Physics

Lab File
Nikanshu
CE – 22
20001003078
 Index

S. No. Experiment Date

Name

To determine the
1. resistivity of 17/06/2021
semiconductors by Four
probe Method.
2. To study the V-I
characteristics of a Zener 01/07/2021
diode and its use as
voltage regulator.
3. To determine the energy
band gap of a 08/07/2021
semiconductor by Four
probe method.
4. To find out the unknown
low resistance by using 22/07/2021
Carey-Fosters bridge.
5. To compare the
capacitances of two 22/07/2021
capacitors by De-Sauty’s
bridge.
6. To study Hall effect and
to determine hall 05/08/2021
coefficient for a
semiconductor specimen.
 Experiment No. 1

Aim: To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by Four probe Method.

Apparatus: Probe arrangement, Sample, Oven (0-200°C), Constant current
generator , Oven power supply and digital panel meter (measuring voltage and
current).
Theory: Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used
apparatus for the measurement of resistivity of semiconductors.
This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin wafer, such as
a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The sample is millimeter
in size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged linearly in a
straight line at equal distance S from each other. A constant current is passed
through the two probes and the potential drop V across the middle two probes is
measured. An oven is provided with a heater to heat the sample so that behavior
of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
The figures shows the arrangements of four probes that measure voltage (V) and
supply current (A) to the surface of the crystal.
Theory: At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional
to its length L and inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

(1)
Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.
A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between
that of a conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their
characteristic property of decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing
temperature.
According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into
two bands, valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external
electric field it is electrons in the valence band that can move freely, thereby
responsible for the electrical conductivity of semiconductors. In case of intrinsic
semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the conduction band minimum and
valence band maximum. Since conduction band lies above the Fermi level at 0K,
when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction band remains
unoccupied. So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As
temperature increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby
resulting in decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.
Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current-
carrying electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their
effect on conductivity is negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that
lie in a straight line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor
should be small compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is
hemispherical and small in diameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-
conducting. A conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower
resistivity than semiconductor has been plated. A non-conducting boundary is
produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in contact with insulator.
Fig: 2 show the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are
adequately far from the probes, the die may be considered to be identical to a
slice. For this case of a slice of thickness w and the resistivity is computed as

(2)
The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the
value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is
greater than the distance between the probes,

(3)

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of semiconductor

Total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is the sum of the conductivities of

the valence band and conduction band carriers. Resistivity is the reciprocal of
conductivity and its temperature dependence is given by
(4)

Where Eg – band gap of the material

T – Temperature in kelvin
K – Boltzmann constant, K – 8.6x10-5 eV/K
The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on decreasing the
temperature.

Procedure:
1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.
2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the
range of current.
 3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.
4. Set the temperature from the slider.
5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from
The default 250C to the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait
button to stop heating.
6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.
7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.
8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.
9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.
10.Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature
using equation (2) and (3).

Circuit Diagram:

Observations and calculations:

Temperature, Voltage, Current, Resistivity

T(K) V(mV) I(mA) (ohm cm)

298K 58.16mV 2mA 6.2011

303K 56.43mV 2mA 6.0172

308K 54.81mV 2mA 5.8444

 313K 53.29mV 2mA 5.6819

318K 51.85mV 2mA 5.5288

323K 50.50mV 2mA 5.3843

328K 49.22mV 2mA 5.2479

333K 48.01mV 2mA 5.1189

338K 46.86mV 2mA 4.9967

343K 45.78mV 2mA 4.8809

348K 44.75mV 2mA 4.7710

353K 43.77mV 2mA 4.665

Resistivity can be calculated by using the equation given below.

Here we take,
Distance between the probes, S as 0.2cm and
Thickness of the sample, w as 0.05cm.
From standard table f(w/S) = 5.89

Result:
The resistivity of the given semiconductor by Four probe Method = 1.052 Ohm cm
Precautions and Sources of Error:
1. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.
2. All the four probes should be collinear.
3. The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the
semiconductor chip is brittle.
4. The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high
impedance millivoltmeter.
5. Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by manufacturer
of the probes and chip.
 Experiment No. 2(a)

Aim: To study the V-I characteristics of a Zener diode.

Apparatus: A variable regulated dc power supply (0-30V), a Zener diode; a 500
Ohm resistance, a milliammeter (0-50 mA), a voltmeter.
Theory: A Zener diode is a highly doped p-n diode. Due to heavy doping on both
p and n side, the junction is relatively narrow as compare to a normal diode.
When a reverse bias is applied, a very small current flows through it due to
the minority charge carriers.
However, at a given reverse voltage (Vi), the reverse current in the junction
increases rapidly. The current through the device increases while the voltage
remains essentially constant, i.e., the reverse resistance decreases. In this
condition, the diode is said to have reached ‘breakdown’.
In a Zener diode, due to heavy doping, the depledtion layer is very thin and
hence the electric field becomes large even for a small reverse bias voltage. Due
to the high electric field becomes large even for a small reverse bias voltage. Due
to the high electric field, electrons are excited directly from the valence-band of
p-side to the electric field, electrons are excited directly from the valence-band of
p-side to the conduction band of n-side across the junction. A very sharp increase
in the current is observed causing the breakdown of the junction. The value of the
reverse voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called the breakdown voltage
or the Zener voltage.
Procedure:
1. Forward Bias-Si Diode
1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.
2. Select the diode, say 1N4001.
3. Set the resistor, say 500ohm.
4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Zener diode and ammeter series with
Resistor.
5. The positive side of the battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of
 Battery to the N side (cathode) of the diode.
6. Now vary the voltage up to 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter
reading for particular DC voltage.
7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
9. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. Rd= ΔV/ΔI
10. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when
the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts for silicon diode. This
Voltage is called cut-in voltage.

2. Reverse Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.
2. Select the diode, 1N4001.
3. Set the resistor to 500ohm.
4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Zener diode and ammeter series with
Resistor.
5. The positive side of the battery to the N side(cathode) and the negative
of battery to the P side (anode) of the diode.
6. Now vary the voltage up to 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter
Reading for DC voltage.
7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

Circuit Diagrams:

Forward Biased Reverse Biased

Observation Table:

S. No. Forward Bias Reverse Bias

V(volts) I(mA) V(volts) I(mA)

1 0.548 0.20 4.75 0.100

2 0.567 1.80 11.4 0.100

3 0.581 3.80 19.1 0.100

4 0.589 5.80 26.4 0.100

5 0.596 7.80 30.4 37.75

Graph:
The Zener voltage, V z = 26.4 volts.
Dynamic resistance, r z = CB/AB = 2/17.5 = 0.114ohm.

Result: The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode are drawn both in forward bias
and reverse bias mode. From the reverse-bias curve,
Zener voltage = 26.4 volts
Dynamic resistance = 0.114ohm

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1. Observations in the knee region of the reverse-bias should be taken
carefully as the current increases abruptly in this region.
2. A resistance should be connected in series with the diode to limit the
current.
3. The dynamic resistance should be measured just above the knee in the
reverse-bias region.
 Experiment No. 2(b)

Aim: To study the voltage regulating characteristics of a Zener diode.

Apparatus: A variable DC supply (0-20 V), a Zener diode, two voltmeters, two
Resistance boxes, connecting wires etc.

Theory: The basic Zener diode D.C. voltage regulating circuit is shown in fig. given
Below. The Zener diode with breakdown voltage V z is reverse biased and is
connected in parallel with the load resistance R L across which a constant output
voltage is desired.

For an input voltage Vi greater than the Zener voltage V z , the Zener diode
will maintain a constant output voltage V0 = V z across the load resistance RL.
When the input voltage is increased slowly, a very small current flows
through the Zener diode. It offers a very high resistance to the current and the
whole of input appears across the output terminals. Consequently, in this range,
the output voltage increases linearly with the input voltage. Once the input
voltage is greater than V z, Zener diode offers a very small resistance to the
current. Consequently a large current flows in the circuit and the voltage drop
across the series resistance Rs will increase maintaining the voltage drop across RL
at constant value V0 =VZ
 Similarly, when the input voltage is fixed at a value greater than the
breakdown voltage VZ, any change in RL will not affect the output voltage which
remains constant at VZ. The value of RS and RL to be connected in the voltage
regulation circuit, can be calculated as

(RS)min= Vi - VZ
IZM
This gives the minimum value of RS to be connected in the circuit VZ and IZM
are respectively the breakdown voltage and the maximum allowable current
through the Zener diode and are specified by the manufacturer.
Also (RL)min = VZ
IZM
(RL)min is the minimum value of RL for the firing of the Zener diode. Thus, RL
to be connected in the circuit should be more than (RL)min. Normally choosing RS=
100 ohm and RL= 1 kiloohm serves the purpose.

Procedure:
1. Zener Diode - Line Regulation
1. Set the Zener Voltage (VZ)
2. Set the Series Resistance (RS) value.
3. Set the Load Resistance (RL) value.
4. Vary DC voltage.
5. Voltmeter is placed parallel to load resistor and
ammeter series with the series resistor.
6. Choose appropriate DC voltage such that Zener diode is
'on'.
7. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
various DC voltage.
8. Note the Load current (IL), Zener current (IZ), Output
voltage (VO).
9. Calculate the voltage regulation.

2. Zener Diode - Load Regulation

1. Set DC voltage.
2. Set the Series Resistance (RS) value.
 3. 1W D0-41 Glass Zener Diode 1N4740A, Zener voltage is
10 V.
4. Vary the Load Resistance (RL).
5. Voltmeter is placed parallel to load resistor and
ammeter series with the series resistor.
6. Choose Load Resistance in such a manner, such that the
Zener diode is 'on'.
7. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
various Load Resistance.
8. Increase the load resistance (RL).
9. Note the Load current (IL), Zener current (IZ), Output
voltage (VO).
10.Calculate the voltage regulation.

Circuit Diagrams:

Line Regulation Load Regulation

Observations:
For Line regulation
Zener voltage VZ= 5.1 volt
Series Resistance RS= 1 k ohm
Load Resistance RL= 2 k ohm

Unregulated Load Zener Regulated

Serial Supply Current (IL) Current (IZ) Output % Voltage
No. Voltage (VS) mAmp mAmp Voltage Regulation
V (VO)V
1 2 2.55 0 2 100
 2 4 2.55 0 4 100
3 5 2.55 0 5 100
4 6 2.55 -1.650 5.10 83.3
5 8 2.55 0.350 5.10 62.5
6 15 2.55 7.350 5.10 33.3
7 20 2.55 12.350 5.10 25.0
8 25 2.55 17.350 5.10 20.0

For Load Regulation

Series Resistance RS = 700 ohm
DC volt = 24 volt
Zener Voltage= 5.7 volt

Load Load Zener Regulated

Serial Resistance Current (IL) Current (IZ) Output % Voltage
No. (RL) mAmp mAmp Voltage Regulation
ohm (VO)V
1 200 28.5 0 24 77.8
2 300 19.0 7.14 5.70 70.0
3 400 14.3 11.9 5.70 63.6
4 600 9.50 16.6 5.10 53.8
5 800 7.13 19.0 5.70 46,7
6 1000 5.70 20.4 5.70 41.2
7 1250 4.56 21.6 5.70 35.9

Graphs:

Line Regulation
 Load Regulation
Result:
1. Graph 1 shows the output voltage as a function of input voltage. The
output voltage varies linearly for Vi<=VZ and becomes constant for Vi >
VZ.
2. Graph 2 shows the output voltage as a function of the load resistance.
For load resistance greater than some minimum value (RL)min, the output
voltage remains constant even when the load resistance changes.
Precautions and Sources of Error:
1. Zener diode must be connected in reverse bias.
2. The series resistance Rs should be so chosen that it limits the current at
breakdown.
3. While studying the effect of input voltage on the output voltage
(i) Load resistance RL should be kept much above its minimum
calculated value.
(ii) The input voltage must be increased in small steps up to a
point well above the breakdown voltage VZ.
4. While studying the effect of load resistance on the output voltage, the
input voltage must be kept above the Zener voltage.
 Experiment No. 3
Aim: To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor by Four probe
method.
Apparatus: Probe arrangement, Sample, Oven (0-200°C), Constant current
generator , Oven power supply and digital panel meter (measuring voltage and
current).
Theory: Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used
apparatus for the measurement of resistivity of semiconductors.
This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin wafer, such as
a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The sample is millimeter
in size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged linearly in a
straight line at equal distance S from each other. A constant current is passed
through the two probes and the potential drop V across the middle two probes is
measured. An oven is provided with a heater to heat the sample so that behavior
of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
The figures shows the arrangements of four probes that measure voltage (V) and
supply current (A) to the surface of the crystal.
Theory: At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional
to its length L and inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

(1)
Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.
A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between
that of a conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their
characteristic property of decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing
temperature.
According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into
two bands, valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external
electric field it is electrons in the valence band that can move freely, thereby
responsible for the electrical conductivity of semiconductors. In case of intrinsic
semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the conduction band minimum and
valence band maximum. Since conduction band lies above the Fermi level at 0K,
when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction band remains
unoccupied. So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As
temperature increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby
resulting in decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.
Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current-
carrying electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their
effect on conductivity is negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that
lie in a straight line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor
should be small compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is
hemispherical and small in diameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-
conducting. A conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower
resistivity than semiconductor has been plated. A non-conducting boundary is
produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in contact with insulator.
Fig: 2 show the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are
adequately far from the probes, the die may be considered to be identical to a
slice. For this case of a slice of thickness w and the resistivity is computed as

(2)
The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the
value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is
greater than the distance between the probes,

(3)

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of semiconductor

Total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is the sum of the conductivities of

the valence band and conduction band carriers. Resistivity is the reciprocal of
conductivity and its temperature dependence is given by

(4)
Where Eg – band gap of the material
T – Temperature in kelvin
K – Boltzmann constant, K – 8.6x10-5 eV/K
The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on decreasing the
temperature.

Procedure:
1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.
2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the
 range of current.
3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.
4. Set the temperature from the slider.
5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from
The default 250C to the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait
button to stop heating.
6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.
7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.
8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.
9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.
10. Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature
using equation (2) and (3).
11. Plot a graph with 1/T ( T in K) along x-axis and log p along y – axis.
12. Calculate Slope of the graph and then using equation 4 , calculate Eg.

Circuit Diagram:

Observations and calculations:

S. No Temperature Voltage, V 1/K Resistivity Log p
T(K) (mv) p(ohm cm)
1. 298 58.16 0.00335 6.2011 0.79
2. 303 56.43 0.00330 6.0172 0.77
3. 308 54.81 0.00324 5.8444 0.76
4. 313 53.29 0.00319 5.6819 0.75
 5. 318 51.85 0.00314 5.5288 0.74
6. 323 50.50 0.00309 5.3843 0.73
7. 328 49.22 0.00304 5.2479 0.72
8. 333 48.01 0.00300 5.1189 0.71
9. 338 46.86 0.00295 4.9967 0.70
10. 343 45.78 0.00291 4.8809 0.69
11. 348 44.75 0.00287 4.7710 0.68
12. 353 43.77 0.00283 4.665 0.67

Graph:

Slope = AC/BC =Eg = 0.67 eV

Result:
The energy band gap of germanium is 0.67 eV.

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.
2. All the four probes should be collinear.
3. The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the
semiconductor chip is brittle.
4. The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high
impedance millivoltmeter.
5. Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by manufacturer
of the probes and chip.
 Experiment No. 4

Aim: To find out the unknown low resistance by using Carey-Fosters bridge.
Apparatus: Carey foster’s bridge, unknown resistance, two nearly equal
resistances, fractional resistance box, thick copper strip, a sensitive galvanometer,
a battery, a key, a jockey and sand paper.

Theory: The Carey Foster’s bridge is as in the figure given below. One meter long
wire of manganin or constantan of uniform cross-section area is stretched along a
meter scale. The wire is connected at both the ends with copper strips. Beside
these strips there is one copper strip B fixed parallel to the meter scale and two L-
shaped strips A and C at the ends of the scale. In between these strips there are
four empty spaces AB, CD, EF and GH. In first empty space AB known resistance X,
in second empty space CD a resistance P, in third empty space a resistance Q and
in fourth empty space GH the known resistance Y is connected. The Leclanche cell
E and plug key K are connected in between A and C. Between the points B and D,
galvanometer G is connected. At point D, contact key is fixed which can move
here and there on the wire EF. This key is known as jockey. On pressing jockey,
point D gets connected with the galvanometer otherwise not.

Formula Used:
Resistance per unit length of the wire of bridge

ρ = X/ (l2-l1) ohm/cm----- (1)

Where l1 = balancing length on the bridge wire measured from the left end when
known resistance X is connected in left gap of the bridge and zero resistance is
connected in right gap of the bridge and l2 = balancing length of the bridge wire
measured from the left end on interchanging the positions of X and Y.

Unknown resistance of the given wire

Y = X – (l2 – l1) ρ----- (2)

where X = unknown resistance connected in the left gap, Y = resistance of the

wire connected in the left gap, l1 and l2 respectively are the balancing lengths of
the bridge wire measured from the left end, before and after interchanging the
positions of X and Y.

Specific resistance of the given wire:

Ks = (πr2/l) Y ----- (3)

Where r is the radius and l is the length of the given wire. Value of both the
parameters is provided to the student.

Procedure:

a) For determination of k(resistance per cm of bridge wire).

1. Mark the gaps 1,2,3 and 4 on the bridge. Clean the ends of the connecting
wires and thick copper strip with the sand paper
2. Make connections as in fig. Connect two equal resistances P and Q in the
inner gaps 2 and 3 on the bridge.
3. Connect the fractional resistance box Y in gap 1 and thick copper X in gap 2.
4. Take out a resistance of 0.1 ohm from Y and obtain a balance point at l1cm
from E.
5. Interchange Y and X and again obtain the balance point at l2cm from E.
6. Repeat observation with value of p.
7. Calculate k.
b) For determination of the unknown low resistance:

1. Make connection as in fig. Y is the unknown small resistance and X is a

fractional resistance box. P and Q are two equal resistance.
2. Take out a suitable resistance from X and obtain the balance point at l’1 cm
from E.
3. Interchange X and Y and obtain the balance point at l’2 cm from E.
4. Repeat the observations.
5. Calculate X.

Circuit Diagram:
Observation Table:

1. To determine the resistance per unit length of bridge wire:

2.For the resistance of the given wire(Y):

Precautions and Sources of error:

1. The ends of the connecting wires should be clean and all connections should
be tight.
2. For bridge to have high sensitivity, the resistances of the four arms should be
of the same order.
3. A plug key should be used in the cell circuit and the current should be allowed
to flow only for the time when the readings are being taken.
 4. The fractional resistance box and the unknown small resistance should be
connected to the bridge with the help of thick copper leads and not with
ordinary connecting wires.
5. The jockey should be pressed gently and momentarily. In no case should the
jockey be pressed against the wire when it is moved along it.
6. While calibrating the wire, the resistance introduced in the resistance box
should be such as to have the two null points towards the ends of the bridge
wire. By getting the null points towards the ends of the bridge wire. By
getting the null points towards the ends we are able to get the values of (l 2-
l1) nearly equal to the length of the bridge wire, thereby reducing any error
introduced due to the non-uniformity of the wire.
7. The difference b/w the X and Y should not be more than the resistance of
the bridged wire.

Result:
1. The resistance per unit length of the bridge wire = 0.035 ohm.
2. The value of the unknown resistance = 0.580 ohm.
 Experiment No. 5
Aim: To compare the capacitances of two capacitors by De-Sauty’s bridge.
Apparatus: Two capacitors, two resistance boxes, an audio-oscillator, a
headphone and connecting wires.

Theory: The two capacitor of capacitances C1 and C2 and the two resistance
boxes R1 and R2 are connected to form a Wheatstone bridge. A headphone is
connected across the point B and D. Audio-frequency oscillator is connected
across A and C as shown in figure.
The balance point is obtained when the sound in the headphones is a minimum.
In such a case it is better to use a resistance of dial type so that the resistance can
be varied quickly and the effect on the intensity of sound is observed.

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

1. Set the voltage (V=3V) and Frequency (50Hz) and set the unknown capacitance value from 'Set
Capacitor Value' tab by clicking on 'Set' button.
2. Then switch on the supply to get millivoltmeter deflection.
3. Now vary the values of R1, R2, R3, R4 and C1 from the control box below or directly put the values
in the boxes of respective elements.
4. Observe the millivoltmeter pointer to achieve "NULL".
5. If "NULL" is achieved, switch to 'Measure Capacitor Value' tab and click on 'Simulate'. Observe
calculated values of unknown capacitance (C2) and unknown internal resistance (r2) of the
capacitor.
6. Also observe the Dissipation factor of the unknown capacitor, which is defined as w⋅C⋅r. where,
w=2⋅π⋅f.

Calculation:

A Balanced Bridge:
In this we have :-
C1=A standard capacitor.
C2=A capacitor whose capacitance has to be measured.
r1, r2=Representing losses of their corresponding capacitors.
R4,R3 = Non inductive resistance.
R1,R2= They are connected in series with C1 and C2 respectively.

At balance condition,
We get:
C1= 4.76x10-8F
C2= UNKNOWN
R1 = 1159482 ohm,
R2 =1103270 ohm,
R3 = 2332700 ohm,
R4 = 2219600 ohm.

By using equation:

C2/C1=R1+r1/R2+r2=R3/R4

We get

C2(unknown capacitor) = 0.0500 F

r2=115299 ohm

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1. The values of R1 and R2 should be very high, comparable with 1/wC1 and
1/wC2.
2. The resistances should be non-inductive.
3. The condition of minimum sound should be checked carefully.
4. The two capacitors should be free from dielectric losses.
 5. The frequency of the a.c. source should be kept at 1000 cycles/sec as human
ear is very sensitive at this frequency i.e., at this frequency slight variations
in the intensity of sound can be easily detected by the ear.
6. In the beginning, the volume of the sound should be kept low, otherwise it
is likely that headphone may get damaged. Further it is very likely that your
ear may get conditioned for high intensity of sound and the null point would
not be located properly. The volume should be raised, when the near balance
point is approached.

Result:
The ratio of capacitances is:- 0.01x108
 Experiment No. 6
Aim: To study Hall effect and to determine hall coefficient for a semiconductor
specimen.
Apparatus: Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Four probe, Digital gauss
meter, Hall effect apparatus (which consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG),
digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).

Theory:
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential
difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic
field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall
effect is an important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors.
It directly determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is

applied in X-direction using Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I
flow through the sample. If w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness.
There for current density is given by

Jx=I/wt (1)
 Fig.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.
CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX– current density
ē – electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width
VH – Hall voltage

If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the
charge carriers (say electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation
of charge carriers at the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric
field Ey in the sample. This develop a potential difference along y-axis is known as
Hall voltage VH and this effect is called Hall Effect.

A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference
between its top and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the applied
magnetic field B=0,the voltage difference will be zero.

We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its
direction as conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes in the direction of
current or the movement of electrons backward. In both cases, under the
application of magnetic field the magnetic Lorentz force, Fm= q(VxB) causes the
carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot escape from the material, a
vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance produces an electric
field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established.
The vertical electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using
a voltmeter. In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric
force. Mathematically we can express it as
eE= evB (2)

Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied
magnetic field and 'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers.
And the current 'I' can be expressed as,
I= neAv (3)

Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l ,breadth
'w' and thickness 't'. Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,
VH= Ew = vBw = IB/net
VH= RH IB/t (4)
By rearranging eq(4) we get
RH= VHt/IB (5)
Where RH is called the Hall coefficient.
RH = 1/ne

Procedure:
1. Connect ‘Constant current source’ to the solenoids.
2. Four probe is connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of
the two solenoids.
3. Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source.
4. Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of
0.5A, and note the corresponding Gauss meter readings.
5. Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob
of constant current source towards minimum current.
6. Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect green wires to Constant
Current Generator and connect red wires to milli voltmeter in the Hall
Effect apparatus.
7. Replace the Four probe with Hall probe and place the sample material at
the middle of the two solenoids.
8. Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.
9. Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding
Hall voltage VH. Repeat this step for different magnetic field B.
10. Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.
11.Hence calculate the Hall coefficient RH using the equation 5.
12.Then calculate the carrier concentration n. using equation 6.
Circuit Diagram:

Observation:
1.) To measure the magnetic field generated in the solenoid

S. No Current through Solenoid Magnetic field generated

1 1A 0.1482T
2 2A 0.2964T
3 3A 0.4447T
4 4A 0.5988T

2.) Hall Effect Apparatus

Magnetic Thickness Hall Hall voltage
S.No Field (Tesla (t) m current, mV RH
T) mA
1 0.1482 0.0001 1 28.756 0.194
2 0.2964 0.0001 1 57.511 0.194
3 0.4447 0.0001 1 86.267 0.194
4 0.5988 0.0001 1 115.024 0.194
Result:
Hall coefficient of the material = 0.0194
Carrier concenteration of the material = 3.22165e+20 m-3