vATSALYA INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

vATSALYA INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL
PHYSICS
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
NAME : PATEL DARSHANKUMAR JAYESHBHAI

CLASS : XII - C
ROLL :
SESSION : 2024-25
TEACHER: Mr. Devarsh Bhavsar
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special gratitude to my
teacher Mr. Devarsh Bhavsar who gave me the golden
opportunity and
supported me to do this wonderful project on the topic
“Verification of ohms law and also providing its
limitations show how temperature affects resistance
and resistivity for conductors, insulators and
semiconductors” during the year 2022-23 conducted by
the CBSE. This project also helped me in doing a lot of
Research and I came to know about so many new things
I am really thankful to them. I would also like to thank
my Parents and my Friends for helping me in doing this
Project.
I would also like to thank my Parents and my Friends for
helping me in doing this Project.
SIGN OF EXTERNAL EXAMINER SIGN OF TEACHER

INDEX
S no CONTENT
1 AIM
2 INTRODUCTION
3 VERIFICATION
4 LIMITATION
5 APPLICATION
6 EFFECT OF
TEMPRATURE
7 CONCLUSION
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
AIM
Discuss with experimental set up the verification of ohms law
and also providing its limitations show how temperature affects
resistance and resistivity for conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.
INTRODUCTION
What Is Ohm’s Law?
Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between two
points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.
Ohm’s law formula is written as; V ∝ I
Therefore, V = IR where R is a constant called resistance. R depends on
the dimensions of the conductor and on the material of the conductor.
Its SI unit is Ohm (Ω).
Ohm’s law is an empirical relation which accurately describes the
conductivity of the vast majority of electrically conductive materials
over many orders of magnitude of current. However, some materials do
not obey Ohm’s law, these are called Non-ohmic. Ohm’s law was found
out by various experiments.
As far as its significance is concerned, this law is used within all
branches of electronic studies or science. The law is useful in carrying
out calculations such as in determining the value of resistors or the
current in a circuit or in measuring voltage.
Additionally, Ohm’s law helps us describe how current flows through
materials such as electrical wires, etc.
RESISTANCE
Resistance is defined as the property of the conductor
which opposes the flow of electric current. It is also
defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric
current flowing through it. The resistance of a conductor
depends on the length, area of cross-section, and the
nature of the material used in the conductor’s
manufacturing. For a conductor, the resistance is directly
proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely
proportional to the area of the cross- section. The SI unit
of electric resistance is ohm
RESISTIVITY
Resistivity is defined as the resistance offered by the
material per unit length for a unit cross-section. The SI
unit of resistivity is ohm-meter. Resistivity increases
linearly with temperature. The resistivity of conductors is
low compared to the insulators’ resistivity. Therefore, it
can be represented as: The resistivity of conductors <
Resistivity of alloys < Resistivity of insulators. The SI unit
of electrical resistivity is the ohm-meter.
VERIFICATION
Experimental verification of Ohm's law:
1. Set up the circuit as illustrated above to verify Ohm’s law
experimentally.
2. Connect the resistance in parallel with the voltmeter (an
instrument to measure potential in a circuit) and connect the
ammeter (an instrument to measure current in a circuit) in series in
the circuit.
3. Initially, the key K is closed, and the rheostat (a device used to
control current by varying resistance) is adjusted to get the
minimum reading in ammeter A and voltmeter V.
4. The current in the circuit is increased gradually by moving the
sliding terminal o the rheostat. During the process, the current
flowing in the circuit and the corresponding value of potential
difference across the resistance wire R are recorded.
5. Similarly, different values of current and voltage are. obtained.
6. Plot a graph between the values of current and voltage. The graph
obtained will be a straight line.
7. This shows that current and potential are directly proportional to
each other. Thus, it verifies Ohm's law.
APPLICATIONS
Applications of Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law is very useful and has several
applications. A few are listed below:
• It is widely used in circuit analysis.
• It is used in ammeter, multimeter, etc.
• It is used to design resistors.
• It is used to get the desired circuit drop in circuit
design.
• Advanced laws such as Kirchhoff’s Norton’s law,
Thevenin’s law are based on Ohm’s law.
• Electric heaters, kettles and other types of
equipment working principle follow Ohm’s law.
• A laptop and mobile charger using DC power
supply in operation and working principle of DC
power supply depend on Ohm’s law.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
ON:RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY
1.FOR CONDUCTORS:
Resistance: In conductors, as temperature increases, the resistance also
generally increases. This is as the temperature rises, the metal atoms in
the conductor vibrate more vigorously, which increases the likelihood of
collisions between free electrons and lattice ions. These collisions
impede the flow of electrons, leading to an increase in resistance.
Resistivity: Resistivity is the intrinsic property of a material that
quantifies its resistance to the flow of electric current. For most metals,
resistivity also increases with temperature. The increased thermal
motion of atoms causes more scattering of electrons, which increases
resistivity.
Example: Copper (Cu)
Resistance: At room temperature, copper has a relatively low

resistance. As the temperature increases, the resistance of copper also
increases. For example, if you heat a copper wire, its resistance will go
up. This is why electrical circuits can sometimes experience increased
resistance if they get hot due to excessive current flow.
Resistivity: The resistivity of copper at room temperature is
approximately 1.68×10−81.68×10−8 ohm-meter (Ω⋅m). As the
temperature increases, the resistivity of copper also tends to increase.
2.FOR INSULATORS:
Resistance: In insulators, the relationship between resistance and
temperature is not as straightforward as in conductors. In some cases,
resistance may increase with temperature, while in others, it may
decrease. This depends on the specific properties of the material and
how its electrons behave at an atomic level.
Resistivity: For insulators, resistivity typically increases with
temperature. This is because as the temperature rises, electrons in the
valence band gain energy and become more mobile. This increased
mobility can lead to more hopping of electrons between atoms, which
increases resistivity.
Example: Glass (SiO2)
Resistance: Glass is a good insulator. The relationship between

resistance and temperature for glass can be complex. Some types of
glass, like borosilicate glass used in laboratory equipment, have
relatively low temperature coefficients and show only minor changes in
resistance with temperature. Others may exhibit more significant
variations.
Resistivity: The resistivity of glass is very high. For most types of glass,
resistivity increases with temperature.
3.FOR SEMICONDUCTORS:
Resistance: In semiconductors, the relationship between resistance
and temperature is quite significant. For intrinsic (pure)
semiconductors, the resistance decreases as temperature increases.
This is due to the increased generation of charge carriers (electrons) at
higher temperatures.
Resistivity: For extrinsic semiconductors, the relationship between
resistivity and temperature can be more complex. In n-type
semiconductors, resistivity generally decreases with temperature due to
increased carrier concentration. In p-type semiconductors, resistivity
often increases with temperature.
Example: Silicon (Si) Intrinsic Silicon
Resistance: In intrinsic silicon (pure silicon with no intentional

impurities), as the temperature increases, the resistance tends to
decrease. This is because at higher temperatures, more electron-hole
pairs are generated, increasing the conductivity.
Resistivity: The resistivity of intrinsic silicon decreases with increasing
temperature.
GRAPHS DEPICTING EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE &
RELATION BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND RESISTIVITY

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NAME : PATEL DARSHANKUMAR JAYESHBHAI

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Applications of Ohm’s Law

Example: Copper (Cu)

Resistance: At room temperature, copper has a relatively low

Example: Glass (SiO2)

Resistance: Glass is a good insulator. The relationship between

Example: Silicon (Si) Intrinsic Silicon

Resistance: In intrinsic silicon (pure silicon with no intentional

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