and 1 1
finite power.
If the above two conditions are not satisfied then the signal is
said to be neither energy nor power signal.
Define even and odd signal?
Ans. A discrete time signal is said to be even when,
4 x[-n] = x[n]. 1 1
The continuous time signal is said to be even when,
x(-t) = x(t)
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Example: cos(ωn) or cos(ωt) is an even signal.
The discrete time signal is said to be odd when x[-n ] = -x[n]
The continuous time signal is said to be odd when x(-t) = -x(t)
Odd signals are also known as nonsymmetrical signal.
Example: sin(ωn) or sin(ωt) is an odd signal.
Define periodic signal and Aperiodic signal.
Ans.A signal is said to be periodic, if it exhibits periodicity.i.e.,
x(t +T) = x(t), for all values of t. -CT
x(n+N) = x(n), for all values of n.-DT
5 1 1
Periodic signal has the property that it is unchanged by a time
shift of T.
A signal that does not satisfy the above periodicity property is
called an Aperiodic signal.
Define continuous time signals and classify them.
Ans. Continuous time signals are defined for a continuous of
values of the independent variable. In the case of continuous
time signals the independent variable is continuous.
Example: (i) A speech signal as a function of time
6 (ii) Atmospheric pressure as a function of altitude 1 1
Classification of continuous time signal:
(i) Periodic and Aperiodic signals (ii) Even and Odd signals
(iii) Deterministic and Random signals
(iv) causal and Non-causal signals (v) Energy and Power signals

List the types of Fourier series?

Ans. 1. Trigonometric Fourier series
7 1 1
2. Compact or polar Fourier series
3. Exponential Fourier series
Write short notes on dirichlets conditions for fourier series.
Ans. a. x(t) must be absolutely integrable
b. The function x(t) should be single valued within the interval T.
8 c. The function x(t) should have finite number of discontinuities 1 1
in any finite interval of time T.
d. The function x(t) should have finite number of maxima
&minima in the interval T.
Write down the exponential form of the Fourier series
representation of a periodic signal?
Ans. x(t)=∑ c e
9 c = ∫ x(t)e 1 1
The set of coefficients {c } are often called the Fourier series
coefficients or spectral coefficients.
The coefficient co is the dc or constant component of x(t).
Define System?
10 Ans. System is a physical device that operates on the input 1 1
signal and produces output signal corresponding to the input.

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12. Part B- Questions

S.No Question BL CO
1 Evaluate the trigonometric Fourier series of the half wave
4 3
rectified sine wave with amplitude A and period T
2 Evaluate Exponential Fourier series of f(t) over the interval (0,1).
4 3
and f(t) is expressed as f(t) = At.
3 Define and sketch the following signals:
(i) Unit Impulse function. (ii) Unit step function. (iii) Unit ramp 1 1
function. (iv) Unit Parabolic (v) Signum function.
4 Discuss which of the following signals are causal or non – causal:
(i) x(t) = e2tu(t – 1). (ii) x(t) = cos 2t. (iii) x(t) = 2 u(-t) 1 1
(iv) x(n) = u(-n). (v) x(n) = u(n + 4) – u(n – 2).
5 Show that the functions sin(nwot) and cos(mwot) are orthogonal
1 2
to each other for all integer values of m and n.

13. Supportive Online Certification Courses

1. Online NPTEL Course on Principles of Signals and Systems by Prof. Aditya K.
Jagannathan, IIT Kanpur, conducted by IIT Kharagpur – 12 weeks
2. Online course on Signals and Systems in EDX by Vikram Gadre, IIT Bombay
3. Udemy – Signals and Systems : From basics to advance
4. Udemy – Electrical engineering – Introduction to signals and systems Swayam-
Principles of Signals and Systems (12 weeks)
5. edX- Signals and systems (IIT Bombay)
6. Courera – Practical time series analysis
7. https://www.coursera.org/learn/practical-time-series-analysis

14. Contents Beyond the Syllabus

1. Power representation using Fourier series
If I is the current flowing through resistance of R ohms and V is the voltage across
it then the power dissipated in the Resistor is I2R and V2/R. If the current signal is
not constant, then the power varies at every instant and the expression for
instantaneous power is i2(t)R and v2(t)/R. If R=1, then instantaneous power
becomes i2(t) and v2(t).The instantaneous power of the signal x(t) is x2(t).Mean
power over a given time interval or period is

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15. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

Text Books
1. A.V. Oppenheim, A.S. Willsky and S.H. Nawab, “Signals and Systems”, 2nd Edition,
PHI, 2009.
2. Simon Haykin and Van Veen, “Signals & Systems”, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2005.
References:
1. BP Lathi, “Principles of Linear Systems and Signals”, 2nd Edition, Oxford University
Press, 015.
2. Matthew Sadiku and Warsame H. Ali, “Signals and Systems A primer with MATLAB”,
CRC Press, 2016.
3. Hwei Hsu, “Schaum's Outline of Signals and Systems”, 4th Edition, TMH, 2019.

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