Nuclear Power Plants

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Nuclear power plants

Introduction
• As large amounts of coal and petroleum are being used to produce energy, time may come when
their reserves may not be able to meet the energy requirements. Thus there is tendency to seek
alternative sources of energy.
• The discovery that energy can be liberated by the nuclear fission of materials like uranium (U),
plutonium (Pu), has opened up a new sources of power of great importance.
• The heat produced due to fission of U and Pu is used to heat water to generate steam which is
used for running turbo-generator.
• It has been found that one kilogram of U can produce as much energy as can be produced by
burning 4500 tonnes of high grade coal.
• This shows that nuclear energy can be successfully employed for producing low cost energy in
abundance as required by the expanding and industrialising population of future.

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Wisely used nuclear energy can be of great benefit for mankind. It can bridge the gap caused by
inadequate coal and oil supplies. It should be used to as much extent as possible to solve power
problem.
Sonic of the factors which go in favor of nuclear energy are as follows
• Hydro-electric power is of storage type and is largely dependent on monsoons. The systems
getting power from such plants have to shed load during the period of low rainfall.
• Oil is mainly needed for transport, fertilizers and petrochemicals and thus cannot be used in large
quantities for power generation.
• Coal is available only in some parts of the country and transportation of coal requires big
investments.

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• Nuclear power is partially independent of geographical factors, the only requirement being that
there should be reasonably good supply of water.
• Fuel transportation networks and larger storage facilities are not needed and nuclear power
plant is a clean source of power which does not pollute the air if radio active hazards are
effectively prevented.
• Large quantity of energy is released with consumption of only a small amount of fuel

World's first nuclear power plant was commissioned in 1954 in U.S.S.R.


Since then efforts are being made to make use of nuclear power.

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Nuclear research in India

• In India, it was Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha who put India on the road to nuclear research, more
than two decades ago.
• He had in his mind not the destructive power of atom but using this new source of immense
energy for peaceful purposes like power production. India at present has seven nuclear power
plants. First nuclear power plant is at Tarapur.
• It has two boiling water reactors (B.W.R.) each of 200 MeW capacity and each uses enriched U as
fuel. These two reactors have been built with the help of U.S.A.
• The other two nuclear power plants are at Rana Pratap Sagar in Rajasthan and at Kalpakkam in
Tamil Nadu. The fourth nuclear power plant has been built at Narora in U.P.

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List of Nuclear Power Plants In India
Given below is the list of 7 sites of Nuclear Power Plants in India.

Nuclear Power Plants in India – Operational


Name Of Nuclear Power Station Location Operator Capacity

Kakrapar Atomic Power Station – 1993 Gujarat NPCIL 440

(Kalpakkam) Madras Atomic Power Station – 1984 Tamil Nadu NPCIL 440

Narora Atomic Power Station- 1991 Uttar Pradesh NPCIL 440

Kaiga Nuclear Power Plant -2000 Karnataka NPCIL 880

Rajasthan Atomic Power Station – 1973 Rajasthan NPCIL 1,180

Tarapur Atomic Power Station – 1969 Maharashtra NPCIL 1,400

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant – 2013 Tamil Nadu NPCIL 2,000

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Source: https://world-nuclear.org/information-
library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/india.aspx

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List of Nuclear Power Plants In India – Current status

● Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric and
renewable sources of electricity.
● Presently, India has 22 nuclear power reactors operating in 7 states, with an installed capacity of
6780 Mega Watt electric (MWe).
● 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and 4 are Light Water Reactors
(LWRs).
● Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited - NPCIL based in Mumbai is a government-owned
corporation of India that is responsible for the generation of electricity through nuclear power.
● NPCIL is administered by the Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India.

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Nuclear Power Plants in India – Under Construction

Name Of Nuclear Power Location Operator Capacity (MW)


Station

Madras (Kalpakkam) Tamil Nadu BHAVINI 500

Rajasthan Unit 7 and 8 Rajasthan NPCIL 1,400

Kakrapar Unit 3 and 4 Gujarat NPCIL 1,400

Kudankulam Unit 3 and 4 Tamil Nadu NPCIL 2,000

• The Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited is a wholly owned Enterprise of Government of India under
the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy incorporated on 22 October 2003.
• In India’s three stages of Nuclear power programme, BHAVINI paves way as a forerunner in second stage by
building a 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam. It is entrusted with a mandate to
construct, commission and operate the Fast Breeder Reactors to provide energy security for the nation in long
run. 9
List of Nuclear Power Plants In India – Current status

● Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric and
renewable sources of electricity.
● Presently, India has 22 nuclear power reactors operating in 7 states, with an installed capacity
of 6780 Mega Watt electric (MWe).
● 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and 4 are Light Water Reactors
(LWRs).
● Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited -NPCIL based in Mumbai is a government-owned
corporation of India that is responsible for the generation of electricity through nuclear power.
● NPCIL is administered by the Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India.

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The list below highlights the Nuclear Power Plants in India that are planned to be constructed.

Nuclear Power Plants in India – Planned (Future projects)


Name Of Nuclear Location Capacity (MWe)
Power Station
Tarapur Maharashtra 300
Madras Tamil Nadu 1,200
Kaiga Karnataka 1,400
Chutka Madhya Pradesh 1,400
Gorakhpur Haryana 2,800
Bhimpur Madhya Pradesh 2,800
Mahi Banswara Rajasthan 2,800
Haripur West Bengal 4,000
Mithi Virdi (Viradi) Gujarat 6,000
Kovvada Andhra Pradesh 6,600
Jaitapur Maharashtra 9,900
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Nuclear research in India

• Nuclear energy is the most useful power available to mankind today.


• In large parts of the world it is becoming a predominant source of electrical power and a
versatile tool for use in many areas of human endeavor.
• In India too atomic energy is being used to generate electricity and to bring about
improvement in industry, agriculture, medicine and in other fields through its varied
applications.

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Nuclear research in India

The major center for research and development work in atomic energy in our country is the
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) at Bombay. The center is the largest single
scientific establishment in India. Besides BARC three other national institutions associated
with some important aspects of atomic energy programme are as follows:
(i) Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay.
(ii) Tata Memorial Centre Bombay.
(iii) Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Calcutta.

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Nuclear Fission vs Nuclear Fusion
The table below lists the various differences between nuclear fission and fusion:

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

When the nucleus of an atom splits into lighter nuclei Nuclear fusion is a reaction through which two
through a nuclear reaction, the process is termed or more light nuclei collide with each other to
nuclear fission. form a heavier nucleus.

When each atom splits, a tremendous amount of The energy released during nuclear fusion is
energy is released several times greater than the energy released
during nuclear fission.

Fission reactions do not occur in nature naturally Fusion reactions occur in stars and the sun

Comparatively, less energy is needed to split an High energy is needed to fuse two or more
atom in a fission reaction atoms together in a fusion reaction

Atomic bomb works on the principle of nuclear fission Hydrogen bomb works on the principle of
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nuclear fusion.
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NUCLEAR POWER SYSTEMS

A nuclear-fueled power-producing system consists essentially of the following :


• A controlled fission heat source.
• A coolant system to remove and transfer the heat produced.
• Equipment to convert the thermal energy contained in the hot coolant to electric power.
• Regardless of the type of fission heat source used, the basic mechanism is fission of nuclear
fuel to produce thermal energy.
• This thermal energy is removed from the heat source (reactor core) by contacting the fuel with
a coolant which can be used directly as the working fluid in the power- conversion cycle or
indirectly to heat another fluid to be used as the working fluid.
• In some cases an intermediate heat-transfer loop is inserted between the reactor coolant and
the working fluid, to increase isolation of the radioactive reactor coolant from the conventional
power-producing equipment.
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• The working fluid is then used to drive a turbo-generator set to produce electrical power.
• Though several other methods are feasible for direct conversion of fission energy to electric
power (i.e., thermoelectric, thermionic, photoelectric, etc.), these methods are not at present
suitable for the production of large quantities of power.
• Schematic representations of nuclear power systems using the direct, indirect, and indirect with
intermediate heat-transfer approaches are shown

Schematics of nuclear power systems. (a) Direct cycle, reactor coolant used as the working fluid ; (b)
Indirect cycle, reactor coolant transfers heat to separate working fluid
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Schematics of nuclear power systems. (c) Indirect cycle with intermediate loop, reactor coolant
transfers heat through intermediate heat-transfer loop to working fluid
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Nuclear power systems differ in a number of respects from fossil-fuel systems. Some of the more
important considerations that differentiate nuclear-fueled plants from fossil-fueled plants are listed
below:
1. Nuclear fuel is charged to a power plant infrequently and has a relatively long life, usually
measured in months or years, as compared with the continuous fuel-feed requirements for fossil-
fueled plants.
2. Burned nuclear fuel is radioactive; it requires remote handling and special processing and
disposal.
3. Major portions of a nuclear plant are radioactive during and after operation, requiring special
precautions for maintenance of much of the plant.
4. Special system designs are required to prevent radioactivity release during normal operation or
due to accidents.

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How Nuclear power from conventional/fossil fueled power plants?

5. Control and instrumentation requirements are strongly influenced by safety requirements and
are related to reactor stability, load-following requirements, and the capability of a reactor to
increase power output with no additional fuel input.
6. Nuclear fuel is highly processed material generally used in a precise fabricated form, as
opposed to fossil fuels, which are essentially raw materials used with only minimal rough
processing.
7. The use of nuclear fuel does not require combustion air, thus obviating thermal stack losses
and related problems.
These considerations give rise to the general requirements, complexities, and problems of nuclear
systems.

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NUCLEAR REACTORS

Introduction

Definition

● A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which nuclear fission is produced in the form of a

controlled self sustaining chain reaction. In other words, it is a controlled chain-reacting system

supplying nuclear energy.

● It may be looked upon as a sort of nuclear furnace which burns fuels like U235, U233 or Pu239

and, in turn, produces many useful products viz., heat, neutrons and radioisotopes.

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Mechanism of heat production

● Most of the energy is imparted to the two fission fragments into which the nucleus divides

causing them to move at high speed.

● However, because they have taken birth in a dense mass of metal, they are rapidly

slowed down and brought to rest by colliding with other atoms of the metal.

● Thus, their energy is converted into heat in much the same way as energy given up by a

slowing motor can be converted into heat in the brake lining.

● In this way, the mass of uranium metal gets heated up.

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Classification of Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear reactors are classified according to the chain reacting system, use, coolants, fuel
material etc.

1. Neutron energies at which the fission occurs


(i) Fast fission is caused by high energy neutrons Fast reactors
(ii) Intermediate or epithermal Intermediate reactors
(iii) Low energy i.e., thermal Slow reactors

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On the basis of the energy of the neutrons to cause fission the reactors have been divided into
three groups-fast, intermediate and thermal.
(a) In fast reactors the high velocity neutrons produced by fission are utilized directly to
cause fission of the fuel in the reactor. The velocity of the neutrons is not reduced
deliberately.
(b) If in a reactor the fission process is maintained due to the slow neutrons capture, the
reactor is known as slow reactor.

● The minimum velocity to which neutrons are slowed down before the fission is equal
to the thermal velocity which the slow neutrons may acquire in a state of thermal
equilibrium with the medium.
● This velocity is of the order of 2150 m/s at room temperature which is equivalent to
1/40 eV or neutron energy.
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● The neutrons associated with the energy of this order are known as thermal neutrons and the
reactor as thermal reactors. With the moderator the neutrons are slowed down. The main
advantage is that the probability of reaction increases.
c) If the velocity of neutrons is kept between both the above noted limits, the reactors are
termed as ‘intermediate reactors’.
2. Fuel-moderator assembly
I. Homogeneous reactors
II. Heterogeneous reactors
● In ‘homogeneous reactor’ the fuel and moderator are mixed to form a homogeneous material,
i.e., uranium fuel salt forms a homogeneous solution in water which is a moderator or fine
particles of uranium and carbon gives a mechanical mixture.
● In ‘heterogeneous reactor’ the fuel is used in the form of rods, plates, lamps or wires and the
moderator surrounds the each fuel element in the reactor core.
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3. Fuel state
(i) Solid (ii) Liquid (iii) Gas
● The nuclear fuel is available in three states—solid, liquid and gas. In reactors the fuel is mostly
used in solid state or in the form of solution dissolved in water.
● The liquid metal reactors are in practical use.

4. Fuel material
(i) Natural uranium with U235 contents (occurs in nature)
(ii) Enriched uranium with more than 0.71 of U235
(iii) Pu239, Pu241 or Pu239 (man made)
(iv) U–233 (man made)
• Considering the necessary requirement of fission process and its availability economically the fuels
used in reactors are uranium, plutonium and thorium. U235 is easily available in natural uranium
(i.e., 0.7%) and its content increases up to 90% in enriched uranium. 29
5. Moderator
(i) Water (H2O) (ii) Heavy water (D2O) (iii) Graphite (iv) Beryllium or beryllium oxide
(v) Hydrocarbons or hydrides.
• A moderator’s function is to absorbs the part of the kinetic energy of the neutrons. The neutrons
collide directly with the moderator and thus slowed down.
• No ideal moderator is available in nature or has been produced artificially.
• The light weight nuclei materials are not suited at all as a moderator because they do not possess
the property of absorption of neutrons.
• Light water, heavy water and graphite are the most common moderators used in reactors.
6. Principal product
(i) Research features to produce Research reactors neutrons
(ii) Power reactor to produce heat Power reactors
(iii) Breeder reactors to produce Breeder reactors fissionable materials
(iv) Production reactors to Production reactors produce isotopes 30
Research reactors.
• These are designed to produce the high neutron flux for research work and these neutrons are
used to determine the neutron properties of interaction with the nuclei and the effect of
bombardment of neutrons on the materials.
• The reactors are operated at high neutron flux and low power level otherwise the cooling will be a
problem. The unit is cooled constantly during operation.
• The by-products are heat and fission products which are removed during operation.
Power reactors.
• In these reactors the energy is produced in heat form which is carried away to the heat exchanger
by circulating the coolant through the reactor and heat exchanger.
• In the heat exchanger the coolant converts the water into steam to run the turbine.
• The byproducts are fission products, neutrons and other radiation particles.
• These reactors are useful to produce huge amount of power and are widely used in power plant
stations. In such reactors consumption is very low. 31
Breeder reactors.
• A breeder reactor converts fertile materials into fissionable materials such as U238 and Th232 to
Pu239 and U233 respectively besides the power production.
• It is worth noting that the amount of fissionable material produced is more than its consumption of
fissionable material. By-products are the same as those of power reactors.
Production reactors.
• The output of such reactors is radioactive materials which are used as sources of radiation and
tracers in research in all areas of science.
• By-products are the same as those of power reactors.

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7. Coolant
(i) Air, carbon or helium cooled reactors
(ii) Water or other liquid cooled reactors
(iii) Liquid metal cooled reactors.
• In gas-cooled reactors the amount of gas required to extract the heat is too much and therefore
these reactors are expensive.
• Gases have poor heat carrying capacity. CO2 and He have been used in the early reactors.
• Mostly water is used as a coolant.
• Liquid metal cooled reactors are also suitable as the metal is having high boiling point and low
steam pressure. These are the power reactors.

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8. Construction of core
(i) Cubical (ii) Cylindrical (iii) Octagonal (iv) Spherical (v) Slab (vi) Annulus.
• The proper shape to the core is given on the practical consideration and can have cubical,
cylindrical or ring type construction.
Essential Components of a Nuclear Reactor
The essential components of a nuclear reactor are as follows :
1. Reactor core
2. Reflector
3. Control mechanism
4. Moderator
5. Coolants
6. Measuring instruments
7. Shielding.
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1. Reactor core:

• The reactor core is that part of a nuclear power plant


where fission chain reaction is made to occur and
where fission energy is liberated in the form of heat
for operating power conversion equipment.
• The core of the reactor consists of an assemblage of
fuel elements, control rods, coolant and moderator.
Reactor cores generally have a shape
approximating to a right circular cylinder with
diameters ranging from 0.5 m to 15 m.

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• The pressure vessels which houses the reactor core is also considered a part of the core. The fuel
elements are made of plates or rods of uranium metal.
• These plates or rods are usually clod in a thin sheath of stainless steel, zirconium or aluminium to
provide corrosion resistance, retention of radioactivity and in some cases, structural support.
• Enough space is provided between individual plates or rods to allow free passage of the coolant.
2. Reflector:
A reflector is usually placed round the core to reflect back some of the neutrons that leak out from
the surface of the core. It is generally made of the same material as the moderator.
3. Control mechanism:
It is an essential part of a reactor and serves the following purposes :
(i) For starting the reactor i.e., to bring the reactor up to its normal operating level.
(ii) For maintaining at that level i.e., keep power production at a steady state.
(iii) For shutting the reactor down under normal or emergency conditions.
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• The control system is also necessary to prevent the chain reaction from becoming violent and
consequently damaging the reactor.
• The effective multiplication factor of the reactor is always kept greater than unity in order that the
number of neutrons keeps on increasing in successive generations.
• As the number of neutrons and hence the neutron flux density increases, the temperature also
increases.
• Unless the growth is checked at some point, the reactor is likely to be damaged as a result of too
rapid liberation of energy.

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4. Moderator :
In a nuclear reactor the function of a moderator is :
(i) To slow down the neutrons from the high velocities and hence high energy level, which they have
on being released from the fission process. Neutrons are slowed down most effectively in
scattering collisions with nuclei of the light elements, such as hydrogen, graphite, beryllium etc.
(ii) To slow down the neutrons but not absorb them
The desirable properties of a moderator in a reactor are :
1. High slowing down power. 2. Low parasite capture.
3. Non-corrosiveness (or corrosiveness resistance).
4. Machinability (if solid).
5. High melting point for solids and low melting point for liquids.
6. Chemical and radiation stability.
7. High thermal conductivity.
8. Abundance in pure form. 38
H2O, D2O (heavy water), He (gas), Be and C (graphite) are the commonly used moderators.
As a moderator D2O is the best material available (moderating ratio of D2O is 12000 as compared
to 72 for H2O and 170 for carbon) because,
(i) it has excellent neutron slowing properties,
(ii) it has very small cross-section for neutron capture,
(iii) (iii) it can be used as a coolant as well.
Its disadvantages are:
(i) it has low boiling point so that it necessitates pressurisation,
(ii) (ii) it is very expensive.
But, the advantages of D2O as moderator or moderator coolant outweigh its high cost.

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5. Coolants :
The function of a coolant is to remove the intense heat produced in the reactor and to bring out for
being utilised.
The desirable characteristics for a reactor coolant are :
1. Low parasite capture. 2. Low melting point. 3. High boiling point.
4. Chemical and radiation stability. 5. Low viscosity. 6. Non-toxicity.
7. Non-corrosiveness. 8. Minimum induced activity (short half lives, low energy emission).
9. High specific heat (reduces pumping power and thermal stresses).
10. High density (reduces pumping power and physical plant size).
• Commonly used coolants : Santiwax R (organic, Hg, He, CO2)
• The most widely-used gaseous coolant is CO2 particularly in large-power reactors. It is (i) cheap,
(ii) does not attack metals at reasonable temperatures, and (iii) has small cross-section for neutron
capture.

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Cooling systems: Water cooled reactors:

(a) Swimming-pool reactor; (b) Pressurised-water reactor ;


(a) Indirect cooling;

(c) Boiling water reactor.

(b) Direct cooling. Liquid-metal-cooled reactor


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6. Measuring instruments:
Main instrument required is for the purpose of measuring thermal neutron flux which determines the
power developed by the reactor.
7. Shielding:
Shielding is necessary in order to :
(i) protect the walls of the reactor vessel from radiation damage, and also to
(ii) protect operating personnel from exposure to radiation.
• The first known as thermal shield is provided through the steel lining, while the other called
external or biological shield is generally made of thick concrete surrounding the reactor installation.
• Among the nuclear radiations produced in a reactor the alpha and beta particles, thermal (slow)
neutrons, fast neutrons and gamma rays are harmful ones and must be shielded against.

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Shielding

• The effectiveness of a nuclear shield against gamma rays approximately depends upon its mass.
A heavy material like lead will be a more effective shield per unit weight, than a light element
such as carbon.
• On the other hand, light elements, particularly hydrogen are much more effective per unit weight
than heavy elements for fast neutron shielding.
• Concrete is a material that offers a compromise between these two extreme characteristics of
shielding material for both gamma rays and fast neutrons.
• It is a material which has low cost and is easily available.
The actual design of the shield, however, involves the following considerations :
(i) The total amount of radiation produced in the reactor.
(ii) The amount of radiation that can be permitted to leak through the shield.
(iii) The shielding properties of material.

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Power of a Nuclear Reactor
The fission rate of a reactor i.e., total number of nuclei undergoing fission per second in a reactor is

 nC NV  nu NV
where, n = Average neutron density i.e., number per m3,
C = Average speed in m/s,
nu = nC = Average neutron flux,
N = Number of fissile nuclei /m3,
 = Fission cross-section in m2, and
V = Volume of the nuclear fuel
nC NV
Since 3.1 × 1010 fission per second generate a power of one watt, P W
3.11010
the power P of a nuclear reactor is given by
 3.11011 nC NV W 
Now, NV = Total number of fissile nuclei in the reactor fuel

 m  6.02 10 26
235  3.11011 nu NV 44W 
where m is the mass of the U235 fuel. It is known that fission cross-section  of U235
for thermal neutrons is 582 barns = 582 × 10-28 m2.

 nu  582 10  m  6.02 10


3.2 10 11 28 26
P 
235
 4.77 10 mnu
12
W
12
 4.8 10 mnC W

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MAIN COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
The main components of a nuclear power plant are :
1. Nuclear reactor
2. Heat exchanger (steam generator)
3. Steam turbine
4. Condenser
5. Electric generator.

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Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
A pressurised water reactor, in its simplest form, is a light water cooled and moderated thermal
reactor having an unusual core design, using both natural and highly enriched fuel.
The principal parts of the reactor are:
1. Pressure vessel
2. Reactor thermal shield
3. Fuel elements
4. Control rods
5. Reactor containment
6. Reactor pressuriser.
The components of the secondary system of pressurised water plant are similar to those in a
normal steam station.

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Working principle

• In PWR, there are two circuits of water, one primary circuit which passes through the fuel core
and is radioactive.
• This primary circuit then produces steam in a secondary circuit which consists of heat exchanger
or the boiler and the turbine. As such the steam in the turbine is not radioactive and need not be
shielded.
• The pressure in the primary circuit should be high so that the boiling of water takes place at high
pressure.
• A pressuring tank keeps the water at about 100 kgf/cm2 so that is will not boil. Electric heating
coils in the pressurizer boil some of the water to form steam that collects in the dome.
• As more steam is forced into the dome by boiling, its pressure rises and pressurizes the entire
circuit. The pressure may be reduced by providing cooling coils or spraying water on the steam.

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• Water acts both as coolant as well as moderator. Either heavy water or the light water may be used
for the above purpose.
• A pressurised water reactor can produce only saturated steam. By providing a separate furnace,
the steam formed from the reactor could be super-heated.
Advantages of PWR :
1. Water used in reactor (as coolant, moderator and reflector) is cheap and easily available.
2. The reactor is compact and power density is high.
3. Fission products remain contained in the reactor and are not circulated.
4. A small number of control rods is required.
5. There is a complete freedom to inspect and maintain the turbine, feed heaters and condenser
during operation.
6. This reactor allows to reduce the fuel cost extracting more energy per unit weight of fuel as it is
ideally suited to the utilisation of fuel designed for higher burn-ups.
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Disadvantages :
1. Capital cost is high as high primary circuit requires strong pressure vessel.
2. In the secondary circuit the thermodynamic efficiency of this plant is quite low.
3. Fuel suffers radiation damage and, therefore its reprocessing is difficult.
4. Severe corrosion problems.
5. It is imperative to shut down the reactor for fuel charging which requires a couple of month’s
time.
6. Low volume ratio of moderator to fuel makes fuel element design and insertion of control rods
difficult.
7. Fuel element fabrication is expensive.

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Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

• In a boiling water reactor enriched fuel is used.


As compared to PWR, the arrangement of BWR
plant is simple.
• The plant can be safely operated using natural
convection within the core or forced circulation
as shown in Fig.
• For the safe operation of the reactor the
pressure in the forced circulation must be
maintained constant irrespective of the load.
• In case of part load operation of the turbine
some steam is by-passed.

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Advantages of BWR : Disadvantages :
1. Heat exchanger circuit is eliminated and 1. Possibility of radioactive contamination in the
consequently gain in thermal efficiency. turbine mechanism, there should be any failure
2. Use of a lower pressure vessel for the reactor of fuel elements.
which further reduces cost and simplifies 2. More elaborate safety precautions needed
containment problems. which are costly.
3. The metal temperature remains low for given 3. Wastage of steam resulting in lowering of
output conditions. thermal efficiency on part load operation.
4. The cycle for BWR is more efficient than PWR 4. Boiling limits power density; only 3 to 5% by
for a given controlled pressure, the outlet mass can be converted to steam per pass
temperature of steam is appreciably higher in through the boiler.
BWR. 5. The possibility of “burn out” of fuel is more in
5. The pressure inside the pressure vessel is not this reactor than PWR as boiling of water on
high so a thicker vessel is not required. the surface of the fuel is allowed.
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CANDU (Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) Reactor

• CANDU is a thermal nuclear power reactor in which heavy water (99.8% deuterium oxide D2O) is
the moderator and coolant as well as the neutron reflector.
• This reactor was developed in Canada and is being extensively used in this company. A few
CANDU reactors are operating or under construction in some other countries as well.
• In this type of reactor the natural uranium (0.7% U235) is used as fuel and heavy water as
moderator.
• There reactors are more economical to those countries which do not produce enriched uranium, as
the enrichment of uranium is very costly.

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CANDU – Construction

• CANDU (heavy water) reactor, differs basically from light-water reactors (LWRS) in that in the
latter the same water serves as both moderator and coolant, whereas in the CANDU reactor
the moderator and coolant are kept separate.
• Consequently unlike the pressure vessel of a LWR, the CANDU reactor vessel, which
contains the relatively cool heavy water moderator, does not have to withstand a high
pressure.
• Only the heavy water coolant circuit has to be pressurised to inhibit boiling in the reactor
core.

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CANDU – Construction

• Reactor vessel and core. The reactor vessel is a steel cylinder with a horizontal axis ; the
length and diameter of a typical cylinder being 6 m and 8 m respectively.
• The vessel is penetrated by some 380 horizontal channels called pressure tubes because
they are designed to withstand a high internal pressure.
• The channels contain the fuel elements and the pressurised coolant flows along the channels
and around the fuel elements to remove the heat generated by fission.
• Coolant flows in the opposite directions in adjacent channels.
• The high pressure (10 MPa) and high temperature (370°C) coolant leaving the reactor core
enters the steam generator. About 5% of fission heat is generated by fast neutrons escaping
into the moderator, and this is removed by circulation through a separate heat exchanger.

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CANDU – Schematic layout

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Fuel
• In a CANDU reactor the fuel is normal (i.e., unenriched) uranium oxide as small cylinder pellets.
• The pellets are packed in a corrosion resistance zirconium alloy tube, nearly 0.5 long and 1.3 cm
diameter, to form a fuel rod.
• The relatively short rods are combined in bundles of 37 rods, and 12 bundles are placed end to
end in each pressure tube.
• The total mass of fuel in the core is about 97,000 kg. The CANDU reactor is unusual in that
refueling is conducted while the reactor is operating.

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Control and protection system
There are the various types of vertical control system incorporated in the CANDU reactor :
• A number of strong neutron absorber rods of cadmium which are used mainly for reactor shut-
down and start-up.
• In addition to above there are other less strongly, absorbing rods to control power variations
during reactor operation and to produce an approximately uniform heat (power) distribution
throughout the core.

In an emergency situation, the shut-down rods would immediately drop into the core, followed, if
necessary by the injection of a gadolinium nitrate solution into the moderator.

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Steam system.
Steam system is discussed below :
• The respective ends of the pressure tubes are all connected into inlet and outlet headers.
• The high temperature coolant leaving the reactor passes out the outlet header to a steam
generator of the conventional inverted U-tube and is then pumped back into the reactor by way
of the inlet header.
• Steam is generated at a temperature of about 265°C.

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• There are two coolant outlet (and two inlet) headers, one at each end of the reactor vessel,
corresponding to the opposite directions of coolant flow through the core.
• Each inlet (and outlet) header is connected to a separate steam generator and pump loop.
• A single pressurizer (of the type used in pressurised water reactors) maintains an essentially
constant coolant system pressure.
• The reactor vessel and the steam generator system are enclosed by a concrete containment
structure.
• A water spray in the containment would condense the steam and reduce the pressure that
would result from a large break in the coolant circuit.

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Advantages of CANDU reactor: Disadvantages:
1. Heavy water is used as moderator, which 1. It requires a very high standard of design,
has higher multiplication factor and low fuel manufacture and maintenance.
consumption. 2. The cost of heavy water is very high.
2. Enriched fuel is not required. 3. There are leakage problems.
3. The cost of the vessel is less as it has not to 4. The size of the reactor is extremely large as
withstand a high pressure. power density is low as compared with
4. Less time is needed (as compared to PWR PWR and BWR.
and BWR) to construct the reactor.
5. The moderator can be kept at low
temperature which increases its
effectiveness in slowing down neutrons.

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Gas-Cooled Reactor
• In such a type of reactor, the coolant used can be air, hydrogen, helium or carbon dioxide.
Generally inert gases are used such as helium and carbon dioxide.
• The moderator used is graphite. The problem of corrosion is reduced much in such reactors.
This type of reactor is more safe specially in case of accidents and the failure of circulating
pumps.
• The thickness of gas cooled reactor shield is much reduced as compared to the other type of
reactor.
There are two principal types of gas cooled reactors developed for centre station service and these
are:
(i) The gas cooled, graphite moderator reactor (GCGM)
(ii) The high temperature gas cooled reactor (HTGC).

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• Both types are graphite moderated. The former (GCGM) uses natural uranium fuel while the latter
(HTGC) employs highly enriched uranium carbide mixed with thorium carbide and clad with
graphite.
• The coolant pressure and temperature in GCGM are about 7 bar 336°C respectively, for HTGC,
there figures are 15 to 30 bar and 700°C to 800°C.
Advantages of gas-cooled reactor :
1. The processing of the fuel is simpler.
2. No corrosion problem.
3. As a result of low parasitic absorption it gives better neutron economy.
4. Graphite remains stable under irradiation at high temperatures.
5. The use of carbon dioxide as coolant completely eliminates the possibility of explosion in the
reactor which is always present in water-cooled plants.
6. The uranium carbide and graphite are able to resist high temperatures, and, therefore, the
problem of limiting the fuel element temperature is not as serious as in other reactors. 68
Gas-cooled reactor

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Disadvantages :
1. Fuel loading is more elaborate and costly.
2. Power density is very low (due to low heat transfer coefficient), therefore, large vessel is
required.
3. Since the critical mass is high therefore, large amount of fuel loading is initially required.
4. If helium is used in stead of carbon dioxide, the leakage of gas is a major problem.
5. More power is required for coolant circulation (as compared with water-cooled reactors).
6. The control is more complicated due to low negative coefficient as helium does not absorb
neutrons.

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Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors

• Sodium-graphite reactor (SGR) is one of the typical liquid metal reactors. In this reactor sodium
works as a coolant and graphite works as moderator.
• Sodium boils at 880 C under atmospheric pressure and freezes at 95 C. Hence sodium is first
melted by electric heating system and be pressurised to about 7 bar.
• The liquid sodium is then circulated by the circulation pump.
The reactor will have two coolant circuits or loops :
(i) The primary circuit has liquid sodium which circulates through the fuel core and gets heated
by the fissioning of the fuel. This liquid sodium gets cooled in the intermediate heat exchanger
and goes back to the reactor vessel.
(ii) The secondary circuit has an alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form. This coolant takes
heat from the intermediate heat exchanger and gets heat from liquid sodium of primary circuit.

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Working principle

• This coolant takes heat from the intermediate heat exchanger and gets heat from liquid sodium of
primary circuit.
• The liquid sodium-potassium then passes through a boiler which is once through type having
tubes only. The steam generated from this boiler will be superheated.
• Feed water from the condenser enters the boiler, the heated sodium-potassium passing through
the tubes gives it heat to the water thus converting it into steam.
• The sodium-potassium liquid in the second circuit is then pumped back to the intermediate heat
exchanger thus making it a closed circuit.
• The reactor vessel, primary loop and the intermediate heat exchanger is to be shielded for
radioactivity.
• The liquid metal be handled under the cover of an inert gas, such as helium, to prevent contact
with air while charging or draining the primary or secondary circuit/loop.
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Liquid metal cooled reactor.

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Advantages of SGR :
1. The sodium as a coolant need not be pressurised.
2. High thermal efficiency at low cost.
3. The low cost graphite moderator can be used as it can retain its mechanical strength and purity
at high temperatures.
4. Excellent heat removal.
5. High conversion ratio.
6. Superheating of steam is possible.
7. The size of the reactor is comparatively small.
8. The neutron absorption cross-section of sodium is low and, therefore, it is best suited to thermal
reactor with slightly enriched fuel.

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Disadvantages :
1. Sodium reacts violently with water and actively with air.
2. Thermal stresses are a problem.
3. Intermediate system is necessary to separate active sodium from water.
4. Heat exchanger must be leak proof.
5. It is necessary to shield the primary and secondary cooling systems with concrete blocks as
sodium becomes highly radioactive.
6. The leak of sodium is very dangerous as compared with other coolants.

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Breeder Reactor
● In its simplest form a fast breeder reactor is a small vessel in which necessary amount of
enriched plutonium is kept without using moderator.
● A fissible material, which absorbs neutrons, surrounds the vessel. The reactor core is cooled by
liquid metal.
● Necessary neutron shielding is provided by the use of light water, oil or graphite. Additional
shielding is also provided for gamma rays.
● It is worth noting that when U235 is fissioned, it produces heat and additional neutrons. If some
U238 is kept in the same reactor, part of the additional neutrons available, after reaction with U235,
convert U238 into fissible plutonium.

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Advantages of a breeder reactor :
1. The moderator is not required.
2. High breeding is possible.
3. Small core is sufficient (since it gives high power density than any other reactor).
4. The parasite absorption of fuel is achievable.
5. High burn-up of fuel is achievable.
6. Absorption of neutrons is low.
Disadvantages :
1. Requires highly enriched (15 per cent) fuel.
2. It is necessary to provide safety against meltdown.
3. Neutron flux is high at the centre of the core.
4. The specific power of the reactor is low.
5. There is a major problem of handling sodium as it becomes hot and radioactive.

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Selection of materials for reactor components
Some of the factors governing the selection of materials for the various reactor components are
considered below:
1. Structural material :
The structural units implied are :
(i) The cladding material for fuel elements.
(ii) Fuel element assemblies.
(iii) Containers for coolants, ducts, etc., in the core.
(iv) Any general structure in the reaction zone.
• Obviously the purely mechanical properties must be adequate at the normal working temperature,
and the material must be capable of the necessary fabrication and working.
• In case where liquids are involved, corrosion or erosion problems may be present. These may be
especially troublesome in aqueous homogeneous reactors or in reactors employing liquid metals.
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• From the standpoint of the nuclear physics the basic requirement is low neutron absorption
cross-section.
• Since absorption cross-sections are less at high than at low neutron energy levels, a material
which is entirely unsuitable at thermal energies may be acceptable in fast reactors.
• In addition to the effect on the neutron economy of the system, structural materials may
become dangerous to handle due to induced radioactivity.

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Some structural materials are discussed below :
Aluminium.
In a very pure state it is being extensively used as a cladding material for fuel elements.
Magnesium.
It is more costly and is difficult to work.
Beryllium.
It offers advantages in that it would serve also as a moderator but it is again costly and difficult to
work.
Zirconium.
• It is a comparatively new material commercially, but offers considerable promise. It is
extremely corrosion resistant at low temperatures, but less so above 400°C.
• In the intermediate cross-section range titanium has a very good strength/weight ratio from
• 100 to 450°C and is corrosion resistant to aqueous solutions of high temperatures.
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Alloys.
• Silicon steels may be used in some fast reactors, but considerable care is needed in their
heat treatment.
• A number of nickel alloys are of interest and offer considerable resistance to attack by fused
salts and alkali hydroxide.
• Silicon, of absorption cross-section 0.1 barn and tin, absorption cross-section 0.6 barn, might
prove useful for alloying with other material.

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2. Reactor coolants :
● Gaseous coolants. There coolants have much to recommend them from the standpoint of
general radiation and thermal stability and ease of handling.
● Gases are poor, however, from the standpoint of heat transfer and at high temperatures some of
them, for example oxygen and hydrogen, may attack other materials present in the core.
● Air has been used in some research reactors operating on open cycle with discharge to the
atmosphere at a high level to minimise the effect of Ar. Helium is attractive but is expensive.
Gases involve high pumping cost.
● Water. Water has better thermal properties than gases and the pumping power is roughly 1/10th
that for gases operated at ten atmospheres pressure.
● Its moderating properties may be usefully utilised when used as a coolant. It has a fairly large
absorption cross-section, and undergoes decomposition by radiation.
● It is subjected to induced radioactivity, and it has a corrosive action on metals, and a low boiling
point. Degasification may be necessary. 83
● For efficient power production high pressure operation is necessary. This necessitates the use of
a pressure vessel to enclose the reactor.
● Boiling water reactors (BWR) in which the coolant serves also as a moderator show promise.
● Heavy water has a lower absorption cross-section than natural water and its use leads to
economy in fissile material.
● If it were cheaper it would be attractive for use in boiling water type reactor.
● Liquid metals are of special interest in relation to reactors operating at high thermal flux. Their
main disadvantage is in difficulty of handling, and in their corrosive properties.
● Their heat transfer properties are better than those of water, but their volumetric heat capacity is
not as good, so that the pumping power may be greater or less than that of water.
● Sodium is the most favoured at present, for if free from oxygen it does not attack stainless steel,
nickel and nickel alloys, beryllium or graphite at temperatures below 600°C.

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3. Moderators and reflectors :
Possible materials for use as moderator and reflectors are :
● Ordinary and heavy water
● Beryllium
● Beryllia
● Graphite
 Ordinary water has excellent slowing down properties for neutrons, but unfortunately, neutron
capture is also high.
 This means that enriched uranium fuel is required in ordinary water moderated reactors, but
the small migration length still permits a reactor of relatively small size.

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Some of disadvantages of water are
I. Attendant corrosion problems,
II. Its relatively low boiling point, and
III. Decomposition by nuclear radiations, resulting in the liberation of oxygen and hydrogen
which may require to be recombined in ancillary plant. The low boiling point requires the use
of a pressure vessel when high temperatures are involved.
• Heavy water is an excellent moderator and has a high moderating ratio compared with the
other materials.

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Beryllium.
The nuclear properties of beryllium are eminently suitable, but it is expensive, brittle and difficult
to fabricate and is corroded by water.
Graphite.
It has been used most extensively as a reactor moderator despite the fact that its moderating
properties are not as good as heavy water or beryllium.
However, (i) it is reasonably cheap, even when the necessary high degree of purity is achieved,
(ii) it has good mechanical properties and thermal stability, and (iii) is a good conductor of heat.

● Its chief disadvantages are the possibility of reaction with air at high temperatures and its
relatively low mechanical strength.

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4. Fuel :
● The proportion of the fissile material in the fuel is of considerable importance in determining
the critical size of the reactor.
● This is because the ratio of fissile to non-fissile material in the fuel determines the neutron
economy at the source.
● The following table gives the average number of neutrons liberated per neutron absorbed in
the fuel.

Neutron type U235 Pu239 Natural uranium


Thermal 2.11 1.95 1.32
Fast 2 2 1

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5. Shielding and radiation protection :
● Protection of personnel is achieved partly by the use of remote control and, in some cases,
the provision of a pressure vessel to contain the fission products which might result from an
accident. However, shielding of the reactor itself is invariably required.
● A biological shield must slow down the fast neutrons leaving the core of the reactor, must
capture the slowed down neutrons and must absorb all gamma and similar radiation
produced. It must be borne in mind that neutron capture in the shield itself may give rise to
further gamma radiation.
● Thermal shield. Every absorption in a shield is roughly exponential. Thus 90% of the radiation
is absorbed in the first 10% of the thickness. This results in considerable liberation of heat.
For this reason that part of the shield nearest to the core is usually of iron in thickness 5 to 10
cm which may be air-cooled. This part of the shield is referred to as the ‘thermal shield’.

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Summary of Materials for Nuclear Power Reactors
Structural:
(i) Aluminium (ii) Stainless steel (iii) Nickel alloys (iv) Zirconium (v) Magnesium
Fuel:
(i) Uranium (ii) Uranium ceramics (iii) Thorium (iv) Thorium oxide
Coolant:
(i) Water (ii) Liquid metals (iii) Sodium, potassium (iv) Mercury (v) Lead bismuth
(vi) Gases (vii) Helium (viii) Nitrogen (ix) Carbon dioxide
Control:
(i) Boron steel (ii) Cadmium (iii) Samarium oxide (iv) Gadolinium oxide

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Moderator reflector:
(i) Water (ii) Heavy water (iii) Beryllium (iv) Beryllium oxide
(v) Graphite (vi) Metal hydrides
Shielding:
(i) Water (ii) Cement and concrete (iii) Iron (iv) Lead (v) Tantalum
(vi) Bismuth (vii) Boron.

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Advantages of nuclear power plants
Some of the major advantages of nuclear power plants are:
1. A nuclear power plant needs less space as compared to other conventional power plant of equal size.
2. Nuclear power plants are well suited to meet large power demands. They give better performance at
high load factors (80 to 90%).
3. Since the fuel consumption is very small as compared to conventional type of power plants, therefore,
there is saving in cost of the fuel transportation.
4. The nuclear power plants, besides producing large amount of power, produce valuable fissible material
which is produced when the fuel is renewed.
5. The operation of a nuclear power plant is more reliable.
6. Nuclear power plants are not affected by adverse weather conditions.
7. Bigger capacity of a nuclear power plant is an additional advantage.
8. The expenditure on metal structures piping, storage mechanisms is much lower for a nuclear power
plant than a coal burning power plant.
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Disadvantages/Limitations
1. The capital cost of a nuclear power station is always high.
2. The danger of radioactivity always persists in the nuclear stations (inspite of utmost
precautions and care).
3. These plants cannot be operated at varying load efficiently.
4. The maintenance cost is always high (due to lack of standardisation and high salaries of
the trained personnel in this field of specialisation).
5. The disposal of fission products is a big problem.
6. Working conditions in nuclear power station are always detrimental to the health of the
workers.

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Boiling-water nuclear reactor

Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (public domain) 95


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