Calculus of One Real Variable

Prof. Joydeep Dutta

Department of Economic Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Lecture - 03
Example of Irrational Number

Welcome to the third lecture of this series of lectures on one variable calculus, in the last
two lectures we had learned quite a bit about numbers, we have spoken about rational
numbers and irrational numbers. We have spoken about the union which we call real
numbers. We have also shown that the rational numbers are countable and real numbers
are uncountable and hence these set of irrational numbers are uncountable, but it will be
interesting too because they are so abundant irrational numbers will be interesting to see
that we should be able to show that some number is irrational.

p
Rational numbers are easy to detect because if you have a number in the form it is
q

rational, but how do you know which number is irrational, irrational numbers are not in

p
the form is not so easy to detect. So, the detecting numbers irrationality it is an
q

interesting exercise and I think it’s not very bad idea and it will show the inner
connection between 2 different parts of mathematics, it will show how theory of
equations are used to actually tell you which number is irrational. We have already
mentioned in the first lecture about numbers that, okay, one of the most well-known
irrational number is that.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:29)

Called 2 and this is the example that is given in your classes in higher secondary also
that this comes out of a geometrical fact which simply comes out of the Pythagorean
theorem, that if you have a right angle triangle with say 1 cm side each then this, 2 must
this should be also the hypotenuse should be of length 2 and this cannot be expressed
as a rational number, these are called incommensurable quantities by the Greeks.

So, now when you look in to this, how do you prove it? The proof is again using the
method of contradiction, in the sense that you, if I want to prove that it is irrational I

p
consider that it is rational and I take it in the form and then show there is some, I
q

goofed up somewhere there is some contradiction. So, this is very, proof by contradiction
is one of the biggest tools the mathematician has and he uses it repeatedly everywhere.
So, what we do now, next we square it and that would simply mean you imply that
p2 = 2q2.

So, 2q2 is the number divisible by 2 any number even number is divisible by 2. So, what
we do is the following we immediately understand that p 2 is an even number. So, what
does it imply, it implies that p is even. If square over number is even then the number
must also even. So, if p is even we can write p = 2m. So, it was any even number can be
written as 2 over m, where m is some number whereas, p is or even number is always
divided by 2. So, p must be expressed as twice of some number. m is a quotient when

p
you divide , now what you do is you put back here, see one important assumption that
2
 p
we take when we express the thing in the form that we are expressing in the most
q

reduced term, that is here in this case you have the greatest common divisor between p
and q as 1, a relatively prime actually. That is you cannot make any further cancellations

2
to reduce their levels when it is not , if it is 2 we should write it as, we should never
4

2
write as it is write it as half it is called the most reduced form of a rational number.
4

So, there is no common factor between them other than 1. So, p if p is 2m I will put here
in this equation p2 = 2q2 to get 4m2 = 2q2, we simply give me that q2 = 2m2 which would
imply that, Sorry, q2 is even. So, it implies that q is even so, if p and q are both even
numbers which means 2 is a common factor means 2 divides both p and q, Right. So, it
cannot happen because here I have considered p and q in the reduced forms. So, they do
not have any other common factor other than 1. So, here we reach a contradiction and
hence we conclude that this is irrational. Now I will ask you the following question and
nobody asks and this is given in the book of beautiful book of Niven.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:43)

Niven has this beautiful book which I think is not available nowadays or almost always
available on the net it is called “Numbers Rational and Irrational”, it is published by the
Mathematical Association of America. Ivan Niven was old Canadian American
mathematician in the fifties, I think he was very active, some lovely books which every
what he should read actually anybody interested in mathematics, because he shows how
beautiful mathematics can be. So, we will follow his chapter on irrational numbers for
this lecture.

So, he asks a question what about 3 , is it rational or irrational is this irrational that is
the question. So, in your school you are never ask this question, even in your standard
calculus courses you never ask the question why should 3 be irrational, now let me

p
again try in the same way. So, I again assume that 3 is equal to you will be given
q

the notes, the notes should be uploaded and then you can see it in detail. So, I am not
writing everything every word in detail or the way I have written in notes.

p
So, what does it mean? So, I am expressing this again must be in the reduced form
q

that it is you will always assume that this GCD the greatest common divisor between p
and q is 1. So, this would imply that 3q 2 = p2. So, what it simply means that p is divisible
by 3, p2 is divisible by 3, I am sorry. So, it simply means p 2 is divisible by 3 p2 is
divisible by 3, but interesting fact that if the square of a number is divisible by 3 the
number itself was also has to be divisible by 3.

This is a very number theory consists of all these fun and tricky facts and you really have
to use it whenever require so it implies p is divisible by 3. So, that implies that p can be
expressed as 3k say that is divisible by 3, 3 is the quotient when you divide p by 3. So, if
I put this in this equation. So, I you will have 9k 2 = 3q2. So, that would imply that
q2 = 3k2, which implies that q2 is divisible by 3 and hence it would imply that q is
divisible by 3.

So, now, 3 becomes a common factor between p and q which is not possible because we
have said that p and q the only common factor of p and q has is 1. So, again just if you
want to keep in mind this is in a reduced form, Okay. Now even ask you another
question what is what would happen if I add these two numbers, will they be rational or
irrational because you might say oh you are adding 2 irrational numbers you will get a
irrational number. Where adding two irrational numbers need not always give me any
rational numbers. Because if you have 2 then without much difficulty using the same
procedure we you can prove that (- 2 ) is also irrational so, but then 2 + (- 2 ) would
give you 0 which is the irrational number. If you take 2 rational numbers and add them
or if you take 2 rational numbers and multiply them you will always get a rational
number.

But you will never you cannot guarantee that such a thing would happen when you have
2 irrational numbers. So, the question is, is this rational or irrational? So, shall we go
here the policy of doing this, when you add 2 numbers the policy of doing check of
rationality or irrationality in this form is not always helpful, that is you cannot say and

p
put 3 by saying as and do it, it will mess up. Policy of doing this as I will show
q

you on this side of the board is the following now later if I assume that it to be rational.
So, let

(Refer Slide Time: 11:39)

2+ 3 = r, rational number if I square it. So, this is what you get or in another way

r2 -5
you at 6  . So, you add 2+3 and that is taken to the other side and divide by sorry
2
by 2, make if I divide when you say. So, r if it is a rational number r 2-5 is a rational
number, now if we divide 2 rational numbers they will give me another rational number,
then the question would arise is 6 a rational number 6 the rational number then what
I am writing is true.
So, if you want to prove it irrational you have to prove that 6 is irrational and that is
exactly what I want you to prove you can keep on thinking about this. So, how do you,
how do you prove that 6 is irrational. So, if you want to so when you are proving just a

p p
single quantity then you have to go in this method with in the reduced form. So,
q q

just for your practice I just will just do this example.

So, again you will go because if you prove the 6 irrational then this is a meaningless
equation right a rational cannot be equal to irrational. So, then you will immediately
conclude that 2, 3 plus 2+ 3 is not rational, somebody say I know that he be
rational because it is nothing, but 2× 3, but remember multiplying 2 irrational
numbers need not be again a irrational number because again you have root and exactly

1
in a similar procedure you can prove that is irrational.
2

Only the role of p and q switches right. So, then when you take a product of this you will
get 1 which is rational. So, these are certain things have to keep in mind while doing

p
mathematics. So, again if you do in the form so you will have 6q2 = p2, which means
q

p2 is even naturally because it is 2×3q2. So, p is divisible by 2 so p2 is even so it implies p

is even. So, now, p is even, I can write p = 2m and write p as p = 2m. So, this is clear
now because that is the type of reasoning that we are taking.

So, once you do that you write 6q2 = 4m2. So, you are getting 3q2 = 2m2. So, what does it
means, it means that 3q2 is even. Now 3q2 is even q2 itself must be even because 3 is odd
if you want to multiply an odd number with some number and get an even number. So, if
you multiply an odd number with odd number you would never get a even number, to
multiply an odd number with a even number you will get an even number. So, so you
will immediately have from here as that q2 is even and which will imply q is even.

(Refer Time: 16:29)

So, both p and q being even now would have a common factor of 2, which is again a
contradiction whereas, you know that p and q has been chosen in the reduced form, all
these things that we have done this these are the parts you will learn in your 11 standard
in our indian classrooms they are called “Surds”. Go to any class 11 book you will be
hearing this word. So, in general the question that I would be interested to ask is the
following. Is it always easy to show such numbers to irrational it is not always easy these
examples are though it is not also a traditional these examples are not traditionally given
in the classrooms, but for example, I am asking the question.

When can this n a when is this number irrational? The answer is surprisingly interesting,

answer is the following answer is that n

a is either an integer or irrational of course, a is
a positive number naturally we are not talking about root of a negative number here. So,
a possibly is an integer. So, when is this rush irrational number. So, the interesting thing
is that it is this is either an integer or irrational, it is never in the fractional form.

(Refer Time: 18:47)

So, that is a very interesting question, but how do you actually prove that, a can be
integer means how square root of nth 3, nth root, but yeah you can take integer because if
you take the square root then there will be problem, because you cannot take the you take
the 4th root there will be problem. So, you because you want have real numbers we are
generating real numbers we are not generating anything 1 by 3 exactly. Now, observe
that if I look at this number and Okay, say this is something you have done in your
complex number theory that (xn-a) = 0 has 1 real solution atleast. So, n a is a real
solution of this polynomial equation.

So, the question would be will this solution will this, will this polynomial equation,
because I can write it as a solution real solution of this equation can it give me some hint
about the irrationality of the number or rationality of the number or or been integer. So,
to do that we need to get some, know something about the properties of numbers,
properties of solutions of polynomial equations and whatever we do will not do the proof
here it will be there in the notes everything is based on a very single thing, unique
factorization theorem for natural numbers.

That is the key to all these things that we are discussing and that shows the unity of
mathematics in some sense. So, now, look at this thing, consider a polynomial equation.
So, what I am going to write down is the polynomial equation in you have seen all these
things when you talk about the theory of equations and many of you must be knowing,
but this is what is called a polynomial in a single real variable.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:42)

So, polynomial of degree n so the power progressively goes down to c1 x  c0 and c n  0

because if cn is 0 then it becomes a polynomial of degree n-1. It is a polynomial of degree
n look at the following polynomial equation and these numbers c 1…….. cn-1, c1, c0 these are
called coefficients. These coefficients we for the time being take them to integers. You
can always replace integers by rational numbers I will ask you to have fun by checking
why you can do.

So, it will be really fun just if you go through it, but the interesting fact is that we can
now look at certain properties of rational solutions of this, suppose we have a polynomial
equation that is and you knows that such an equation will have atmost, it will have
exactly n solution or atmost it will have exactly n solutions right. So, these c 0, c1, cn are

a
integers I am not giving you the proof I am just stating a result, the result says that if
b
here I am just talking about rational numbers a and b could be negative positive does not

p
matter or if you want to say .
q
 p
If is a rational solution of the above equation, equation then p divides c0 and q
q

divides cn, but this all comes from very simple result this all comes from prime
factorization, p divides c0 and q divides cn. So, from which we can make a very
interesting conclusion that if cn = 1, then q must also be 1 which means because
otherwise if it is 1 there is no other number other than 1, no other integer which can
divide 1.

So, 1 or -1 it does not matter. So, assuming the sign of p q in p then you will have p by 1

p
and so this is integer. So, if c n = 1 is element of the set of integers. So, this is a very-
q

very important result, to prove this view you need some stuff which is in the notes which
I will not get it to you in the class because it is just because we are; obviously, constant
over with for time. So, we have some 5-10 minutes left. So, here is something you have a
information, that if it is rational then there is a behavior p behaves in some way and q
behaves in some way if you have a rational solution, Now let me ask you this question.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:55)

3
5 is irrational can you prove it and you will see how beautifully we can use this idea,
this simple idea can be beautiful used here because I can now write that this is a solution
of the equation, of the polynomial equation of degree 3. (x 3-5) = 0. So, in this case c 0 = 5
and c1 = cn = 1, c3 = 1, rest of the coefficients are 0. So, suppose 5 is 3
5 which is a
real solution of this.

So, 3
5 is rational then, it must be an integer because c n = 1, c3 = 1 the highest power

has coefficient 1. So, it must be integer. So, actually at and then 3

5 is an integer then
what could be the integers, but that integer now should divide c 0 which is 5 because p is
dividing c0 and q is dividing cn, see how beautiful mathematics is and then you know the
only chances here are 5, -5, 1 and -1. So, now, I put x as say 1, say 1 3-5 ≠ 0, it is -4
similarly you look for each and everything here every solution if you put x as 5 or -5, 1
and -1 you will not get 0.

So, 3
5 cannot be a rational number. So, you see how the theory of equations are linked
finding rational number mean irrationality of numbers of this form. So, once you have so
you can use the same language here that either it is a integer, fine if it is not an integer

p
there is no other choice, but it has to be rational it cannot be of the form . Now you
q

might ask that, Okay, only this square root type a cube root or n th group type things are
irrational nothing else.

So, there are famous numbers in mathematics famous constants in mathematics which
are irrational, the most famous constant in mathematics is π the ratio between the
circumference and the diameter or circle is irrational not only that π 2 is irrational. So, this
is irrational and there is another important number called e and the e2 the exponential that

1 1 1
it is actually 1     ... . It is an infinite series, Okay, if you are not so much in
1! 2! 3!
to it do not bother much about it.

So, in my notes I will have proofs of the irrationality of these numbers and say
something more about them, but these are for somebody who has already got some
knowledge. So, the note should be so that people can choose and read whatever parts
they want to read. So, before we finish today with last 5 minutes let me give you another
important class of numbers logarithms, many other logarithms are irrational actually.
Now I will not talk about base e logarithms which is called natural log, we will call the
straight the class 10 standard logarithm which is as follows.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:23)

So, you know that if 10x = y, if I ask the question whatever what is the power of x what
is the to which power 10 must be raised to give me the number y. So, log is just the
inverse of this operation inverse of exponentiation is the log of log operation. So, you say
log10 y  x . Now I ask you a very simple question if you look at Napier’s logged
logarithmic table they will give you point something, something, but that will be just a
approximation no I am asking is this rational or irrational.

Let me assume that it is rational as before and the whole thing is in the reduced form

a
Say, in the reduced form GCD is 1 greatest common divisor between a and b is 1 that
b
is you cannot divide them further no common factor other than 1. So, it means
b log10 2  a it simply means log10 2 b  a and that simply means 10 a  2 b and hence it

implies that 2 b  2 a 5 a .

So, 2b is some number and this looks like this is a prime factorization then of 2 b which
has got to be unique and each of the prime numbers in the prime factorization must be a
factor of this number 2b right each of these numbers here must divide this number 2b or
2b cannot be divided by 5. So, here comes the contradiction and hence this is an irrational
number. So, with this I end this talk I hope you enjoyed this with some nice examples
and we would you see more in the notes specially those parts are for those who are more
initiated calculus for the ambitious this is a name of a book recently by T. W. Corner
‘Calculus for the ambitious’. So, those who are more ambitious can go and have a look
there when I in the notes, but otherwise those who just want to have a basic idea what,
what how to go and hit irrational numbers this amount of is knowledge is pretty fine to
develop a working knowledge of the calculus.

Thank you, thank you very much.