UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

BASICS OF POWER SYSTEM

Syllabus: Layout & operation of Hydro, Thermal, Nuclear Stations - Solar & wind generating stations – Typical AC
Power Supply scheme – Elements of Transmission line – Types of Distribution systems: Primary & Secondary
distribution systems.

4.1 Introduction:
1. Question: Draw the single line diagram of a typical electric supply system and
explain about different stages? (7 Marks)

A power system is an interconnected network with components converting nonelectrical

energy continuously into the electrical form and transporting the electrical energy from generating
sources to the loads/users. A power system serves one important function and that is to supply
customers with electricity as economically and as reliably as possible. It can be divided into three
sub-systems:
1. What are the levels of voltages for generation, transmission and distribution in India? ( 3 Marks)

Generation - Generating and/or sources of electrical energy (11kV to 33kV).

Transmission - Transporting electrical energy from its sources to load centres with high
voltages (33 kV and above) to reduce losses.
Distribution - Distributing electrical energy from substations (33 kV ~ 11 kV) to end
users/customers.

Fig. 1-1. A basic structure of a simplified power system.

This basic structure of a power system is shown in Figure 1-1. The generator converts
nonelectrical energy to electrical energy. The devices connecting generators to transmission system
and from transmission system to distribution system are transformers. Their main functions are
stepping up the lower generation voltage to the higher transmission voltage and stepping down the
higher transmission voltage to the lower distribution voltage.
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The main advantage of having higher voltage in transmission system is to reduce the losses
in the grid. Since transformers operate at constant power, when the voltage is higher, then the
current has a lower value. Therefore, the losses (I2 R), a function of the current square, will be lower
at a higher voltage.

4.2 HYDRO POWER PLANT

Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine
converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the
mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.
Hydro power projects are developed for the following purpose,
▪ To control the floods in the rivers.
▪ Generation of power.
▪ Storage of irrigation water.
▪ Storage of the drinking water supply.
4.2.1 Challenges in Hydro Power Plant Installation
▪ The capital cost of the total plant.
▪ Transmission line installation and maintenance cost.
▪ The cost of electric generation compared with steam, oil or gas plants which can be
conveniently set up near the load center.
▪ The output of a hydro-electric plant is never constant due to vagaries of monsoons and
their dependence on the rate of water flow in a river.
2. Question: What are the factors to be considered for selection of the site for
a hydroelectric power plant? (7 Marks)

4.2.2 Selection of Site for A Hydro-Electric Power Plant

While selecting a suitable site, if a good system of natural storage lakes at high altitudes and
with large catchment areas can be located, the plant will be comparatively economical.
The following factors should be given careful consideration while selecting a site for a hydro-
electric power plant
(i) Water availability:
➢ Since the primary requirement of a hydro-electric power station is the availability of huge
quantity of water, such plants should be built at a place (e.g., river, canal) where adequate
water is available at a good head.
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➢ To know the available energy from a given stream or river, the discharge flowing and its
variation with time over a number of years must be known.
➢ The recorded observation should be taken over a number of years to know within
reasonable limits the maximum and minimum variations from the average discharge.
➢ The plant capacity and the estimated output as well as the need for storage will be
governed by the average flow.
(ii) Water storage:
➢ The output of a hydropower plant is not uniform due to wide variations of rain fall.
➢ To have a uniform power output, water storage is needed so that excess flow at certain times
may be stored to make it available at the times of low flow.
➢ This leads to the conclusion that site selected for a hydro-electric plant should provide
adequate facilities for constructing a dam and storage of water.
(iii) Water head:
➢ The level of water in the reservoir for a proposed plant should always be within limits
throughout the year.
(iv) Distance from load center:
➢ Most of the time the electric power generated in a hydro-electric power plant has to be used
some considerable distance from the site of plant.
➢ For this reason, transmission system for hydro-electric power plant must be carefully
considered.
(v) Access to site:
➢ It is always a desirable factor to have a good access to the site of the plant.
➢ This factor is very important if the electric power generated is to be utilized at or near the
plant site. The transport facilities must also be given due consideration.
________________________________________________________________________
4.2.3 Classification of Hydro Electric Power Plants
Hydroelectric plants are classified according
(i) Based on available head
(a) High head plants (head > 100 m)
(b) Medium head plants (30 m to 100 m)
(c) Low head plants (head < 30 m)
(ii) Based on nature of load
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(d) Base load plants

( e ) Peak load plants
(iii) Based on quantity of water available
(f) Run-off river plants (with and without pond age).
(g) Storage plants.
(h) Pumped storage plants.
a. High head plants
▪ The water from the reservoir can be taken to a smaller storage known as a fore bay, by mans
of tunnels.
▪ From the fore bay, the water is then distributed to the penstocks.
▪ The function of the fore bay is to distribute the water to penstocks leading to turbines.
▪ The inflow to the fore bay is so regulated that the level in the fore bay remains nearly
constant.

▪ The turbines will thus be fed with under a constant static head.
▪ Thus, the fore bays help to regulate the demand for water according to the load on the
turbines.
▪ In the valve house, the butterfly valves or the sluice type valves control the water flow in
the penstocks and these valves are electrically driven.
▪ Gate valves are also there in the power house to control the water flow through the
turbines. After flowing through tile turbines. The water is discharged to the tail race.
b. Medium head plants
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▪ It is used if the head of water available is more than 50 m., then the water from the fore
bay is conveyed to the turbines through pen-stocks.
▪ In these plants, the river water is usually tapped off to a fore bay on one bank of the river
as in the case of a low head plant.
▪ From the fore bay, the water is then led to the turbines through penstocks.
(C) Low head plants

▪ A dam is built on the river and the water is diverted into a canal which conveys the water
into a fore bay from where the water is allowed to flow through turbines. After this, the
water is again discharged into the river through a tail race.
▪ At the mouth of the canal, head gates are fitted to control the flow in the canal. Before
water enters the turbines from the fore bay.
▪ If there is any excess water due to increased flow in the river or due to decrease of load
on the plant, it will flow over the top of the dam
(d) Base load plants
▪ Plants supplying base load which is generally constant and runs without stop are known
as base load plants.
▪ These are of greater capacity.
▪ The run off river and storage type power plants are used as base load plants.
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e) Peak load plants

▪ These plants supply power at the peak load time.
▪ Run off river plants with pond age and pumped storage plants are used as peak load
plants.
▪ They store water during off peak time and supply for peak hours.
f) Run-off river plants with pondage
▪ Pondage refers to the collection of water behind the dam and increases the steam capacity
for short periods.
▪ This plant has a flexibility to meet the hourly demand.
▪ At times of high water flow it may be base loaded and during dry seasons it may be peak
loaded.
g) Storage type plants
▪ Plants would have reservoirs of large size to facilitate the storage of water and thus it is
independent of seasonal streams.
▪ These plants can be used as base load as well as peak load alternative.
▪ The majority of the hydro plants in world is this type.
Question : What is the principle of pumped storage scheme? (3 Marks)

h) Pumped storage plants

▪ Like peaking, pumped storage is a method of keeping water in reserve for peak period
power demands.
▪ Water pumped to a storage pool above the power plant at a time when customer demand
for energy is low, such as during the middle of the night.
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▪ The water is then allowed to flow back through the turbine generators at times when
demand is high.
▪ The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing power in the form of water when demands
are low and producing maximum power during daily and seasonal peak periods.
▪ An advantage of pumped storage is that hydroelectric generating units are able to start up
quickly and make rapid adjustments in output.
▪ They operate efficiently when used for one hour or several hours.
3. Question: Draw and explain the layout of Hydroelectric plant (7
Marks)

4.2.4 Layout of Hydro-Electric Power Plant & Essential Features

Figure: 4.2.11: Layout of hydroelectric power plant

Figure 4.2.11 shows the layout of a hydroelectric power plant. Components of a hydroelectric
power plant are,
(i) Catchment area
(ii) Reservoir
(iii) Dam
(iv) Sluice gate
(v) Penstock
(vi) Surge tank
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(vii) Inlet valve

(viii) Draft Tube
(ix) Tail Race
(x) Spillway
(xi) Turbine
(xii) Power house
Now let us understand features of each component.
(a) Catchment area: The catchment area of a hydro plant is the whole area behind the dam,
draining into a stream or river across which the dam has been built at a suitable place.
(b) Reservoir:
▪ Whole of the water available from the catchment area is collected in a reservoir behind the
dam.
▪ The purpose of the storing of water in the reservoir is to get a uniform power output
throughout the year.
▪ A reservoir can be either natural or artificial.
▪ A natural reservoir is a lake in high mountains and an artificial reservoir is made by
constructing a dam across the river.
(c) Dam:
o A dam is built across a river for two functions: to store the river water and to create the head
of water.
o Dams may be classified according to their structural materials such as: Timber, steel, earth,
rock filled and masonry.
(d) Sluice gate:
✓ Gates and valves control the rate of water flow entering the intake.
✓ Sluice gate is used to control the water access to the channel and fore bay,
✓ It is also used for stopping the water when overhauling the channels or fore bay.
(e) Penstock:
- Penstocks are pipes which carry water from the reservoir to the turbines inside power
station.
- They are usually made of steel and are equipped with gate systems. Water under high
pressure flows through the penstock.
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- A tunnel serves the same purpose as a penstock. It is used when an obstruction is present
between the dam and power station such as a mountain.
- Pressure tunnels must be kept far below the lowest possible hydraulic gradient to avoid, the
creation of vacuum and the consequent risks of unstable flow, cavitation’s and collapse of
lining.
- Total friction losses in the tunnel must not be great enough to impair the output and the
regulation of machines.

(f) Surge tank:

- A Surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due to sudden
changes in pressure.
- It is used to serve as a supply tank to the turbine and as a storage tank.
- It reduces the distance between the free water surface in the dam and the turbine
(g) Inlet valve: Inlet valves are used to control the flow of water to the turbines from the dam.
(h) Draft Tube:

The draft-tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connects the outlet of the runner to the
tail race. One end of the draft tube is connected to the outlet of the runner while the other end is
submerged below the level of water in the tail race.

• The primary purpose of the draft tube is to monitor the

water flow.

• If the pressure at the exit of the turbine is lower than the

pressure of fluid in the tailrace, a back flow of liquid into the
turbine can result in significant damage. By placing a diffusing pipe
(draft tube) at the exit of the runner, the pressure head is increased by decreasing the exit
velocity, and both the overall efficiency and the output of the turbine can be improved.
(i) Tail race:
- Tail race is a passage for discharging the water leaving the turbines, into the river.
- Water from the tail race can be pumped back into the original reservoir.
(j) Spillway:
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Excess accumulation of water endangers the stability of dam construction. Also, in order to
avoid the over flow of water out of the dam especially during rainy season spillways is provided.
This prevents the rise of water level in the dam.

Spillways are passages which allow the excess water to flow to a storage area away from the
dam.

- The part of the dam which discharges the flood flow to the downstream side is called as
spillway.
- Spillways act as a safety valve for a dam.
- They are provided on dams to avoid damage to dams.
- They keep the reservoir level below the predetermined maximum level.
(k) Turbine:
- Hydraulic turbines may be defined as prime movers that transform the kinetic energy of the
falling water into mechanical energy of rotation and whose primary function is to drive an
electric generator.
(l) Power house: The power house is a building in which the alternators and the auxiliary plant
are housed.

Question: Explain the following i) Surge tank ii) Tailrace (3 Marks)

4.2.5 Surge Tank

A Surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due to sudden
changes in pressure.
Purpose of surge tank:
- To serve as a supply tank to the turbine when the water in the pipe is accelerated during
increased load conditions and as a storage tank when the water is decelerating during reduced
load conditions.
- To reduce the distance between the free water surface in the dam and the turbine, thereby
reducing the water-hammer effect on penstock and also protects the upstream tunnel from
high pressure rise.
Types of surge tank:
(a) Simple surge tank
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(b) Inclined surge tank

(c) Expansion chamber surge tank
(a) Simple surge tank
A simple surge tank is a vertical stand pipe connected to the penstock. Surge tanks are built
high so that water cannot overflow even with a full load change on the turbine.
(b) Inclined surge tank

-When a surge tank is inclined to the horizontal its effective water

surface increases and therefore, lesser height surge tank is required of
the same diameter if it is inclined or lesser diameter tank is required
for the same height.

(c) Expansion chamber surge tank

This type of surge tank has an expansion tank at the top and
expansion gallery at the bottom, these expansions limit the extreme
surges.

ii) Tail Race:

The tail race, containing tail water, is a channel that carries water away from
a hydroelectric plant or water wheel. The water in this channel has already been used to
rotate turbine blades or the water wheel itself. This water has served its purpose, and leaves
the power generation unit or water wheel area.
In hydroelectric dams, the tail race is at a much lower level than the height of the reservoir behind
the dam. This difference in height corresponds to the amount of hydropower that can be obtained
from the water, and the height difference is known as the hydraulic head. This change in height
corresponds to a change in gravitational potential energy. Some of the gravitational potential energy
from the water above the dam was used to spin the turbines and generate electricity. Water flowing
from a hydroelectric plant in the tail race eventually joins the natural flow of water.[2]
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In water wheels, the tail race can be either at the same height as the mill race - in the case
of undershot wheels - or at a lower height - in the case of breast shot wheels and overshot wheels.
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4.3. THERMAL POWER PLANT

A power generating station or power plant uses various sources like hydel energy, thermal
energy, diesel, nuclear energy to produce bulk electric power. A generating station which converts
heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy is known as a steam power station. It can also
be called as a thermal power station or thermal power generating plant.
In most places the turbine is steam-driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins
a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine the steam
is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated. This is known as a Rankine cycle.
The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different heat
sources; fossil fuel power generation, though nuclear heat energy, solar heat energy, biofuels, and
waste incineration are also used. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities
convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy. Certain thermal power stations are also
designed to produce heat for industrial purposes, for district heating, or desalination of water, in
addition to generating electrical power.

3.Question: What are the factors to be considered for selection of the site for a
Thermal power plant? (7 Marks)

4.3.1 Selection of site for Thermal power Plant:

The following points should be considered while site selection of steam power station:

(i) Supply of fuel: The steam power plant should be located near the coal mines so
that transportation cost of fuel is minimum. However, if such a plant is to be installed at a
place where coal is not available, then care should be taken that adequate facilities exist for
the transportation of coal.

(ii) Availability of water: As huge amount of water is required for the condenser; therefore, such a
plant should be located on the bank of a river or near a canal to ensure the continuous supply of
water.

(iii) Transportation facilities: A modern steam power plant often requires the transportation
of material and machinery. Therefore, adequate transportation facilities must exist i.e., the plant
should be well connected to other parts of the country by rail, road. etc.
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(iv) Cost and type of land: The steam power station should be located at a place where land
is cheap and further extension, if necessary, is possible. Moreover, the bearing capacity of
the ground should be adequate so that heavy equipment could be installed.

(v) Nearness to load centers: In order to reduce the transmission cost, the plant should be located
near the center of the load. This is particularly important if dc supply system is adopted. However,
if ac the supply system is adopted, this factor becomes relatively less important. It is because ac
power can be transmitted at high voltages with consequently reduced transmission cost. Therefore,
it is possible to install the plant away from the load centers, provided other conditions are favorable.

(vi) Distance from populated area: As huge amount of coal is burnt in a steam power
station; therefore, smoke and fumes pollute the surrounding area. This necessitates that the
plant should be located at a considerable distance from the populated areas.

4. Question: Draw and explain the layout of Thermal Power plant (7 Marks)

4.3.2 Layout of thermal power plant:

Steam is an important medium for producing mechanical energy. Steam is used to drive steam
engines and steam turbines. Steam has the following advantages.
1. Steam can be raised quickly from water which is available in plenty.
2. It does not react much with materials of the equipment used in power plants.
3. It is stable at temperatures required in the plant.

Equipment of a Steam Power Plant:

A steam power plant must have the following equipment.

1. A furnace for burning the fuel.

2. A steam generator or boiler for steam generation.
3. A power unit like an engine or turbine to convert heat energy into mechanical energy.
4. A generator to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
5. Piping system to carry steam and water.

Figure: shows a schematic layout of a steam power plant. The working of a steam power plant can
be explained in four circuits.

a) Fuel (coal) and ash circuit

b) Air and flue gas circuit
c) Feed water and steam flow circuit
d) Cooling water flow circuit
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i) Boiler. The heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilized to convert water into steam at high
temperature and pressure. The flue gases from the boiler make their journey through super-heater,
economizer, air pre-heater and are finally exhausted to atmosphere through the chimney.
ii) Superheater. The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through a superheater where
it is dried and superheated (i.e., steam temperature increased above that of boiling point of water)
by the flue gases on their way to chimney. Superheating provides two principal benefits. Firstly, the
overall efficiency is increased. Secondly, too much condensation in the last stages of turbine (which
would cause blade corrosion) is avoided. The superheated steam from the superheater is fed to
steam turbine through the main valve.
iii) Economizer. An economizer is essentially a feed water heater and derives heat from the flue
gases for this purpose. The feed water is fed to the economizer before supplying to the boiler. The
economizer extracts a part of heat of flue gases to increase the feed water temperature.
(iv) Air preheater. An air preheater increases the temperature of the air supplied for coal burn-ing
by deriving heat from flue gases. Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and is
passed through air preheater before supplying to the boiler furnace. The air preheater extracts heat
from flue gases and increases the temperature of air used for coal combustion. The principal
benefits of preheating the air are: increased thermal efficiency and increased steam capacity per
square meter of boiler surface.
v) Steam turbine. The dry and superheated steam from the superheater is fed to the steam turbine
through main valve. The heat energy of steam when passing over the blades of turbine is converted
into mechanical energy. After giving heat energy to the turbine, the steam is exhausted to the
condenser which condenses the exhausted steam by means of cold-water circulation.
Condenser: The condenser receives an exhaust hot steam from turbine; with the help of water it is
cooled. Water taken from available water sources e.g. river and is filtered in water treatment plant.
This water is re-circulated to heat exchanger through feed water heater & Pump
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vi)Alternator. The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. The alternator converts mechanical
energy of turbine into electrical energy. The electrical output from the alternator is delivered to the
bus bars through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators.
vii) Feed water. The condensate from the condenser is used as feed water to the boiler. Some water
may be lost in the cycle which is suitably made up from external source. The feed water on its way
to the boiler is heated by water heaters and economizer. This helps in raising the overall efficiency
of the plant.
viii) Cooling arrangement. In order to improve the efficiency of the plant, the steam exhausted
from the turbine is condensed* by means of a condenser. Water is drawn from a natural source of
supply such as a river, canal or lake and is circulated through the condenser. The circulating water
takes up the heat of the exhausted steam and itself becomes hot. This hot water coming out from the
condenser is discharged at a suitable location down the river. In case the availability of water from
the source of supply is not assured throughout the year, cooling towers are used. During the scarcity
of water in the river, hot water from the condenser is passed on to the cooling towers where it is
cooled. The cold water from the cooling tower is reused in the condenser.

4.3.3 Merits (Advantages) & Demerits of a Thermal Power Plant

Advantages:
1. The unit capacity of a thermal power plant is more. The cost of unit decreases with the
increase in unit capacity.
2. Life of the plant is more (25-30 years) as compared to diesel plant (2-5 years).
3. Repair and maintenance cost is low when compared with diesel plant.
4. Initial cost of the plant is less than nuclear plants.
5. Suitable for varying load conditions.
6. No harmful radioactive wastes are produced as in the case of nuclear plant.
7. Unskilled operators can operate the plant.
8. The power generation does not depend on water storage.
9. There are no transmission losses since they are located near load centers.
Demerits of thermal power plants
1. Thermal plant are less efficient than diesel plants
2. Starting up the plant and bringing into service takes more time.
3. Cooling water required is more.
4. Space required is more
5. Storage required for the fuel is more
6. Ash handling is a big problem.
7. Not economical in areas which are remote from coal fields
8. Fuel transportation, handling and storage charges are more
9. Number of persons for operating the plant is more than that of nuclear plants.
These increases operation cost.
10. For large units, the capital cost is more. Initial expenditure on structural materials,
piping, storage mechanisms is more.
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1. Question: What is a jet condenser? (3 Marks)

4.3.4 CONDENSERS:
A condenser is a device which condenses the steam at the exhaust of turbine. It serves two
important functions. Firstly, it creates a very low *pressure at the exhaust of turbine, thus
permitting expansion of the steam in the prime mover to a very low pressure. This helps in
converting heat energy of steam into mechanical energy in the prime mover. Secondly, the
condensed steam can be used as feed water to the boiler.
Two types of condensers are used. 1) Jet Condenser 2) Surface Condenser

1) Jet condenser: In jet condensers the exhaust steam and cooling water come in direct contact
with each other whereas as in surface condensers they don’t mix with each other.In a jet condenser,
cooling water and exhausted steam are mixed together. Therefore, the temperature of cooling water
and condensate is the same when leaving the condenser. Advantages of this type of condenser are:
low initial cost, less floor area required, less cooling water required and low maintenance charges.
However, its disadvantages are: condensate is wasted and high power is re-quired for pumping
water. The temperature of cooling water and the condensate is same in jet condensers when leaving
the condensers.

Fig : i) Jet Condenser ii) Surface Condenser

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1. Question: Explain how Impulse turbine works? (3 Marks)

4.3.5 STEAM TURBINES

Steam entering from a small opening attains a very high velocity.

The velocity attained during expansion depends on the initial and final content of the steam. The
difference in initial and final heat content represent the heat energy to be converted to kinetic
energy.
There are two types of steam turbines: 1. Impulse turbine and 2. Reaction Turbine

1) Impulse Turbine:

An impulse turbine is a turbine that is driven by high

velocity jets of water or steam from a nozzle directed on to vanes or
buckets attached to a wheel. The resulting impulse (as described by
Newton's second law of motion) spins the turbine and removes kinetic
energy from the fluid flow. Before reaching the turbine, the fluid's pressure head is changed to
velocity head by accelerating the fluid through a nozzle. This preparation of the fluid jet means that
no pressure casement is needed around an impulse turbine.

2) Reaction Turbine:

❖ Reaction turbine have no nozzles. These two have alternate rows of

moving and fixed blades. The moving blades are mounted on shaft,
while fixed blades are fixed in casing of turbine.
❖ When high pressure steam passes through fixed blades, then steam
pressure drops down and velocity of steam increases.
❖ As steam passes over moving blades, the steam expands and
imparts energy, resulting in reduction in pressure and velocity of steam.
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2. Question: Why the efficiency of a thermal power plant is low? (3

Marks)
4.3.6 Efficiency of thermal power Plant

The overall efficiency of a steam power station is quite low (about 29%) due mainly to
two reasons. Firstly, a huge amount of heat is lost in the condenser and secondly heat losses
occur at various stages of the plant. The heat lost in the condenser cannot be avoided. It is
because heat energy cannot be converted into mechanical energy without temperature
difference. The greater the temperature difference, the greater is the heat energy converted*
into mechanical energy. This necessitates to keep the steam in the condenser at the lowest
temperature. But we know that greater the temperature difference, greater is the amount of
heat lost. This explains for the low efficiency of such plants.
(i) Thermal efficiency. The ratio of heat equivalent of mechanical energy transmitted to the
turbine shaft to the heat of combustion of coal is known as thermal efficiency of steam power
station.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
=
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The thermal efficiency of a modern steam power station is about 30%. It means that if 100
calories of heat is supplied by coal combustion, then mechanical energy equivalent of 30 calories
will be available at the turbine shaft and rest is lost. It may be important to note that more than
50% of total heat of combustion is lost in the condenser. The other heat losses occur in flue
gases, radiation, ash etc.

(ii) Overall efficiency. The ratio of heat equivalent of electrical output to the heat of combustion
of coal is known as overall efficiency of steam power station

i.e.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The overall efficiency of a steam power station is about 29%. It may be seen that overall
efficiency is less than the thermal efficiency. This is expected since some losses (about 1%) occur
in the alternator. The following relation exists among the various efficiencies.

Overall efficiency =Thermal efficiency - Electrical efficiency

 UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

4.4 NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is known as a
nuclear power station.
Nuclear power plants are a type of power plant that use the process of nuclear fission in
order to generate electricity. They do this by using nuclear reactors in combination with the Rankine
cycle, where the heat generated by the reactor converts water into steam, which spins a turbine and
a generator. Nuclear power provides the world with around 11% of its total electricity, with the
largest producers being the United States and France.
In nuclear power station, heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are sub-jected
to nuclear fission* in a special apparatus known as a reactor. The heat energy thus released is
utilized in raising steam at high temperature and pressure. The steam runs the steam turbine which
converts steam energy into mechanical energy. The turbine drives the alternator which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

The most important feature of a nuclear power station is that huge amount of electrical energy can
be produced from a relatively small amount of nuclear fuel as compared to other conventional types
of power stations. It has been found that complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium (U235) can produce as
much energy as can be produced by the burning of 4,500 tons of high-grade coal. Al-though the
recovery of principal nuclear fuels (i.e., Uranium and Thorium) is difficult and expensive, yet the
total energy content of the estimated world reserves of these fuels are considerably higher than
those of conventional fuels, viz., coal, oil and gas. At present, energy crisis is gripping us and,
therefore, nuclear energy can be successfully employed for producing low cost electrical energy on
a large scale to meet the growing commercial and industrial demands.

• Nuclear power plants are usually considered to be base load stations, which are best suited to
constant power output.

4.4.1 Different fuels used in nuclear power plant:

Uranium is an abundant metal and is full of energy: One uranium fuel pellet creates as much
energy as one ton of coal, 149 gallons of oil or 17,000 cubic feet of natural gas. It does not come out
of the ground ready to go into a reactor, though. It is mined and processed to create nuclear fuel.
Atomic Number: 92, Melting Point: 1408 K (1135°C or 2075°F), Boiling
Point: 4404 K (4131°C or 7468°F)
Before uranium goes into a reactor, it must undergo four major processing steps to take it from its
raw state to usable nuclear fuel: mining and milling, conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication.
Nuclear fuel is the fuel that is used in a nuclear reactor to sustain a nuclear chain reaction. These
fuels are fissile, and the most common nuclear fuels are the radioactive metals uranium-235 and
plutonium-239.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

Uranium is a very important element because it provides us with nuclear fuel used to generate
electricity in nuclear power stations. Naturally occurring uranium consists of 99% uranium-238 and
1% uranium-235. Uranium-235 is the only naturally occurring fissionable fuel (a fuel that can
sustain a chain reaction).
Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known isotopes are unstable, with the six naturally
occurring ones (thorium-227, 228, 230, 231, 232, and 234). India and China are in the process of
developing nuclear power plants with thorium reactors, but this is still a very new technology.
Thorium has higher cost that’s why it is not popular.

Natural Uranium & Enriched Uranium

❖ Natural uranium contains 0.7% of the U-235 isotope. The remaining 99.3% is mostly the U-238
isotope which does not contribute directly to the fission process (though it does so indirectly by
the formation of fissile isotopes of plutonium).
❖ Isotope separation is a physical process to concentrate (‘enrich’) one isotope relative to others.
❖ Most reactors are light water reactors (of two types – PWR and BWR) and require uranium to
be enriched from 0.7% to 3-5% U-235 in their fuel. This is normal low-enriched uranium
(LEU). There is some interest in taking enrichment levels to about 7%, and even close to 20%
for certain special power reactor fuels, as high-assay LEU (HALEU). Uranium-235 and U-238
are chemically identical, but differ in their physical properties, notably their mass.
❖ The nucleus of the U-235 atom contains 92 protons and 143 neutrons, giving an atomic mass of
235 units. The U-238 nucleus also has 92 protons but has 146 neutrons – three more than U-
235 – and therefore has a mass of 238 units.

5. Question: Mention the advantages & disadvantages of nuclear power plant

(7Marks)

4.4.2 Advantages & Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Station:

1) A nuclear power station occupies much smaller space compared to other conventional power
station of same capacity.
2) This station does not require plenty of water; hence it is not essential to construct plant near
natural source of water.
3) This also does not require huge quantity of fuel; for e.g. 1 kg of uranium produces a heat which
is equivalent to 4300 tonnes of coal.
4) It is possible to locate the plant near to load centre
5) If bulk power is produced it is economical.
6) Clean operation, no ash is produced.
7) Area required is very less.
8) Independent of geographical conditions.
9) Saving of natural resources such as coal, oil, gas etc.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

1) The fuel is not easily available and it is very costly.

2) Initial cost for constructing nuclear power station is quite high.
3) Erection and commissioning of this plant is much complicated.
4) The fission by products is radioactive in nature, and it may cause high radioactive
pollution.
5) The maintenance cost is higher and the man power required to run a nuclear power
plant is quite higher since specially trained people are required
6) Sudden fluctuation of load cannot be met up efficiently by nuclear plant.
7) It is very big problem for disposal of this by products.
8) Enrichment technology is essential for fuel processing & fabrication.
9) Maintenance cost is very high.
10) Waste disposal is problematic
11) For variable load it is not suitable.
12) Construction is complicated.

6. Question: Draw the general layout of nuclear power plant and explain the
operation.(7 Marks)

4.4. 3 Layout of Nuclear Power Plant

UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

The above figure shows, the schematic arrangement of nuclear power plant. Every nuclear power
plant consists of following main parts, which are mentioned below:
a) Nuclear Reactor
b) Heat Exchanger
c) Steam Turbine
d) Condenser & Cooling Tower
e) Feed Water Heater

The nuclear reactor function is to produce heat at high temperature. For producing heat, the
reactor uses, nuclear fuel these are uranium or thorium etc. when the slowly moving neutrons hits
the nuclear fuel it produces heat. This heat passes to the heat exchanger; other input to this heat
exchanger is heated water. The water is heated with the help of feed water heater. The main
function of heat exchanger is to produce steam at high pressure. This high-pressure steam passes to
the steam turbine. When this steam flow towards turbine it starts rotating, the turbine & alternator
are coupled mechanically. Simultaneously alternator starts rotating and the electrical power
produced. The exhaust hot steam is passes to the condenser, where it is condensed by using cooling
tower, and it is again passing to the heat exchanger through feed water heater. This process is
continued.

Main parts of reactors and their Function:

Following are the main parts of every nuclear power plant:

a) Nuclear Fuel
b) Moderator
c) Control rods
d) Reflectors
e) Shielding
f) Reactor vessel
g) Heat Exchanger
h) Coolant
i) Turbine
j) Condenser
k) Cooling Tower
l) Water Treatment Chamber.

a) Nuclear Fuel:

In Nuclear Power Plant the fuels used are 235U, 233U, 239Pu . Out of three fuel any one of the fuels
used in nuclear power plant. The fuel is required in nuclear power plant to produce a huge amount
of heat energy. The fuel is inserted in fuel rod, these fuel rods are bombarded with slow moving
 UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

neutrons. Separate provision provided for bombarded or hits the neutron to the fuel rod, this device
is known as neutron bombardment device.

1. Question: Explain the function of moderator in nuclear power plant? (3 Marks)

b) Moderator:

In nuclear power plant, moderator is a device, of rod shaped. Moderator is placed near the nuclear
fuel rod. The main function of moderator in nuclear power plant is reduce the speed of neutrons
(neutron at slower speed is required to produce fission) & increases the fission processes.
Moderator rod is made up of graphite or heavy water or beryllium material.

c) Control Rods:

In nuclear power plant, the control rods are placed in between nuclear fuel rod, moderator and then
control rod. These control rods are operated either automatically or manually. (To start or stop the
chain reaction). In nuclear power plant the main function of control rod is to control the chain
reaction. If the control rod is inserted then it absorbs the freely moving neutrons & stop the chain
reaction, if it is no inserted chain reaction is in process, means chain reaction continued. The steady
rate or to stop the chain reaction is maintained through control rods. The control rods are made up
of cadmium, boron (alloyed with steel or aluminium).

d) Reflector:

Before shielding, the reflector is placed. The reflector is used to surround the reactor core. The
reflector will also help to bounce the escaping neutrons back to the reactor core & it conserve the
nuclear fuel.

e) Shielding:
 UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

Shielding is the also important part of nuclear power plant; shielding is in other words protecting. In
nuclear reactor, first one is nuclear fuel rod then moderator, control rod & reflector. Through this
shielding is provided. When the chain reaction starts, heat energy starts to produce. During this
period lots of radiation or rays are produced, these are very harmful; to avoid this shielding is
provided in reactor.

f) Reactor vessel:

After shielding the next layer is a reactor vessel. This vessel encloses reactor core, reflector,
shielding. It is used to protect complete nuclear reactor. Few holes are provided in the top portion of
reactor vessel to insert control rods & at lower side of this vessel fuel & moderator assembly are
placed.

g) Heat Exchanger:
The main function of heat exchanger in nuclear power plant is the boiled the cold water and
produces steam at high temperature & pressure.
Heat exchanger is used in nuclear power plant, to exchange the heat i.e. it consists of one input to
feed the cold water & output to flow of hot steam. The heat exchanger receives the heat from
reactor, this heat is continuously circulated through pipe, before it is re-entered to the reactor it is
filter. By using this heat a heat exchanger boils the cold water produces steam at high temperature
& Pressure. Further this steam passes to the steam turbine for generation of electrical power.

h) Coolant:
The coolant becomes a cold metal. In coolant the gases are used like carbon dioxide, air, hydrogen
etc. the heats from the heat exchanger are re-circulated to the reactor through pump after filtration.
During filtrations the unwanted impurities in the coolant are removed.

i) Turbine:
We know that, the turbine is a mechanical device and it is mechanically coupled with alternator. In
case of nuclear power plant turbine receives steam from heat exchange at high pressure, and it
rotates at high speed then alternator also rotates, this way electrical power produced. The exhaust
steam from turbine passes to condenser for further use.

j) Condenser:
The condenser receives an exhaust hot steam from turbine; with the help of water it is cooled. Water
taken from available water sources e.g. river and is filtered in water treatment plant. This water is
re-circulated to heat exchanger through feed water heater & Pump.
k) Cooling Tower:
The cooling towers are used to convert the hot water or steam exhausted from turbine into normal
water. That is, its temperature decreases at normal temperature.
l) Water treatment chamber:
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

The water treatment chamber provides filter water to the cooling tower, condenser through available
water source. It also reduces unwanted impurities in the stored water.

1. Question: What are the reasons for using cadmium as a control rod in nuclear reactor? Suggest other
suitable materials for control rod. (3 Marks)

Control of Nuclear Reactor:

The nuclear reactors are controlled in two ways:
1. By using control rods.
2. Control through flow of coolant
By using control rods:

We know that, in nuclear reactor uranium or

thorium or plutonium materials are used for
generation of heat energy.
If a slowly moving neutron hits or bombarded with
this heavy nucleus of nuclear fuel then the chain
reaction starts. Once the chain reaction starts then it
is continued. By using control rods, we have to
maintain its rate of flow of neutron or its speed, if
the control rod is not used in the nuclear reactor this process is very dangerous to control. In other
words, this process is works like atomic bomb.
To avoid this control rods are used in nuclear reactor. The main function of control rod in nuclear
reactor is to absorb the freely moving neutrons. To absorb these freely moving neutrons from
nuclear reactor the control rods are made up of either boron or cadmium.
As cadmium or boron easily absorbs slow moving neutrons. So, they are used in nuclear
reactor to control the fission rate. When cadmium rod is pushed into the reactor, the fission rate
decreases and when it is pulled out the fission rate increases.

The diameter of control rod is 8cm. its height is just more than nuclear reactor. The control
rods operated either automatically or manually. If it is operated automatically then sensors are used,
these sensors give signals to the control rods. The rods are operated in up & down direction, if it is
up then more heat generated & if it is down then it controls the reaction i.e. rate of heat generated is
minimum.

Control through flow of coolant: We know that, the heat is generated in nuclear reactor. This
heat is passes to the heat exchanger for the conversion of boiled water into steam. So the coolant is
used in the nuclear reactor to remove the heat generated. As the operating temperature of nuclear
reactor fluid coolant is used of higher thermal conductivity.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

4.5 SOLAR POWER

Solar energy: Energy originating from the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in the Sun is
called as solar energy. Energy which leaves the Sun is in the form of electromagnetic radiation and
it is spread across visible, IR and small part in UV spectral range.
Solar power: Conversion of energy from sun light into electricity either directly using photovoltaic
(PV), or indirectly by concentrated solar power (using lens, mirrors or tracking system) is called as
solar power.
Solar irradiance
▪ Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from Sun that form electromagnetic
radiation in the wave length range of the measuring instrument.
▪ Solar irradiance integrated over time is called is called as irradiation or insolation or solar
exposure.
▪ Irradiance can be measured in space or at any point on earth surface.

4.5.1 Introduction

Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation

into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. The
photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of energy,
allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic effect was first
observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839.

The first practical application of photovoltaic was to power orbiting satellites and another
spacecraft. Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and
sophistication, the cost of photovoltaic has declined steadily since the first solar cells were
manufactured.
Today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for either grid connected power generation or
off-grid application such as remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside
emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines.
1. What is solar cell, Module, and array? ( 3 Marks)

4.5.2 PV Cells, Modules & Arrays

 UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

To increase their utility, a number of individual PV cells are interconnected together in a sealed,
weatherproof package called a Panel (Module). For example, a 12 V Panel (Module) will have 36
cells connected in series and a 24 V Panel (Module) will have 72 PV Cells connected in series

To achieve the desired voltage and current, Modules are

wired in series and parallel into what is called a PV Array.
The flexibility of the modular PV system allows designers to
create solar power systems that can meet a wide variety of
electrical needs. The following figure shows PV cell, Panel
(Module) and Array.

1. Draw the equivalent circuit of a solar cell. ( 3 Marks)

4.5.3 Equivalent electrical circuit:

❖ A PV is an illuminated p-n junction in the reverse bias, connected to resistive load.

❖ The equivalent circuit of a PV cell mainly consists of current source IL, a diode D, internal shunt RP
and series resistances RS.
❖ The current produced by solar cell is equal to that produced by the current source, minus that which
flows through the diode, minus that which flows through the shunt resistor:

4.6 Block Diagram of Solar Photovoltaic System

Generally, there are two types of Solar Photovoltaic System they are

1. Autonomous Solar Photovoltaic system or Standalone Solar Photovoltaic system.

2. Grid Connected PV system.
a) Without Battery.
b) With Battery.

4. Question: Draw the block diagram of standalone solar PV systems and explain in detail
(7 Marks)
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

1) Autonomous PV system (or) Standalone Solar Photovoltaic System (SPV)

A Standalone SPV system is the one which is not connected to the power grid. Standalone PV
systems usually have a provision for energy storage. This system has battery support to supply the
load requirements during the night hours or even when sunshine is not adequate (Cloudy
conditions) during the day.

Introduction

A Solar PV panel produces DC electrical power, which is different from AC power that we receive
from our electrical grid supply. There are appliances that use either DC power or AC power for
their operation. Most of the equipment used in our homes use AC power. Therefore, it is often
required to convert DC power into AC power. The conversion of DC power to AC power can be
achieved using a device called inverter (or DC to AC converter). It is also possible to convert AC
power into DC power using a rectifier.

Block Diagram

The following shows the block diagram of Standalone SPV system. Power is generated when sun
light falls on the SPV module. This power is given to the MPPT or Charge controller block. The
function of this block is to control the variation in the output of the SPV module and make it
suitable for use at the output according to the supply required by a load. There are two types of the
loads: AC and DC. DC components are directly connected to the MPPT or Charge controller block,
whereas the AC appliances are connected through the Battery and inverter.

In this way, a Standalone system is connected depending upon whether only AC load is present or
both AC and DC load are present.

Simple Block Diagram of Standalone SPV system :

UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

1. Question: Draw the block diagram of grid tied solar PV systems without battery
storage and explain in detail (7 Marks)

2) Typical Grid Tied System (Battery less)

There are no batteries to store excess power generated-the electric utility essentially stores it for you
through a system called "net-metering." DC (direct current) generated by the PV panels is converted
into AC (alternating current) power by the inverter (exactly the same high-quality AC current
delivered to your site by the utility-provided power grid). Output from the inverter is connected to
your existing distribution panel (breaker panel) which feeds the rest of your site. While the system
is generating electricity, power needs are provided by the PV system (up to its capacity), reducing
or eliminating the power you would have drawn from the utility grid at that time. During periods
when your grid-tie system is generating even more energy than your site requires, any excess is fed
back into the grid for others to use and the electric utility company "buys" it from you at the retail
rate. They provide credits to your account for all the power that is pushed back into the grid through
the meter. And your meter will literally run backwards! When your site needs to draw more energy
than it is producing (say, during cloudy conditions or at night), electricity is provided by the power
grid in the normal manner and is first paid for by your accumulated credits.

3) Typical Grid Tied System with Battery Backup

The "Grid-Tie with Battery Backup" PV system incorporates one or more special AC circuits which
are not directly connected to the electric grid like the rest of the building, but are always powered
through the inverter and/or charge controller. These circuits may power a refrigerator, selected
lights, computers or servers... any devices the owner deems essential. The "dual function" inverter
can supply the utility grid with any excess power produced by the system like the "grid-tie"
inverter, plus the inverter works with the PV modules and battery bank (through the charge
controller) to provide AC power to the backup circuits when the grid is down. The charge controller
manages the battery voltage, keeping them fully charged when the grid is live, and preventing them
from being depleted when the system is drawing power from them.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

4.6 WIND POWER

The wind wheel, like the water wheel, has been used by man for a long time for grinding
corn and pumping water. Ancient seamen used wind power to sail their ships. With the
development of the fossil Characteristics of Wind Power

Wind as a source of energy is plentiful, inexhaustible and pollution free but it has the
disadvantage that the degree and period of its availability are uncertain. Also, movement of large
volumes of air is required, to produce even a moderate amount of power. As a result, the wind
power must be used as and when it is available, in contrast to conventional methods where energy
can be drawn upon when required. Wind power, therefore, is regarded as a means of saving fuel, by
injection of power into an electrical grid, or run wind power plant in conjunction with a pumped
storage plant. The power that can be theoretically obtained from the wind, is proportional to the
cube of its velocity and thus high wind velocities are most important. A wind turbine is the popular
name for a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electrical power.

The economic viability of wind mills is better in situations where conventional transmission costs
are extremely high (because of inaccessibility and small load) or where continuous availability of
supply is not essential so that only a limited amount of storage on standby power need be provided.
 UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

4.6.1 Anemometer
The speed of that wind can be measured using a tool called an
anemometer. An anemometer looks like a weather vane, but instead
of measuring which direction the wind is blowing with pointers, it has
four cups so that it can more accurately measure wind speed

It consisted of four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms, which were

mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction
turned the shaft at a rate that was roughly proportional to the wind speed. Therefore,
counting the turns of the shaft over a set time interval produced a value proportional
to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. It is also called a rotational
anemometer.

4.6.2 Power of a wind

Wind power = P = ½ m V2

Where
V= Wind speed
The amount of energy in the wind varies with the cube of the wind speed.
ρ = Density of the air
The denser the air, the more energy received by the turbine. Air density varies with elevation and
temperature
A= Swept area of the turbine
The larger the swept area (the size of the area through which the rotor spins), the more power the
turbine can capture from the wind. Since swept area is A=π r2 , where r = radius of the rotor, a small
increase in blade length results in a larger
increase in the power available to the turbine.

4.6.3 Wind Turbine:

1. Question: Draw the block diagram of

wind generating station and explain in
detail- (7 Marks)
A wind turbine is a device that converts
kinetic energy from the wind into mechanical
energy. If the mechanical energy is used to
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

produce electricity, the device may be called a wind generator or wind charger.
If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such as for grinding grain or pumping
water, the device is called a windmill or wind pump. Developed for over a millennium, today's wind
turbines are manufactured in a range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are
used for applications such as battery charging or auxiliary power on sailing boats; while large grid-
connected arrays of turbines are becoming an increasingly large source of commercial electric
power.

4.6.3.1 Inside the Wind Turbine:

Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the
blades to "lift" and rotate.
Brake: A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the
rotor in emergencies.
Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour
(mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above
about 55 mph because they might be damaged by the high winds.
Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational
speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational
speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part
of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct- drive" generators that operate at lower
rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity.
High-speed shaft: Drives the generator.
Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.
Nacelle: The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.
Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the rotor
from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind
speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more
electricity.
Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicate with the yaw drive to orient the turbine
properly with respect to the wind.
Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into
the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive, the wind
blows the rotor downwind.
Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.

1. Explain about Tip – Speed ratio? (3 Marks)

UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

Tip-Speed Ratio: Tip-speed ratio is the ratio of the speed of the rotating blade tip to the speed of
the free stream wind. There is an optimum angle of attack which creates the highest lift to drag
ratio. Because angle of attack is dependent on wind speed, there is an optimum tip-speed ratio

ΩR
TSR = 𝑉

Where, Ω = rotational speed in radians /sec

R = Rotor Radius
V = Wind “Free Stream” Velocity

2. Question -Mention the importance of gear box in wind turbine. ( 3 Marks)

The basic function of the gearbox is to transmit mechanical shaft power from the rotor side,
running at low speeds (approximately10–18 RPM for offshore wind turbines), to the generator
side, running at higher speeds (1800 RPM for 60 Hz or 1500 RPM for 50 Hz assuming a four-
pole synchronous generator)

2. Question: Explain about Horizontal axis wind turbine and vertical axis
wind turbine. (7 Marks)

Wind turbines are classified into two general types: horizontal axis and vertical axis. A
horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground. A vertical axis
machine has its blades rotating on an axis perpendicular to the ground.

1) Horizontal Axis wind Turbine:

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at
the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind
vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a
gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to
drive an electrical generator.

2) Vertical Axis wind Turbine:

Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) are a type of wind turbine where the main rotor shaft
is set traverse, not necessarily vertical, to the wind and the main components are located at the base
of the turbine. This arrangement allows the generator and gearbox to be located close to the ground,
facilitating service and repair. Wind pressure rotates the wind vanes or propellers attached to a
shaft. The revolving shaft rotates the rotor of a generator, through a mechanism of gears couplings
etc. Thus, electricity is generated.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

Types of Wind Turbine Generator Technologies

Presently four major types of WTG Technologies used:

1. Squirrel Cage Induction Generators driven by fixed-speed, stall-regulated wind turbines

2. Induction Generators with variable external rotor resistance driven by a variable-speed,
pitch regulated wind turbines.
3. Doubly-Fed Induction Generators driven by variable-speed, pitch regulated wind turbines
4. Synchronous or Induction Generators with full converter interface (back-to-back
frequency converter), driven by variable-speed, pitch regulated wind turbines
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

4.7 AC TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

In early days, there was a little demand for electrical energy so that small power stations
were built to supply lighting and heating loads. However, the widespread use of electrical energy
by modern civilization has necessitated to produce bulk electrical energy economically and
efficiently. The increased demand of electrical energy can be met by building big power stations at
favorable places where fuel (coal or gas) or water energy is available in abundance. This has
shifted the site of power stations to places quite away from the consumers. The electrical energy
produced at the power stations has to be supplied to the consumers. There is a large net- work of
conductors between the power station and the consumers.
An electric supply system consists of three principal components viz., the power station, the
transmission lines and the distribution system. Electric power is produced at the power stations
which are located at favorable places, generally quite away from the consumers. It is then
transmitted over large distances to load centers with the help of conductors known as transmission
lines. Finally, it is distributed to a large number of small and big consumers through a distribution
network.

3. Question: Explain about primary & Secondary transmission. ( 7 Marks)

4.7.1 Typical AC Power Supply Scheme

The large network of conductors between the power station and the consumers can be
broadly divided into two parts viz., transmission system and distribution system. Each part can be
further sub-divided into two—primary transmission and second- ary transmission and primary
distribution and secondary distribution. Fig. 4.7.1. shows the layout of a typical a.c. power supply
scheme by a single line diagram. It may be noted that it is not necessary that all power schemes
include all the stages shown in the figure. For example, in a certain power scheme, there may be
no secondary transmission and, in another case, the scheme may be so small that there is only
distribution and no transmission.
Generating station: In Fig 4.7.1, G.S. represents the generating station where electric power is
produced by 3-phase alternators operating in parallel. The usual generation voltage is 11 kV. For
economy in the transmission of electric power, the generation voltage (i.e., 11 kV) is stepped up to
132 kV (or **more) at the generating station with the help of 3-phase trans- formers.

In electrical generating power stations, electrical power is generated at medium voltage level
that ranges from 11 kV to 25 kV.
This generated power is sent to the generating step up transformer to make the voltage level higher.
From this point to the user end voltage level varies in different levels.
We can realize this voltage level variation step by step.

• At 11 kV or more than that up to 25 kV voltage level is maintained at alternator stator

terminals to generate electrical power in the generating station.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

• This generated power is fed to the

generating step up transformer to make this
medium voltage level to higher level, i.e. up to
33 kV.
• Power at 33 kV is sent to the generating
substation. There the transformer increases the
voltage level to 66 kV or 132 kV.
• From this generating substation power is sent
to the nearer substation to increase the voltage
level higher than previous. This level of
voltage is increased at different suitable levels,
it may be at 400 kV or 765 kV or 1000 kV.
This high voltage or extra high voltage level is
maintained to transmit the power to a long
distant substation. It is called primary
transmission of power.
• At the end point of primary transmission of
power, in the substation, the step-down
transformers are used to step down the voltage
level to 132 kV. Secondary transmission of
power starts from this substation.
• Power transformer at the end of the secondary
transmission, just makes 132 kV voltage level
steps down to 33 kv or 11 kV as per
requirement. From this point, the primary distribution of power starts to distribute power to
different distribution stations.
• At the end of the primary distribution, the distribution stations receive this power and step
down this voltage level of 11 kV or 33 kV to 415 V (Line Voltage). From these distribution
stations to consumer ends, 415 V is kept to sustain for utilization purpose.

1. Explain the reasons for using High voltage for long power transmission? ( 3 Marks)

Why High Voltage is used for Long Transmission Line?

The transmission of electric power at high voltages has several advantages including the
saving of conductor material and high transmission efficiency. It may appear advisable to use the
highest possible voltage for transmission of electric power to save conductor material and have
other advantages. But there is a limit to which this voltage can be increased. It is because in-
crease in transmission voltage introduces insulation problems as
Generally long distant transmission lines are designed to operate at high voltage, extra high
or ultra-high voltage level. It is because of line power loss reduction purpose.
Practically long distant transmission line resistance is comparatively more than medium and short
transmission line. Due to this higher valued transmission line resistance considerable amount of
power is lost.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

So, we need to decrease the amount of current through each conductor by making the operating
voltage very high for same amount of power transmission. We know that the power in AC system to
transmit is P=

Total power loss PLoss = 3IL2R considering three phases altogether. R is the resistance in ohm per
phase of the transmission line. Now, rearranging Equation (1) we get,

So, Again, in DC system, there is no phase difference between voltage and current, i.e. cos Ɵ = 1,
and only two conductors (positive and negative) are used. So, in DC system transmitted power P =
VI, and power loss from equation (2) and (3), it is clear that power loss in transmission line is
inversely proportional to the square of line voltage.
The higher value of line voltage the lesser amount of power loss occurs. Hence transmission line
conductor is used with less diameter, hence savings of conductor material.
1. Why the resistance as seen for AC supply is more when compared with DC supply? What is this
effect called? (3 Marks)
The non-uniform distribution of electric current over the surface or skin of the conductor
carrying a.c is called the skin effect. In other words, the concentration of charge is more near the
surface as compared to the core of the conductor. The ohmic resistance of the conductor is
increased due to the concentration of current on the surface of the conductor.
Skin effect increases with the increase in frequency. At low frequency, such as 50Hz, there is a
small increase in the current density near the surface of the conductor; but, at high frequencies, such
as radio frequency, practically the whole of the currents flows on the surface of the conductor.
If d.c current (frequency=0) is passed in a conductor, the current is uniformly distributed over the
cross-section of the conductors.
R AC = 1.6 x Rdc
Type of Power Lines

From the very beginning of power generation to the user end transmission lines are broadly
classified based on different voltage levels.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

4.7.2 INTRODUCTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Transmission Lines: A transmission line is used for the transmission of electrical power from
generating substation to the various distribution units. It transmits the wave of voltage and current
from one end to another. The transmission line is made up of a conductor having a uniform cross-
section along the line. Air act as an insulating or dielectric medium between the conductors.
For safety purpose, the distance between the line and ground is much more. The electrical tower is
used for supporting the conductors of the transmission line. Tower are made up of steel for
providing high strength to the conductor. For transmitting high voltage, over long-distance high
voltage direct current is used in the transmission line.

1. Question -What are the parameters of a transmission line and explain in

detail? (7 Marks)

4.7.2.1 Parameters of transmission line

The performance of transmission line depends on the parameters of the line. The transmission line
has mainly four parameters, resistance, inductance, capacitance and shunt conductance. These
parameters are uniformly distributed along the line. Hence, it is also called the distributed parameter
of the transmission line.

The inductance and resistance form series impedance whereas the capacitance and conductance
form the shunt admittance. Some critical parameters of transmission line are explained below in
detail
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

1) Line inductance – The current flow in the transmission line induces the magnetic flux. When the
current in the transmission line changes, the magnetic flux also varies due to which emf induces in
the circuit. The magnitude of inducing emf depends on the rate of change of flux. Emf produces in
the transmission line resist the flow of current in the conductor, and this parameter is known as the
inductance of the line.
2) Line capacitance – In the transmission lines, air acts as a dielectric medium. This dielectric
medium constitutes the capacitor between the conductors, which store the electrical energy, or
increase the capacitance of the line. The capacitance of the conductor is defined as the present of
charge per unit of potential difference.
Capacitance is negligible in short transmission lines whereas in long transmission; it is the most
important parameter. It affects the efficiency, voltage regulation, power factor and stability of the
system.
3) Shunt conductance – Air act as a dielectric medium between the conductors. When the
alternating voltage applies in a conductor, some current flow in the dielectric medium because of
dielectric imperfections. Such current is called leakage current. Leakage current depends on the
atmospheric condition and pollution like moisture and surface deposits.
Shunt conductance is defined as the flow of leakage current between the conductors. It is distributed
uniformly along the whole length of the line. The symbol Y represented it, and it is measured in
Siemens.

4.7.2.2. Performance of transmission lines

1. What do you understand by regulation of a transmission line? (3 Marks)

The term performance includes the calculation of sending end voltage, sending end current,
sending end power factor, power loss in the lines, efficiency of transmission, regulation and limits
of power flows during steady state and transient conditions. Performance calculations are helpful in
system planning. Some critical parameters are explained below
i) Voltage regulation – Voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of the voltage
between the sending and receiving ends of the transmission line.

ii) The efficiency of transmission lines – Efficiency of the transmission lines is defined as the ratio
of the input power to the output power.
 UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

Important points

• Admittance measures the capability of an electrical circuit or we can say it measures the efficiency
of a transmission line, to allows AC to flow through them without any obstruction. It SI unit is
Siemens and denoted by the symbol Y.
• Impedance is the inverse of the admittance. Its measure the difficulty occurs in the transmission line
when the AC flow. It is measured in ohms and represented by the symbol z.

Question- What are the different types of transmission lines? Explain. (7 Marks)

4.7.2.3 Classification of Transmission Lines

The classification of the transmission lines depends on its voltage and the length of the conductor.
The transmission line is the medium of transferring the power from the generating station to the
load centre. It is mainly classified into two types. They are the
1. AC Transmission Line
o Short-Transmission Line
o Medium Transmission Line
▪ Pi Model of a Medium Transmission Line
▪ T Model of a Medium Transmission Line
o Long Transmission Line
2. DC Transmission Line

1. AC Transmission Line
The transmission line
has resistance R, inductance L, capacitance C and the
shunt or leakage conductance G. These parameters along
with the load and the transmission line determine the
performance of the line. The term performance means the
sending end voltage, sending end currents, sending
end power factor, power loss in the line, efficiency of the
transmission line, regulate and limit of power flow during
efficiency and transmission, regulation and limits of
power during steady state and transient condition. The
comparison chart of the transmission line is shown in the
figure below.

a) Short Transmission Line

If the line is not more than 80 KV or if the voltage is not over
than 66 KV then the line is known as the short transmission line.
The capacitance of the line is governed by their length. The effect
of capacitance on the short transmission line is negligible, but for
cable where the distance between the conductor is small, the
effect of capacitance cannot be ignored. While studying the
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

performance of the short transmission line only resistance and the inductance of the line is
calculated.

b) Medium Transmission Line

The line which is ranging from 80 to 240 km is termed as a medium transmission line. The
capacitance of the medium transmission line cannot be ignored. The capacitance of the medium
transmission line is considered to be lumped at one or more point of the lines. The effect of the line
is more at high frequency, and their leakages inductance and capacitance are considered to be
neglected. The medium transmission line is sub-divided into Pi – model and T – model.
Pi Model of a Medium Transmission Line
In nominal Pi model, it is assumed that the half of the capacitance concentrate at each end of the
line.

T – Model of a Medium Transmission Line

In T model, it is assumed that the capacitance is concentrated at the centre of the line.
c) Long Transmission Line
The line having a length more than 240 km is considered a long transmission line. All the four
parameters (resistance, inductance, capacitance, and leakage conductance) are found to be equally
distributed along the entire length of the line.

2. DC Transmission Line
The DC transmission is mainly used for the bulk power transmission. For long distance
transmission, the DC is less expensive and have low electrical losses. The cost of the DC
transmission systems is higher for short distance transmission line because it requires more
convertible equipment as compared to an AC system.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

The converter station converts the AC to DC at the sending end and DC to AC at the load
end of the line. One of the major advantages of the DC system is that it allows the power

transmission between two unsynchronised AC system.

Electrical power is dominant as it is relatively much easier to transmit and distribute than other
forms of energy such as mechanical. Imagine transmitting mechanical energy to just 20 feet of
distance. Isn't it much easier to use wires instead of belts, chains or shafts?

We have seen how electrical energy is generated in generating stations and how it is transmitted
over long distances through transmission networks. Now, let's see how electrical power is
distributed to the consumers.

4.7.3 INTRODUCTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

A distribution substation is located near or inside city/town/village/industrial area. It receives

power from a transmission network. The high voltage from the transmission line is then stepped
down by a step-down transformer to the primary distribution level voltage. Primary distribution
voltage is usually 11 kV, but can range between 2.4 kV to 33 kV depending upon region or
consumer.
A typical power distribution system consists of -

a) Distribution substation
b) Feeders
c) Distribution Transformers
d) Distributor conductors
e) Service mains conductors
Along with these, a distribution system also consists of switches, protection
equipment, measurement equipment etc.

1. Define Feeder, Distributor and service mains? (3 Marks)

a) Distribution feeders: The stepped-down voltage from the substation is carried to distribution
transformers via feeder conductors. Generally, no tapings are taken from the feeders so that the
current remains same throughout. The main consideration in designing of a feeder conductor is its
current carrying capacity.
b) Distribution transformer: A distribution transformer, also called as service transformer,
provides final transformation in the electric power distribution system. It is basically a step-down 3-
phase transformer. Distribution transformer steps down the voltage to 400Y/230 volts. Here it
means, voltage between any one phase and the neutral is 230 volts and phase to phase voltage is
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

400 volts. However, in USA and some other countries, 120/240 volts split-phase system is used;
where voltage between a phase and neutral is 120 volts.
c) Distributors: Output from a distribution transformer is carried by distributor conductor.
Tapping’s are taken from a distributor conductor for power supply to the end consumers. The
current through a distributor is not constant as tapping’s are taken at various places throughout its
length. So, voltage drop along the length is the main consideration while designing a distributor
conductor.
d) Service mains: It is a small cable which connects the distributor conductor at the nearest pole to
the consumer's end.

The above figure shows a simple radial AC power distribution system. The figure does not show
other equipment like circuit breakers, measuring instruments etc. for simplicity purpose.

1) Question- Explain about AC primary & secondary distribution systems with

suitable diagrams (7 Marks)

4.7.3.2. Primary distribution & Secondary Distribution

1) Primary Distribution
It is that part of an AC distribution system which operates at somewhat higher voltages than general
residential consumer utilization. Commonly used primary distribution voltages in most countries are
11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV. Primary distribution handles large consumers such as factories and
industries.
It also feeds small substation from where secondary distribution is carried out. Primary distribution
is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire system.
2) Secondary distribution
This part directly supplies to the residential end consumers. Domestic consumers are fed with single
phase supply at 230 volts (120 volts in USA and some other countries). Three phase supply may
also be provided at 400 volts for big properties, commercial buildings, small factories etc.
Secondary transmission in most countries is carried out by 3-phase, 4-wire system.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

Question- What are the components of distribution system? Classify distribution

systems based on (i) Nature of current (ii) Type of construction ( 7 Marks)

4.7.3.3 Classification of power distribution systems

▪ According to nature of current:
1. DC distribution system
2. AC distribution system
▪ According to type of construction:
1. Overhead distribution system
2. Underground distribution system
▪ On the basis of scheme of connection:
1. Radial distribution system
2. Ring main distribution system
3. Inter-connected distribution system

Question- Explain about radial distribution system. List the disadvantages of

radial distribution systems. (7 Marks)

1) Radial distribution system

This system is used only when substation or generating station is located at the centre of the
consumers. In this system, different feeders radiate from a substation or a generating station and
feed the distributors at one end. Thus, the main characteristic of a radial distribution system is
that the power flow is in only one direction. Single line diagram of a typical radial distribution
system is as shown in the figure below. It is the simplest system and has the lowest initial cost.

Although this system is simplest and least expensive, it is not highly reliable. A major drawback of
a radial distribution system is, a fault in the feeder will result in supply failure to associated
consumers as there won't be any alternative feeder to feed distributors.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

1. Question- Explain about ring main distribution system and list the
advantages of ring main distribution? (7 Marks)

2) Ring main distribution system

A similar level of system reliability to that of the parallel feeders can be achieved by using ring
distribution system. Here, each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders but in different
paths. The feeders in this system form a loop which starts from the substation bus-bars, runs
through the load area feeding distribution transformers and returns to the substation bus-bars. The
following figure shows a typical single line diagram of a ring main distribution system.

Ring main distribution system is the most preferred due to its following advantages.

Advantages of ring main distribution system

▪ There are fewer voltage fluctuations at
consumer's terminal.
▪ The system is very reliable as each
distribution transformer is fed with two
feeders. That means, in the event of a fault
in any section of the feeder, the continuity
of the supply is ensured from the
alternative path.

2. Question- Explain about interconnected distribution system and list the

advantages of interconnected distribution? (7 Marks)

3) Interconnected distribution system

When a ring main feeder is energized by two
or more substations or generating stations, it is
called as an interconnected distribution
system.
This system ensures reliability in an event of
transmission failure. Also, any area fed from
one generating stations during peak load hours
can be fed from the other generating station or
substation for meeting power requirements
from increased load.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

4.7.3.4 Types of AC power distribution systems

As we all know, electrical power is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in it's
AC form. A distribution system usually begins from a substation where the power is delivered by
a transmission network. In some cases, the distribution system may start from a generating
station itself, such as when consumers are located near the generating station. For larger areas or
industrial areas, primary and secondary distribution may also be used.
The electric supply system can be broadly classified into (i) d.c. or a.c. system (ii) overhead or
underground system. Now-a- days, 3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted for
generation and transmission of electric power as an economical proposition. However, distribution
of electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-wire a.c. system. The underground system is more
expensive than the overhead system. Therefore, in our country, overhead system is *mostly
adopted for transmission and distribution of electric power.
According to phases and wires involved, an AC distribution system can be classified as -

1. Single phase, 2-wire system

2. Single phase, 3-wire system
3. Three phase, 3-wire system
4. Three phase, 4-wire system

2) Question- Explain about two wire & three wire DC distribution with
suitable diagrams. ( 7 Marks )

1) Single phase, 2-wire distribution

This system may be used for very short distances. The following figure shows a single phase two
wire system with - fig (a) one of the two wires earthed and fig. (b) mid-point of the phase winding
is earthed.

2) Single phase, 3-wire system

UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

This system is identical in principle with 3-wire dc distribution system. The neutral wire is centre-
tapped from the secondary winding of the transformer and earthed. This system is also called
as split-phase electricity distribution system. It is commonly used in North America for
residential supply.

3) Three phase, 3-wire distribution system

Three phase systems are very widely used for AC power distribution. The three phases may be
delta connected or star connected with star point usually grounded. The voltage between two phases
or lines for delta connection is V, where V is the voltage across a phase winding. For star
connection, the voltage between two phases is √3V.

4) Three phase, 4-wire distribution system

This system uses star connected phase windings and the fourth wire or neutral wire is taken from
the star point. If the voltage of each winding is V, then the line-to-line voltage (line voltage) is √3V
and the line-to-neutral voltage (phase voltage) is V. This type of distribution system is widely
used in India and many other countries. In these countries, standard phase voltage is 230 volts and
line voltage is √3x230 = 400 volts. Single phase residential loads, single phase motors which run on
230 volts etc. are connected between any one phase and the neutral. Three phase loads like three-
phase induction motors are put across all the three phases and the neutral.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

REFERENCE
1) D. P. Kothari and I. J. Nagrath, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010
2) E. Hughes, “Electrical and Electronics Technology”, Pearson, 2010.
3) Vincent Del Toro, “Electrical Engineering Fundamentals”, Pearson, 2015.
4) https://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-engineering-articles/circuit-theory/
5) https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits
6) https://www.electrical4u.com/power-system/
7) https://www.electricaleasy.com/2018/01/electric-power-distribution-system.html
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) Draw and explain the layout of Hydroelectric plant
2) What are the factors to be considered for selection of the site for a Hydroelectric power
plant?
3) Draw and explain the layout of Thermal Power plant
4) What are the factors to be considered for selection of the site for a Thermal power plant?
5) Draw the general layout of nuclear power plant and explain the operation.
6) Mention the advantages & disadvantages of nuclear power plant
Solar Generation
7) Draw the block diagram of standalone solar PV systems and explain in detail
8) Draw the block diagram of grid tied solar PV systems without battery storage and explain in
detail
Wind Generation
9) Draw the block diagram of wind generating station and explain in detail
10) Explain about Horizontal axis wind turbine and vertical axis wind turbine
AC Power Supply Scheme
11) Draw the single line diagram of a typical electric supply system and explain about different
stages?
12) Explain about primary & Secondary transmission
Elements of Transmission Line
13) What are the parameters of a transmission line and explain in detail?
14) What are the different types of transmission lines? Explain.
Distribution Systems (Types)
15) What are the components of distribution system? Classify distribution systems based on (i)
Nature of current (ii) Type of construction
16) Explain about AC primary & secondary distribution systems with suitable diagrams
Primary Distribution
17) Explain about two wire & three wire DC distribution with suitable diagrams
18) Explain about radial distribution system. List the disadvantages of radial distribution
systems.
Secondary Distribution
19) Explain about ring main distribution system and list the advantages of ring main
distribution?
20) Explain about interconnected distribution system and list the advantages of interconnected
distribution?
(3- Marks -Questions) Understanding Level Questions:

Layout & Operation (Hydro)

1) What is the principle of pumped storage scheme?
2) Explain the following i) Tailrace ii) Surge tank
Layout & Operation (Thermal)
3) State the consequences of super heater not working properly in steam generating power plant.
4) Why the efficiency of a thermal power plant is low?
Layout & Operation (Nuclear)
5) What are the reasons for using cadmium as a control rod in nuclear reactor? Suggest other suitable
materials for control rod.
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

6) Explain the function of moderator in nuclear power plant?

Solar Generation
7) Draw the equivalent circuit of a solar cell
8) What is solar cell, Module, and array?
Wind Generation
9) Explain about Tip – Speed ratio?
10) Mention the importance of gear box in wind turbine
AC Power Supply Scheme
11) What are the levels of voltages for generation, transmission and distribution in India?
12) What are the various components of power supply systems?
Elements of Transmission Line
13) Why the resistance as seen for AC supply is more when compared with DC supply? What is this
effect called?
14) What do you understand by regulation of a transmission line?
Distribution Systems (Types)
15) Define Feeder, Distributor and service mains?
16) Explain the need of distribution system?
Primary Distribution
17) Explain the reasons for using High voltage for long power transmission?
18) Compare the ring main distribution system with interconnected distribution system in terms of
reliability?
Secondary Distribution
19) Explain why the secondary distribution always uses 3 – Phase, 4 wire system?
20) Compare the radial distribution system with ring main distribution system in terms of reliability?

(2 MARKS -Questions)

Layout & Operation (Hydro)

1. Is hydro plant base load plant or peak load plant? Explain
2. How pen stock is protected?
Layout & Operation (Thermal)
3. What is a jet condenser?
4. Explain how Impulse turbine works?
Layout & Operation (Nuclear)
5. State any two differences between natural uranium and enriched uranium?
6. What is the function of pressure vessel in a nuclear reactor?
Solar Generation
7. How do you measure the capacity of a solar PV system?
8. What are the different factors that affect the generation in a solar PV plant?
Wind Generation
9. What is the function of an anemometer in wind mill?
10. What is the main source of formation of winds?
AC Power Supply Scheme
UNIT-4 Basics of Power System

11. In a typical power supply scheme, how many transformers will be there between generating station
and substation.
12. What is the highest voltage level of transmission in India?
Elements of Transmission Line
13. “The transmission line parameters are distributed parameters” Explain?
14. What is the cause for the presence of Inductance for transmission lines?
Distribution Systems (Types)
15. What is the function of service mains in distribution systems and what type of cable is used for
service mains?
16.
Primary Distribution
17. What are the most commonly used voltages for primary distribution in India?
18. What is the system in which the primary distribution is done in terms phases and wires?
Secondary Distribution
19. Explain why the secondary of a distribution transformer is always star connected?
20. What is the system in which the secondary distribution is done in terms phases and wires?