REVIEW ARTICLE Agricultural Reviews, Volume 40 Issue 4: 296-302 (October-December 2019)

Black Pepper in Malaysia: An Overview and Future Prospects

A.H. Izzah, W.Y. Wan Asrina 10.18805/ag.R-129

ABSTRACT
Cultivating black pepper in Malaysia started in early 10th to the 11th century when the South Indian Kings began to extend their empire.
The crop was brought to East Malaysia in 1840 by Chinese settlers, actively planted until it was hit by the massive flood, fluctuation
of the price and outbreak of foot rot. High yielding cultivars such as Kuching, Semenggok Emas and Semenggok Aman provided
promise for better production, but resulted in increased soil degradation and reduced crop growth in Sarawak. The paper aims to
discuss the black pepper industry in Sarawak and present scenario of its cultivation including future prospects. Cultivating on hilly
topography with coarse textured dominant soil becomes one of the limiting factors. This factor is observed due to high rainfall intensity
and steeper slopes. Neglected soil conservation also affects crop production and lead to a lower return on investments. Technologies
such as land conservation and practising precision agriculture need to be adopted to reduce the impact of soil degradation and better
production.
Key words: Black pepper, Cultivars, Erosion, Sarawak, Topography.

Black pepper has been used enormously in the world to

flavour a dish, pharmaceutical and even cosmetics. It Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Food
originated from the south western region of India which is Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus,
97008, Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia.
now known as Malabar Coast (Ravindran, 2000). The history
of black pepper cultivation in Malaya (known as Malaysia) Corresponding Author: W.Y. Wan Asrina, Department of Crop
started in early 10th to 11th century when the powerful South Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Universiti Putra
Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, 97008, Bintulu, Sarawak,
Indian kings, Raja Raja Chola and his sons extended their
Malaysia. Email: asrina@upm.edu.my
empire to the Malay archipelago and Java-Bali Islands
(Ravindran, 2000). How to cite this article: Izzah, A.H. and Wan Asrina,W.Y. (2019).
Black Pepper in Malaysia: An Overview and Future Prospects.
East Malaysia (now known as Sabah and Sarawak)
Agricultural Reviews, 40(4): 296-302.
under the reign of King Brooke has been reported to start in
1840 where the Chinese settlers actively grew black pepper Source of support: Nill
in Bau, Baram, Trusan and Limbang, in the state of Sarawak. Conflict of support: None
As the crop steadily grew during the time, a disease outbreak Submitted: 15-06-2019 Accepted: 11-10-2019 Published: 06-12-2019
and massive flood diminished the crop (1918 to 1919) with
later troubled by the fluctuation of black pepper price causing
a serious problem to the farmers (in 1928) and alternatively Due to this geoclimatic difference, the scenario in each
start to shift their black pepper to other more profitable crops area was according to its own nature. For that reason, the
such as cocoa, oil palm and rubber. objective of this paper is to give an overview of the black
The crop is more suitable to humid, tropical with pepper industry in Malaysia with the scenario of black pepper
relatively 2,000 to 3,000 mm of rainfall (Sivaraman et al., in Sarawak.
1999). Malaysia is among the top seventh world producer
THE BLACK PEPPER INDUSTRY IN SARAWAK
accounted to 23,500 metric ton of black pepper in year 2017
(Malaysian Pepper Board, 2018a). This is beneficially Sarawak is known as a major producer which cover 17,134
caused by profitable world market which provides more ha area in 2018 (Malaysian Pepper Board, 2018b). The
competitive price for pepper growers and income. fraction of area is showing Serian contributing most than
The cultivation in Peninsular Malaysia is majorly planted other areas (Fig 1). This industry is monitored and supported
on flat land with lower rainfall (~1,800 to 3,000 mm) while in by Malaysian Pepper Board (MPB) and local universities
Sabah and Sarawak, the crop was planted on hilly helps in black pepper production, marketing and others.
Till now, Sarawak leads the production of black and
topography with higher rainfall (~2,800 to 4,700 mm). The
white pepper in Malaysia, which about 23,780 tonnes of
differences between these two areas (Peninsular Malaysia
black pepper and 6,794 tonnes of white pepper in 2018
and Sabah and Sarawak) were mainly due to their land
(Malaysia’s Open Data Portal, 2019). The black pepper
topography and weather characteristics. According to Paulus trends are increasing since 2009, while fluctuation of white
et al. (2011a) and Ravindran (2000), the area with higher pepper production was recorded since 2017 due to hard to
rainfall needs to be closely monitored due to the sensitivity produce. Production of pepper has indicated 30,433 tonnes
of the crops to excessive moisture which increases the in 2017 which far behind other leading production countries
severity of the infection by foot rot. Meanwhile, a continuous such as Vietnam (200,000 tonnes), Indonesia (70,000
drought season may reduce the flowering potential which tonnes), Brazil (65,000 tonnes) and India (57,000 tonnes)
also affects potential yields (Paulus et al., 2011a). (Malaysia’s Open Data Portal, 2019).

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 Black Pepper in Malaysia: An Overview and Future Prospects

The emerge of Vietnam as leader in this industry was due

White pepper
to good support from local government by providing some

20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30

20-30
20-30
initiatives to sustain black pepper production through

>30
>30

>30
Conversion rate fresh
training, media and good agricultural practice have
embarked USD 1,119,729,000 profit in 2017 with only

pepper (%)
110,000 ha compared to their competitors. Use of traditional
breeding such as trunk and vines cutting is another successful
cultivation here compared to India, which uses a pre-rooted

Black pepper
cutting from runner shoot (Prabhakaran Nair, 2011). In Malaysia,
support by MPB has a remarkable effect on the growth of black

40-50
40-50

40-50
40-50

40-50
<40
<40

<40

<40
<40
pepper; however, juggling with market price has diversified the
crop even abundant availability of cutting.
CROP AND FEATURES IN SARAWAK REGION
Black pepper or Piper nigrum L. belong to family Piperaceae
which is easily classified as climbing crops that need a

Number of
spikes per
support to keep growing. It is a perennial crop and may grow

Table 1: Selected agronomic differences between black pepper cultivars.

branch

20-30

20-30
30-40
30-40
up to 15 years depending on crop management practices

>40
<20
<20

<20

<20
<20
applied by farmers. The crop can grow well in humid tropics
with 2,000 to 3,000 mm rainfall per year and require a proper
drainage system to avoid foot rot (Paulus et al., 2011b;
Prabhakaran Nair, 2011). Excessive drainage during the
flowering period has been reported to affect flower pollination

inflorescence
and thus reducing berries production. The crop can be

flowers per
Number of

90-100
cultivated in a wide range of soil topography including slopes

80-90
80-90

80-90
>100

>100
<80

<80

<80
<80
of less than 10o (Tanaka et al., 2009). In the case of Sarawak
where certain divisions in parts of Sarawak received heavy
rainfall per annum and geographically it is more hilly than
Peninsular Malaysia (Sa’adi et al., 2017), farmers were
indirectly tend to cultivate black pepper on hilly steeps with
the slope ranging from 25 to 30o. Another reason caused
the farmer in Sarawak to grow in hilly area is to reduce soil-
Rounded

Oblique
Ovate
Acute
Acute

Acute

Acute
Acute
Acute
Acute
Base

borne diseases caused by Fusarium spp. and Phytophthora

spp. that favoured water logged condition (Kifelew and
Adugna, 2018; Nguyen, 2015).
This crop has two types of vine namely orthotropic and
plagiotropic classified according to its growth. Orthotropic
Rounded

grow vertically, monopodium and has adventitious root. This

Obtuse

Obtuse
Obtuse

Obtuse
Obtuse
Obtuse
Acute

Acute
Acute
Apex
Leaf

root provides climbing internodes which support crop growth.

This vine is used to produce new cutting for new crops either
for personal or commercial use. Plagiotropic have lateral,
sympodium and hold flower inflorescence which lead to
production of black pepper within internode.
Table 1 lists major characteristic of Malaysian peppers
Lanceolate-ovate
Lanceolate-ovate
Lanceolate-ovate
Lanceolate-ovate

Lanceolate-ovate
Lanceolate-ovate
Lanceolate-ovate
Lanceolate-ovate

as recommended by Malaysian Pepper Board for

Lanceolate

commercial farming and recent cultivars. Leaf shape, apex,

Shape

Ovate

base, inflorescences, branch and flowers of black pepper

highlights the potential of the conversion ratio for black
* Adapted from Chen et al. (2018).

pepper production. This will be highly useful for the farmers’

and researchers to do field classification of recommended
cultivars.
RECOMMENDED VARIETY AND ITS FEATURES
Lampung Daun Lebar

There are multiple varieties reported in Malaysia that

Semenggok Perak
Semenggok Emas
Semenggok Aman

originated from India and Indonesia. The common variety

cultivated in Malaysia since 1957 are Balancotta,
Semenggok 1

Cheriakaniakadan, Kuluvallay, Uthirancotta, Bangka,

India/Tambi

Yong Petai

Belantung dan Djambi (Paulus et al., 2011a). However, only

Nyerigai
Kuching
Cultivar

Uthirancotta or India/Tambi cultivar was widely grown in

Sarikei

Malaysia due to its adoption. There is also three

recommended cultivars produced by Malaysia, namely

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 Black Pepper in Malaysia: An Overview and Future Prospects

Kuching, Semenggok Emas and Semenggok Aman (Paulus increasing N application for three constitutive cropping years
et al., 2011a). These three cultivars become familiar due to yielded 62, 237 and 390 kg ha-1. However, N supply in India
its characteristics inherited from their parent materials. only limited to 34, 68 and 100 kg ha-1 for three cropping
Semenggok Emas was produced through hybrid cross- years, respectively (Satyagopal et al., 2014). The differences
breeding between Uthirancotta and Kuching and made its between variety cultivated in Malaysia and India has close
debut in 1991 (Paulus et al., 2011a). Meanwhile Semenggok relationship to the crop variety and soil characteristics present
Aman was released from clonal germplasm from Costa Rica in an area (Shamshuddin et al., 2014). Moreover, critical
and was first announced in 2006. management on soil fertility and soil N have gained serious
To date, only three known cultivars are recommended consideration among researchers to boost crop productivity
by the Malaysian Pepper Board (MPB) to be cultivated in (Niranjana et al., 2018; Singh, 2018).
Malaysia based on berries productivity, disease resistance, Phosphorus
piperine and oleoresin content, and the percentage of
conversion to black or white pepper (Chen et al., 2018; Supplementation of P fertiliser in black pepper was proposed
Sruthi et al., 2013). Their composition and characteristic is according to soil texture. Ann (2012) demonstrates about
presented in Table 2. These characteristics were finalised 10, 22 and 62 kg ha-1 of P on three cultivated years on clay
by the MPB and widely cited to explain the importance of to clay loam texture in compared to sandy soil. George
et al. (2005) in his research on sandy soil has concluded at
these cultivars to the farmers.
the rate of 70, 140 and 140 kg ha-1 for three constitutive
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT years. Accordingly, the second and third year in sandy soil
The consumption of nutrients in black pepper increased over was fixed to 140 kg ha-1 attributed to limited adsorption
the years. However, early fertilisation was practised to supply surface and promoted leaching from the soil profile (Fujii
equivalent nutrient to support all crop growths such as root, et al., 2017; Yanai et al., 2007).
leaves and stem elongation. Once the crop reaches 24 Potassium
months, significant increase of fertiliser to support growth The uptake of K is often related to fruit formation in black
and preparation for the mature phase is applied. This phase pepper (Ann, 2012; Paulus et al., 2011a). The importance
was optimum once it reaches 36 months when the entire of K is comparable to N which about 0.72 g kg -1 is recorded
crop is fully developed and black pepper berries production as early crop cultivation in nursery level (Thankamani et al.,
starts (Ann, 2012). 2007). The amount of K fertiliser was applied at 62, 246 and
The differences between varieties and types of soil have 352 kg ha-1 K for three constitutive years, respectively (Ann,
highlighted different nutrient requirement to satisfy their 2012). However, in shale soils, the amount of K was about
growth. A cultivar such as Semenggok Aman needs greater 80, 160 and 400 kg ha -1 for three conservative years.
nutrient uptake due to its characteristic yielding longer fruit Interestingly, both soil either in clay loam or shale showed
spike (Ann, 2012). Guajarina also exhibits similar nutrients an increasing trend of K on the third year which highlights
consumption like Semenggok Aman (Partelli, 2009). In order the importance of this nutrient for berries production.
to maximise crop growth, a large amount of N and K were
used to satisfy nutrient uptake. This is according to research Calcium
conducted on Semenggok Aman and Indian variety which Amendment of Ca in soil from liming based often practised
recorded nutrient removal of 293.08 and 138 kg ha-1, 264.95 by the farmer to alleviate acidity and prevent leach of cations.
and 189 on N and K, respectively (Ann, 2012; Ravindran, 2000). The importance of this element due to behaviour on
regulating crop growth and development. About 1 kg
Nitrogen
dolomite was applied per vine prior to cultivation and 0.5 kg
Large N quantities need to support fruit development, may apply subsequent year. Increasing accumulation of Ca
especially after 24 months. Research by Ann (2012) on in black pepper tissue sample up to 22 months after plating
cultivating Semenggok Aman on clay loam has indicated has reported by Ann (2012). A remarkable effect on adequate

Table 2: Characteristics of recommended black pepper in Malaysia for cultivation.

Characteristics Cultivars
Kuching Semenggok Emas Semenggok Aman
Green berry yield (kg/vine/year) 6-8 6-8 6-8
Length of fruit spike (cm) 9.7 9.9 10.1
Piperine (%) 3.5 3.4 5.4
Oleoresin (%) 11.0 11.0 15.5
Volatile oil (%) 2.8 3.0 3.8
Non-volatile (%) 7.9 8.0 11.5
Harvesting rounds per season 4-6 2-3* 2-3*
Susceptible to Phytophthora foot rot disease Highly susceptible Susceptible Less susceptible
Susceptible to black berry disease Highly susceptible Tolerant Tolerant
*more uniform ripening compared to Kuching.
**adapted from Paulus et al. (2011a)

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 Black Pepper in Malaysia: An Overview and Future Prospects

Fig 1: Division of areas in Sarawak actively cultivated black pepper in year 2015 to 2018. Adapted from Malaysia’s Open Data Portal (2019).

Ca also reported in bean plants, which increase the dry mass application of Zn at 2.5 mg Zn kg-1 soil has increasing content
of the shoot and root, thus lead to high grain yield of oleoresin (22.83%) and piperine(7.57%), however applying
(Domingues et al., 2016). 0.1% Zn EDTA as foliar has a greater yield of black pepper
for about 89 g bush-1 of dry pepper (Hamza and Sadanandan,
Magnesium
2005b). The remarkable effect on yield also reported in other
Deficiency of Mg occurs on mature vine compared to the crops such as onion (Goyal et al., 2017), jojoba (Atteya
immature caused by low pH value. Excessive application of et al., 2018) and chickpea (Pooja and Sarawad, 2019).
K fertiliser provides antagonism effect which inhibits the
absorption of Mg. This tendency has indicated a common Mg Molybdenum
deficiency which may correct exactly supplementation of 1 kg Application of organic matter as a source of micronutrient,
of dolomite and 0.5 kg in a subsequent year (Paulus et al., especially Mo practised by the farmers to affect the growth
2011a). A sufficient Mg concentration in black pepper soil may and N utilisation on protein and amino acid synthesis. An
promote photosynthesis activity through the production of increase in yield of black pepper, especially on application
chlorophyll. Moreover, insufficient Mg to a crop provides rate at 0.5 mg kg-1 soil (Hamza and Sadanandan, 2005a).
significant reduction of root/shoot ratio, thus lead to poor crop
This application of Mo also enhances the quality of black
canopy and abilities to produce fruit (Farhat et al., 2016).
pepper, especially their oleoresin and piperine contents.
Iron
Cultivating black pepper on a coarse-textured hastened TOPOGRAPHY AND CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN
deficiency of Fe including over liming activity. The primary SARAWAK
function of Fe is regulating photosynthesis and lead to plant Growing black pepper in a hilly area with multiple slope
growth and development, and insufficient affect length of orientations has been practised in Sarawak as attributed to
internode, especially terminal shoots and lateral branches
the natural formation of its topography. This has formed new
(Zhang et al., 2019). Deficiency of Fe mainly occurred on the
guidelines proposed by the Malaysian Pepper Board (MPB)
immature vine and corrected slowly as the crop growth older.
to construct terracing along the slopes and intercropping
Formation of a more extensive root system with increasing
with the selected cover crop which benefit the black pepper,
the age of crop help in absorbing the ion in soil colloids.
for example, Centrosema pubescens and Arachis pintoi
Manganese (Paulus et al., 2011b). Promoting land conservation
Application of excessive animal manure, which contains an techniques has close relationship to reduce land
element of Ca affect the availability of Mn. This element degradation, improve soil fertility and crop productivity
recommended for black pepper was 215 mg kg-1 to sustain (Tanaka et al., 2009).
the growth. Important of Mn was illustrated in various crops Even though guidelines were provided to the farmer, it
on chlorophyll production, which essential on photosynthesis is still unfollowed due to the high cost of constructing terraces
activity (Mousavi et al., 2011). Increasing yield of corn and and the level of awareness on the benefits of cover crop is
wheat also reported, which affect its dry matter and yield still weak among farmers especially those who live in rural
(Asad and Rafique, 2000). area. A traditional approach used by farmers is usually
clearing secondary forest through slashing and burning its
Zinc
residue, direct cultivation without any visible terracing, using
Supplementation of Zn to black pepper has a remarkable non-living pole (e.g. Eusideroxylon zwageri, Commersonia
effect on the yield of black pepper. Moreover, sufficient bartramia and others) and bare soil surface through clearing

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 Black Pepper in Malaysia: An Overview and Future Prospects

any other crops than black pepper. All the traditional and Khanif, 2003). This may slowly improve the crop and
practices indeed promote higher crop productivity in the first sustain the soil health for long term production.
year, however, the deterioration of crop and land will be seen Black pepper cultivated on sandy soil with higher rainfall
on wet seasons (Prabhakaran Nair, 2011; Tanaka et al., intensities is often practised to avoid waterlogged condition
2009). The loss of topsoil from this area with high rainfall, and preventing disease incidence, the foot rot disease
especially in Sarawak (e.g. 2,800 to 4,700 mm/year) has (Ravindran, 2000). However, the problem in retaining cations
hastened this process. Due to the higher rainfall, massive become an issue because it causes leaching and intensifies
soil loss occurs and the farmer practically applying wood soil acidity. Retaining nutrient and improvement in soil pH
plank around black pepper mound to control soil movement. on sandy soil can be achieved through mixing manure with
This has disturbed crop growth by exposing black pepper chemical fertiliser (Zingore et al., 2008). Generally, the
root, reduce nutrient uptake and affecting the development improvement of P on signal grass has been achieved by
of the crops (Izzah and Wan Asrina, 2018; Ravindran, 2000). supplying with 15 mg ha-1 poultry manure (Gerola et al.,
Cultivating black pepper in flatland is hardly to find in 2014). In a tropical country, the monitoring season may
Sarawak because preventive to infection by foot rot disease. enhance flower pollination and production of flower spike
However, cultivating on flatland is a common in Peninsular (Rao et al., 2016). Moreover, with appropriate management
Malaysia which drier season and equipped with drip practices such as establishing cover crop, amendment of
irrigation. There also significant different cultivation practices soil with organic matter practices by other researchers on
in Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia, especially, using a sweet potato, maize and kenaf cultivation eventually may
different type of support either living or non-living, fertiliser be practised on black pepper (Ishaq et al., 2014; Roslan
scheme, water availability and management. et al., 2011). This may increase the black pepper productivity
when cultivating on sandy soil texture thus sustaining soil
HILLY TOPOGRAPHY
health for long term production.
The cultivated black pepper on hilly topography has
documented the loss of 62.7 t ha-1 soil in the first year of CONCLUSION
cultivation on a slope of 25o (Frenken, 2012; Hatch, 1981).
Every slope has their effect on the amount of soil loss for The black pepper industry in Malaysia emerges accordingly
example from a ridge, upslope, midslope, downslope, valley to the current demand from other countries. Since the crop
and flat land was about 17.15, 16.90, 21.88, 17.54, 21.48 was successfully grown in humid tropical, it becomes the
and 3.24 t ha-1, respectively (Sun et al., 2014). However, the most important characteristic that influences other farmers
amount will be elevated if the steepness of the area increases. to join in. The lucrative price and multiple schemes offered
by the Malaysian Pepper Board facilitated this trend.
For black pepper, the application of fertiliser needs to
Moreover, successful cultivars namely Kuching, Semenggok
also consider the slope of the area. This consideration is
Emas and Semenggok Aman as high yielding berries
particularly attributed to the nutrient transportation and
become another promising growth in this industry.
accumulation whereas N found greater in middle and slope
Cultivating black pepper on hilly topography in Sarawak
position, P in footslope and K in upper slope (Uzoho et al., is one of the most important characteristics as the natural
2016; Samndi and Mahmud, 2014). One of the ways to land formation occurred. This practice alleviates water
increase fertiliser efficiency and reduce soil pollution derived retention which otherwise may enhance the infection by the
from fertiliser application for pepper planted at the steep foot rot disease. However, improper farm management
area is growing a barrier crop nearby the surface water practices among rural farmers could lead to extreme soil
(Yulnafatmawita et al., 2017; Tuan et al., 2014). Moreover, erosion and becoming one of the limiting factors to support
several techniques on fertiliser application has been black pepper growth. Thus, good agricultural practices which
introduced such as split fertiliser according to microclimate are affordable, accessible, effective and easy such as cover
and semi terracing area (Sarker et al., 2015). crop (e.g. Centrosema pubescens and Arachis pintoi) and
providing mulch at slope area should be well explained to
SANDY SOIL TEXTURE
rural farmers that will eventually protect the farm
Coarse textured soil has been reported to cause lower crop sustainability in the long term.
productivity which is related to its incapability to hold water,
lower cation exchange capacity (CEC), lower pH and lower ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
nutrient retention (Izzah and Wan Asrina, 2018; Pal and
Marschner, 2016). This will promote the leaching of nutrients This research was supported by the project number GP-
caused by high soil permeability (Tahir and Marschner, 2017; IPB/2018/9557605 from Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Nalina et al., 2016). To alleviate this problem, mixing clay
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L.). Spices and Aromatic Crops. 16: 111-114. in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons
Tuan, V.D., Hilger, T., MacDonald, L., Clemens, G., Shiraishi, E., license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permit-
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slopes. Field Crops Research. 156: 91-102. ISSN: 0976-0539 (Online), 0253-1496 (Print), Naas Rating: 4.37

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