PROJECT WORK ON MATHEMATICS

entitled

“THEOREM ON LIMITS/ CONTINUITY

AND THEIR GEOMETRICAL
MEANINGS/APPLICATIONS”
submitted for the partial for the partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the secondary level education of
National Examination Board.

SUBMITTED TO:
20P7-SC (BOARD EXAM ROOM)

SUPERVISED BY:
Prakash Paudel
Lecturer-Mathematics (ccrc)

DATE OF SUBMISSION:
29/08/2021
 SUBMITTED BY:

Aviyan Basnet

NEB Symbol:12727151

REGD NO:783271270205

Group-A
P7, XI(20th batch)

CAPITAL COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTER

Koteshwor, Kathmandu
Nepal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, We would like to express our special thanks of

gratitude to the HOD of department of Mathematics for giving us the
opportunity to have the pleasure of the wonderful project entitled
“Theorem on limits /continuity and their geometrical meanings/ applications.”

We would also like to extend our gratitude to our project guide, Mr.
Narayan Poudel for his guidance and support in completing our
project.

This project didn’t only help us to increase our knowledge but also it
helped us to develop other skills like teamwork.

Date: 29th August, 2021 Group- A

p7, XI(20th Batch)

 ABSTRACT
This project entitled “Theorem on limits /continuity and their
geometrical meanings/ applications” infers the descriptive
information regarding the respective topic. We discussed the inituitive
ideas of limit, continuity as well as different terminologies that relate
the it. Along with idea, meaning, the report consist of the applications
of those idea in different sectors alike when we perform mathematical
calculations using different functions as well as about its genuine use
in one’s real life.
List of Contents

A. INTRODUCTION
A.1 Definition of limit
A.2 History
B. INTUITIVE IDEA OF LIMIT
C. APPLICATION OF LIMIT
C.1 Application in real life
C.2 Application in mathematical calculations
C.2.a Limits of algebraic functions
C.2.b Limit of trigonometric functions
C.3.c Limit of exponential and logarithmic functions
D. CONTINUITY
D.1 Introduction to continuity
D.1.1 History
D.1.2 Intuitive idea of continuity
D.2 Application of continuity
D.3 Types of continuity
A. BACKGROUND
A.1 Definition of limit
A limit of a function is a number that a function reaches as the
independent variable of the function reaches a given value. The
value (say a) to which the function f(x) gets close arbitrarily as the
value of the independent variable x becomes close arbitrarily to
a given value “A” symbolized as f(x) = A.

A.2 History of limit

Ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BC)
first developed the idea of limits to measure curved figures and the
volume of a sphere in the third century BC. By carving these figures
into small pieces that can be approximated, then increasing the
number of pieces, the limit of the sum of pieces can give the desired
quantity. Archimedes’ thesis, The Method, was lost until 1906, when
mathematicians discovered that Archimedes came close to
discovering infinitesimal calculus. As Archimedes’ work was unknown
until the twentieth century, others developed the modern
mathematical concept of limits. English physicist and mathematician
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and German mathematician Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) independently developed the general
principles of calculus (of which the theory of limits is an important
part) in the seventeenth century.
Archimedes of Syracuse developed the idea of limit to measure the
curved figures and volume of a sphere in the third century. By carving
these figures into small pieces that can be approximated, then
increasing the number of pieces, the limit of the sum of pieces can give
the desired quantity. The concept of Archimedes was lost until 1906,
when mathematician discovered that Archimedes came close to
discovering infinitesimal calculus. As Archimedes work was unknown
until the twentieth century, others developed the modern
mathematical concept of limits.

The modern idea of limit of functions came from Bolzano. In 1817, he

introduced the basics of epsilon-delta technique to define continuous
function. But his work was unknown in his lifetime. In 1821, Cauchy
discussed variable quantities, infinitesimals and limits, and defined
continuity of y= f(x) by saying that an infinitesimal change in x
necessarily produces an infinitesimal change in y.
Then, Weierstrass first introduced the epsilon-delta definition of limit
in the form it is usually written today. He also introduced the notation
lim and lim x→x0. The modern notation of placing the arrow below the
limit symbol is due to Hardy.

B. INTUITIVE IDEA OF LIMIT

Let us clear concept of Limit by means of some appropriate examples.

Consider a regular polygon inscribed in a fixed circle. Here the area or
the perimeter of the polygon increases as we increase the side of the
polygon Although we keep on increasing the side of the polygon, the
area or perimeter of perimeter of the polygon can never be equal or
greater than the Area or perimeter of the fixed circle but it can only
less or nearly equal to Area or perimeter of that circle. Thus, we can
conclude that Area or perimeter of the circle is the limit of the series
of areas or circumference of the polygons obtained by giving the
sequence of integral values of ' n ' where ' n ' is the no. of side of the
polygon.

Now, let’s put this example in a functional notation. For this, lets
denote the area of a regular polygon with n sides inscribed in a fixed
circle by An such that n >2. Here An is the function of n so this
functional relation is written as
F(n)=An
When n tends to infinity than An approaches to the area of circle. Thus
the limiting value of f(n) or An is the area of the circle and is denoted
by, lim 𝑓(𝑛) or lim An
𝑛→∞ 𝑥→∞
Let’s us take another example:
1
f(x) = Lim
𝑥2
𝑥→∞
x y
1 1
10 0.01
100 0.0001
…... ……
We see that;
when x tends to infinity then y approaches to 0.
Thus, the limiting value of f(x) is zero

i.e.
1
Lim 2 = 0
𝑥
𝑥→∞

•Meaning of 𝑥→ a (x tends to a)
Let x be a variable and ‘a’ is a constant. If the value of X comes nearer
and nearer to ‘a’ then we say x tends to a or “x approaches to a” and
we write 𝑥 → a
Example: Let the value of x be 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.99999,
……And, let the constant a = 1. Here, the value of x increasing and
going nearer and nearer to ‘a' i.e. 1 but not exactly reaches to ‘a'
where a=1. So, it means that “x tends to a or approaches to ‘a’
Thus, we write; 𝑥 → a
If x approaches to a from the value greater than ‘a’
i.e. From the right side of a, we write 𝑥 → a + or 𝑥 → a + 0.
For example: let x = 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, …………. Here the value
of X decreasing and going nearer and nearer to the a=2. It shows that
x is approaches to 2 from the value greater than 2 i.e from the right
side of a = 2 Thus we write. 𝑥 → a+ or 𝑥 → a + 0.
Similarly if x approaches to a from the value less than a, i.e. from the
left side of a, then we write 𝑥 → a− or 𝑥 → a – 0
For examples: let x = 1.9 , 1.99, 1.999, .......... and let a = 2. Here the
value of x increasing and going nearer and nearer to the a = 2. It shows
that X approaches to 2 from the value less than a = 2 i.e from the left
side of a. Thus, we write 𝑥 → a− or 𝑥 → a – 0

•Limit at Infinity: Meaning of x → ∞

If x becomes greater than any pre- assigned positive number (however
larger it May be) then we say that x tends to infinity, i.e.𝑥 → ∞ & if x
is lesser than any pre assign negative number ( however small it is)
then we say that x tends to minus infinity ,i.e 𝑥 → −∞

C. APPLICATION OF LIMIT

C.1 Application in real life

There are many cases where limits (and/or continuity) can be applied,
in “real life”.

Often, in those applications, the limit (which is relatively easy to

calculate) will serve as a good approximation to “realistic” values in
the neighborhood of the limit. In those cases, continuity will
guarantee that (1) the limit exists, and (2) it’s indeed a good
approximation.
Just one example that comes to mind:
I have a spherical bowl, somewhat like this one:
I want to fill it with small dice (e.g., cheese), up to the top which is
(say) 5 cm from the bottom. How many cheese dice (so how many kg
or pounds of it) do I need?
If the dice are relatively large, there’s relatively many airs below and
between the dice. The smaller they become, the less air, so the more
cheese you need to go to exactly 5 cm high.
Instead of doing a precise calculation (nearly impossible), we could
approximate this “needed volume of cheese dice” by the limit (when
the dice would become very small).
So essentially: as if you would fill it with water. This “water volume”,
which indeed is a limit in all respects, will serve as (1) an
approximation, and (2) an upper bound to the required volume of
cheese. And it will be much easier to compute.
Other uses are:
• To measure the strength of the magnetic field, electric field, etc.
• To figure out the most relevant pieces of information from the large
complex functions.
• In mathematics, a limit is the value that a function “approaches”
as the input “approaches” to some value.
Example: The speedometer measures instantaneous velocity.
C.2 Application in Mathematical calculations
C.2.1 Limits of Algebraic Functions
• The limit of a function is represented as f(x) reaches L as x tends
to limit a, such that; lim 𝑓(𝑥)= L
𝑥→𝑎
• The limit of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their
limits, such that: lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
• The limit of any constant function is a constant term, such that,
lim 𝑐 = C
𝑥→𝑎
• The limit of product of the constant and function is equal to the
product of constant and the limit of the function, such that:
lim 𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = m lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
• Quotient Rule: lim = ; if lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Important theorem
For all rational values of n
𝑥ⁿ−𝑎ⁿ
lim =nxn-1
𝑛→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

CASE: I
When n is a positive integer:
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
By actual division, =𝑥 𝑛−1 +𝑥 𝑛_2 .a+𝑥 𝑛−3 . 𝑎2 + …. + 𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥−𝑎

𝑥ⁿ−𝑎ⁿ
Now, lim =lim ( 𝑥 𝑛−1 +𝑥 𝑛−2 .a+𝑥 𝑛−3 .𝑎2 +…. +𝑎𝑛−1 )
𝑛→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛→𝑎

=𝑎𝑛−1 +𝑎𝑛−1 +𝑎𝑛−1 +…..+𝑎𝑛−1

 =n𝑎𝑛−1

Case II:
When n is a negative integer:
Let n = -m where m is a positive integer
𝑥ⁿ−𝑎ⁿ 𝑥 − ᵐ−𝑎⁻ᵐ
Then, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
1 1
−
𝑚 𝑚
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑎ᵐ−𝑥ᵐ
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥ᵐ𝑎ᵐ(𝑥−𝑎)

𝑥ᵐ−𝑎ᵐ 1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 − ⨯
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥ᵐ𝑎ᵐ

𝑥ᵐ−𝑎ᵐ 1
=−( 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) ( 𝑙𝑖𝑚 )
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥ᵐ𝑎ᵐ

1
= -m. aᵐ⁻¹ (using case I)
𝑎ᵐ.𝑎ᵐ

= (-m) a⁽⁻ᵐ⁾⁻¹
=n aⁿ⁻¹

Case III:
When n is a rational fraction:
𝑝
Let n = where p and q are integers and q ≠0.
𝑞

𝑥ⁿ−𝑎ⁿ 𝑥ᵐ̷ᵥ−𝑎ᵐ̷ᵥ
Then, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

(𝑥 1 ̷ᵥ)ᵐ−(𝑎1 ̷ᵥ)ᵐ
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
 Put x¹̷˅ = y and a¹̷˅= b so that x = yⁿ and a = bⁿ
When x→a, y→b
𝑦ᵐ−𝑏ᵐ
𝑥ⁿ−𝑎ⁿ 𝑦ᵐ−𝑏ᵐ 𝑦−𝑏
Now, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑦ˇ−𝑏ˇ
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑦ˇ−𝑏ˇ 𝑥→𝑎
𝑦−𝑏

𝑦ᵐ−𝑏ᵐ
𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑦→𝑏 𝑦−𝑏 𝑝 𝑏ᵐ⁻¹ 𝑚
= 𝑦ˇ−𝑏ˇ = = .bᵐ⁻˅
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑞 𝑏ˇ⁻¹ 𝑝
𝑦→𝑏 𝑦−𝑏

𝑚 𝑝
= .bᴾ⁽ᵐ̷ᵥ⁻¹⁾ = .(bᴾ)ᵐ̷ᵥ⁻¹ =naⁿ⁻¹
𝑝 𝑞

.˙. for all rational values of n,

𝑥ⁿ−𝑎ⁿ
𝑙𝑖𝑚 =n aⁿ⁻¹
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

C.2.2 Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Let P=(x,y) be a point on the unit circle centered at the origin O. Let θ
be an angle with an initial side along the positive x axis and a terminal
side given by the line segment OP. The trigonometric functions are
then defined as

Sin θ= y Csc θ=1\y

Cos θ=x Sec θ=1\x
Tan θ=yx Cot θ=x\y
If x=0, sec θ and tanθ are undefined. If y=0, then cot θ and cosθ are
undefined
 Figure: The angle θ is in standard position. The values of the
trigonometric functions for θ are defined in terms of the coordinates
x and y.

Consider the sine function f(x)=sin(x), where x is measured in radian.

The sine function is continuous everywhere, therefore,
limx→csin(x)=sin(c).

This leads to the following theorem.

Theorem 1.7.11.7.1

If a is any number in the natural domain of the corresponding

trigonometric function, then

1. lim sin(𝑥)=sin(a)
𝑥→𝑎
2. lim cos(𝑥)=cos(a)
𝑥→𝑎

3. lim tan(𝑥)=tan(a)
𝑥→𝑎

4. lim cosec(𝑥)=cosec(a)
𝑥→𝑎
 5. lim sec(𝑥)=sec(a)
𝑥→𝑎
6. lim cot(𝑥)=cot(a)
𝑥→𝑎

KEYPOINTS
• Radian measure is defined such that the angle associated with the
arc of length 1 on the unit circle has radian measure 1. An angle
with a degree measure of 180 degree has a radian measure of π
rad.
• For acute angles θ, the values of the trigonometric functions are
defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle in which one of
the acute angles is θ.
• For a general angle θ, let (x,y) be a point on a circle of radius r
corresponding to this angle θ. The trigonometric functions can be
written as ratios involving x, y, and r.
• The trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine, cosine, secant,
and cosecant functions have period 2π. The tangent and
cotangent functions have period π.
• lim sin(𝑥 ) 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0

C.2.3 Limits of logarithmic and exponential functions

Let us consider the function f(x)=log(x+1)x and suppose we wish to
find lim log(𝑥 + 1)𝑥 and lim log(𝑥 + 1)𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→∞
We note the following:
1. Direct substitution leads to the indeterminate forms 00 and ∞∞.
2. The function in the numerator is not a polynomial function, so we
cannot use our previous methods such as applying
lim 1 × 𝑝 =0.
𝑥→∞
Let’s examine both the graph and values of the function for
appropriate x values, to see if they cluster around particular y values.
Here is a sketch of the graph and a table of extreme values.
We first note that domain of the function is (−1,0)∪(0,+∞) and is
indicated in the graph as follows:

𝑥+1
So, lim appears to approach the value 1 as the following table
𝑥→0 𝑥
suggests.

𝑥+1
X lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
−0.1 1.05361
−0.001 1.0005
0 undefined
0.001 0.9995
0.1 0.953102
So, we infer that
log(𝑥+1)
lim =1.
𝑥→0 𝑥

log(𝑥+1)
For the infinite limit, lim =1, the inference of the limit is not
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
as obvious.
The function appears to approach the value 0 but does so very slowly,
as the following table suggests.

X log(x+1)/x
10 0.23979
50 0.078637
100 0.046151
1000 0.006909
10000 0.000921

This unpredictable situation will apply to many other functions of the

form. Hence, we need another method that will provide a different
𝑓(𝑥)
tool for analysing functions of the form .
𝑔(𝑥)

D. CONTINUITY
D.1.1 History
The continuity theory was originated in the observation that a large
proportion of older adults show consistency in their activities,
personalities, and relationships despite their changing physical,
mental, and social status. In 1968, George L. Maddox gave
an empirical description of the theory in a book Middle Age and
Aging. The continuity theory was formerly proposed in 1971 by Robert
Atchley in his article "Retirement and Leisure Participation: Continuity
or Crisis?" in the journal The Gerontologist. Later, in 1989, he
published another article entitled "A Continuity Theory of Normal
Aging”, in The Gerontologist in which he substantially developed the
theory. In this article, he expanded the continuity theory to explain
the development of internal and external structures of continuity. In
1999, Robert Atchley continued to strengthen his theory in his book
“Continuity and Adaptation in Aging: Creating Positive Experiences”.

D.1.2 INTUITIVE IDEA

The function f(x) is said to be continuous at point x=a, in its domain if
the following three conditions are satisfied:
1. f(a) is defined.
2. If the Left-hand limit, right-hand limit and the value of the function
at x=a exists and are equal to each other i.e.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim −𝑓(𝑥) = lim +𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

• Discontinuity
The function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at point x=a in its
domain if any of the following three continuous is satisfied:
1. f(a) is not defined.
2. lim −𝑓(𝑥) and lim +𝑓(𝑥) exists but are not equal.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
3. lim −𝑓(𝑥) and lim +𝑓(𝑥) exists and are equal but not equal to
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
f(a).
• Idea of Continuity and Discontinuity
The idea lies on either function is continuous or not if we sketch its
curve on a graph without lifting pen even once.

D.2 Application of Continuity

1. Engineering: Calculus is used in modelling engineering
problems, which are often stated as ordinary or partial
differential equations.
2. Topology: The field of point-set topology defines continuity in
terms of those open and closed sets.
3. Digital Recording: Continuity function is the secret behind the
digital recording, including CDs and DVDs.
 D.3 Types of continuity
Limits and continuity concept is one of the most crucial topics in
calculus. Combinations of these concepts have been widely explained
in Class 11 and Class 12. A limit is defined as a number approached by
the function as an independent function’s variable approaches a
particular value. For instance, for a function f(x) = 4x, you can say that
“The limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is 8”. Symbolically, it is written as;
lim (4x) = 4×2= 8
𝑥→2

Continuity is another popular topic in calculus. The easy method to

test for the continuity of a function is to examine whether a pen can
trace the graph of a function without lifting the pen from the
paper. When you are doing precalculus and calculus, a conceptual
definition is almost sufficient, but for higher level, a technical
explanation is required. You can learn a better and precise way of
defining continuity by using limits.

• Continuity
Many functions have the property that they can trace their graphs
with a pencil without lifting the pencil from the paper’s surface. These
types of functions are called continuous. Intuitively, a function is
continuous at a particular point if there is no break in its graph at that
point. A precise definition of continuity of a real function is provided
generally in a calculus’s introductory course in terms of a limit’s idea.
First, a function f with variable x is continuous at the point “a” on the
real line, if the limit of f(x), when x approaches the point “a”, is equal
to the value of f(x) at “a”, i.e., f(a). Second, the function (as a whole)
is continuous, if it is continuous at every point in its domain.
Mathematically, continuity can be defined as given below:
A function is said to be continuous at a particular point if the following
three conditions are satisfied.
1. f(a) is defined
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑎
3. lim +𝑓(𝑥) = lim −𝑓(𝑥) =f(a)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
As mentioned before, a function is said to be continuous if you can
trace its graph without lifting the pen from the paper. But a function
is said to be discontinuous when it has any gap in between.

Below figure shows the graph of a continuous function.

Types of Discontinuity
There are basically three types of discontinuity:
• Infinite Discontinuity
• Jump Discontinuity
• Removable Discontinuity

Infinite Discontinuity
A branch of discontinuity wherein, a vertical asymptote is present at x
= a and f(a) is not defined. This is also called Asymptotic Discontinuity.
If a function has values on both sides of an asymptote, then it cannot
be connected, so it is discontinuous at the asymptote. This can be
shown using the graph as given below.

Fig: Infinite discontinuity

Jump Discontinuity
A branch of discontinuity where in lim +𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim −𝑓(𝑥), but both
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
the limits are finite. This is also called simple discontinuity or
continuities of the first kind. The graphical representation of jump
discontinuity is given below.
• Removable discontinuity

In the graphs below, there is a hole in the function at x=a. These holes
are called removable discontinuities.
In this category of discontinuity, the function has a well defined two-
sided limit at x = a, but either f(a) is not defined or f(a) is not equal to
its limit. The discrepancy can be shown as:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ f(a)
𝑥→𝑎

It can be easily eliminated by redefining the function in such a way

that,

f(a)= lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎
Continuity at a Point

Before we look at a formal definition of what it means for a function

to be continuous at a point, let’s consider various functions that fail to
meet our intuitive notion of what it means to be continuous at a point.
We then create a list of conditions that prevent such failures.

Our first function of interest is shown in (figure) We see that the graph
of f(x) has a hole at . In fact, f(a) is undefined. At the very least,
for f(x) to be continuous at , we need the following conditions:

i. f(a) is defined.
Figure 1. The function f(x) is not continuous at a because f(a) is
undefined.

However, as we see in (Figure) this condition alone is insufficient to

guarantee continuity at the point . Although f(a) is defined, the
function has a gap at . In this example, the gap exists because lim(x
tends to a) f(x) does not exist. We must add another condition for
continuity at —namely,

ii. Lim exists

(x tends to a)
Figure 2. The function is not continuous at a because when lim 𝑓(𝑥),
𝑥→𝑎
f(x) does not exist.

However, as we see in (Figure) these two conditions by themselves do

not guarantee continuity at a point. The function in this figure satisfies
both of our first two conditions, but is still not continuous at . We
must add a third condition to our list:

iii. lim 𝑓(𝑥)=f(a).

𝑥→𝑎
Figure 3. The function f(x) is not continuous at a because lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠
𝑥→𝑎
f(a).
Refrences/Bibliography
a) MacTutor History of Weistrass
b) Basic mathematics,D.R. Bajracharya, R.M. Shrestha, M.B. Singh, Y.R.
Sthapit, B.C. Bajracharya, Sukunda Pustak Publication
c) Class note : mathematics class note, Ashok Pandey

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