HISTORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE

The first steam-powered machine was built in 1698 by the English military engineer Thomas Savery
(c. 1650-1715). His invention, designed to pump water out of coal mines, was known as the Miner's
Friend. The machine, which had no moving parts, consisted of a simple boiler - a steam chamber whose
valves were located on the surface - and a pipe leading to the water in the mine below. Water was
heated in the boiler chamber until its steam filled the chamber, forcing out any remaining water or
air. The valves were then closed and cold water was sprayed over the chamber. This chilled and
condensed the steam inside to form a vacuum. When the valves were reopened, the vacuum sucked
up the water from the mine, and the process could then be repeated.

A few years later, an English engineer named Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) improved the steam
pump. He increased efficiency by setting a moving piston inside a cylinder, a technique still in use
today. A cylinder - a long, thin, closed chamber separate from the boiler - replaced the large, open
boiler chamber. A piston - a sliding piece that fits in the cylinder - was used to create motion instead
of a vacuum. Steam filled the cylinder from an open valve. When filled, the cylinder was sprayed with
water, causing the steam inside to condense into water and create a partial vacuum. The pressure of
the outside air then forced the piston down, producing a power stroke. The piston was connected to
a beam, which was connected to a water pump at the bottom of the mine by a pump-rod. Through
these connections, the movement of the piston caused the water pump to suck up the water.

The most important improvement in steam engine design was brought about by the Scottish engineer
James Watt (1736-1819). He set out to improve the performance of Newcomen's engine and by 1769
had arrived at the conclusion: if the steam were condensed separately from the cylinder, the cylinder
could always be kept hot. That year he introduced the design of a steam engine that had a separate
condenser and sealed cylinders. Since this kept the heating and cooling processes separate, his
machine could work constantly, without any long pause at each cycle to reheat the cylinder. Watt's
refined steam engine design used one-third less fuel than a comparable Newcomen engine.

Over the next 15 years, Watt continued to improve his engine and made three significant additions.
He introduced the centrifugal governor, a device that could control steam output and engine speed.
He made the engine double-acting by allowing steam to enter alternately on either side of the piston.
This allowed the engine to work rapidly and deliver power on the downward and upward piston
stroke. Most important, he attached a flywheel to the engine.

Flywheels allow the engine to run more smoothly by creating a more constant load, and they convert
the conventional back-and-forth power stroke into a circular (rotary) motion that can be adapted
more readily to power machinery. By 1790, Watt's improved steam engine offered a powerful, reliable
power source that could be located almost anywhere. It was used to pump bellows for blast furnaces,
to power huge hammers for shaping and strengthening forged metals, and to turn machinery at textile
mills. More than anything, it was Watt's steam engine that speeded up the Industrial Revolution both
in England and the rest of the world.

Steam was successfully adapted to powerboats in 1802 and railways in 1829. Later, some of the first
automobiles were powered by steam. In the 1880s, the English engineer Charles A. Parsons (1854-
1931) produced the first steam turbine, a new steam technology that was more efficient and which
enabled the steam engine to evolve into a highly sophisticated and powerful engine that propelled
huge ships and ran turbogenerators that supplied electricity.

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Once the dominant power source, steam engines eventually declined in popularity as other power
sources became available. Although there were more than 60,000 steam cars made in the United
States between 1897 and 1927, the steam engine eventually gave way to the internal combustion
engine as a power source for vehicles.

Questions 1-7

Match each statement with the correct person A-D.

A Thomas Savery

B Thomas Newcomen

C James Watt

D Charles A. Parsons
Write the correct letter A, B, C or D in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

1) His invention was the first to use moving parts.

2) His invention allowed steam power to be converted into electric power.

3) His invention was the single biggest step in development.

4) His invention was a simple solution to an industrial problem.

5) His invention was the first continuous power source.

6) His invention first used a method people still use now.

7) His invention allowed a much greater degree of control.

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Questions 8-12

Complete the flow chart below.

Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

The Miner's Friend used condensed steam to (8) ...................., which sucked
water from mines.

Design improved: Newcomen (9) .................... using a piston and cylinder instead
of an open boiler.

1769: separating heating and cooling processes meant

Further development: became easier to (11) .................... through the use of the
flywheel.

Nineteenth century: steam power (12) .................... for use in various means of
transport.

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 LIFE WITHOUT DEATH

Until recently, the thought that there might ever be a cure for ageing seemed preposterous. Growing
older and more decrepit appeared to be an inevitable and necessary part of being human. Over the
last decade, however, scientists have begun to see ageing differently. Some now believe that the
average life-expectancy may soon be pushed up to 160 years; others think that it may be extended to
200 or 300 years. A handful even wonder whether we might one day live for a millennium or more.

Behind this new excitement is the theory that the primary cause of ageing lies in highly reactive
molecules called free radicals, left behind by the oxygen we breathe. Free radicals react with the
molecules in our bodies, damaging DNA, proteins and other cell tissues, and are known to be
implicated in diseases as diverse as cataracts, cancer and Alzheimer's. The body does its best to protect
itself against free radicals by producing its own chemicals to prevent ageing, such as vitamins E and C,
but it is always fighting a losing battle.

A year ago Gordon Lithgow of the University of Manchester discovered a way to help combat free
radicals. Using one of these anti-ageing chemicals. he managed to increase the lifespan of one species
of earthworm by 50 per cent. Despite cautionary words from the scientists, many welcomed this as
the first step towards a drug which would extend life. Research involving the mutation of genes has
also thrown up fascinating results: after identifying two of the genes that appear to control how long
the earthworm lives, similar genes were found in organisms as various as fruit-flies, mice and human
beings. When one considers the vast evolutionary distances that separate these species, it suggests
that we may have discovered a key to how ageing is regulated throughout the entire animal kingdom.

In June last year a small American company called Eukarion sought permission to carry out the first
trials of an anti-ageing drug, SCS, on human beings. Although it will initially be used to treat diseases
associated with old age, Eukarion said, that 'if the effect of treating diseases of old age is to extend
life, everyone's going to be happy.'

Some scientists, however, are quick to discourage extravagant speculation. 'There is no evidence
whatsoever that swallowing any chemical would have an effect on mammals', says Rich Miller of the
University of Michigan. 'And those people who claim it

might need to go out and do some experimenting'. Some research, moreover, has produced alarming
results. As well as controlling ageing, these, genes also partly control the hormones which regulate
growth. The upshot of this is that although the lives of mutant mice can be extended by up to 80 per
cent, they remain smaller than normal.

Quite apart from these sorts of horrors, the ethical implications of extending human lifespan are likely
to worry many people. Even if the falling birth-rates reported in the world's developed nations were
to be repeated throughout the world, would this be sufficient to compensate for massively extended
life-expectancy, and would we be willing to see the demographic balance of our society change out of
all recognition? David Gems, the head of the Centre for Research into Ageing at University College,
London, is enthusiastic about the opportunities opened up by extended life, but even he observes, 'If
people live much longer, the proportion of children would. of course, he very small. It strikes me that
it might feel rather claustrophobic: all those middle-aged people and very few children or young
people.'

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The philosopher John Polkinghorne emphasises that any discussion of the merits of life-extending
therapies must take into account the quality of the life that is lived: 'One would not wish to prolong
life beyond the point it had ceased to be creative and fulfilling and meaningful,' he says. 'Presumably,
there would have to come a point at which life ceased to be creative and became just repetition.
Clearly, there are only so many rounds of golf one would want to play.'

But Polkinghorne, a member of the Human Genetics Commission, also observes that so far our
experience of extended life-expectancy has not resulted in world-weariness. Throughout the last
century, life-expectancy rose consistently, thanks to improved diet, better hygiene, continuous
medical innovation and the provision of free or subsidised healthcare. In 1952 the Queen sent out 225
telegrams to people on their 100th birthday; in 1996 she sent out 5218. 'Consider also, the lives of our
Roman and Anglo-Saxon ancestors' he says. By and large, the doubling of human lifespan we have
seen since then has not been a bad thing. Life has not become frustrating and boring. For example,
we now live to see our children's children, and this is good.'

Questions 13-17

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in the Reading Passage? Write:

YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer.

NO if the statement contradicts what the writer thinks.

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to know what the writer's point of view is.

13) Scientific predictions about how much it will be possible to lengthen human life vary greatly.

14) Research into extending life involves both new drugs and changes to genes.

15) Scientific experiments have not succeeded in making any animals live longer.

16) Most people in the future will decide not to have children.

17) Life expectancy has improved partly because people eat better.

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Questions 18-21

Look at the following names of people or organisations and the list of opinions (A -F).
Match each name with the opinion which the person or organisation expressed.

A Increases in longevity may cause unwelcome changes in society.

18) Eukarion

19) Rich Miller

20) David Gems

21) John Polkinghorne

Questions 22-25

Complete the following summary of the scientific progress towards extending life expectancy.
Choose your answers from the box below the summary.

NB There are more words than spaces, so you will not use them all.

In one experiment using anti-ageing chemicals, the life of (22) ............. was extended by
half. (23) ............. like the ones which control the ageing process in these animals have also been found
in other species. Unfortunately, however, experiments on (24) ............. have been less successful:
while they live longer, the (25) ............. controlling their growth are also affected with the result that
they grow less.

A. chemicals
B. earthworms
C. fruit flies
D. genes
E. hormones
F. human beings
G. mice
H. organisms

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 LIGHT POLLUTION

A After hours of driving south in the pitch-black darkness of the Nevada desert, a dome of hazy gold
suddenly appears on the horizon. Soon, a road sign confirms the obvious: Las Vegas 30 miles. Looking
skyward, you notice that the Big Dipper is harder to find than it was an hour ago.

B Light pollution—the artificial light that illuminates more than its intended target area—has become
a problem of increasing concern across the country over the past 15 years. In the suburbs, where over-
lit shopping mall parking lots are the norm, only 200 of the Milky Way’s 2,500 stars are visible on a
clear night. Even fewer can be seen from large cities. In almost every town, big and small, street lights
beam just as much light up and out as they do down, illuminating much more than just the street.
Almost 50 percent of the light emanating from street lamps misses its intended target, and billboards,
shopping centres, private homes and skyscrapers are similarly over-illuminated.

C America has become so bright that in a satellite image of the United States at night, the outline of
the country is visible from its lights alone. The major cities are all there, in bright clusters: New York,
Boston, Miami, Houston, Los Angeles, Seattle, Chicago, and, of course, Las Vegas. Mark Adams,
superintendent of the McDonald Observatory in west Texas, says that the very fact that city lights are
visible from on high is proof of their wastefulness. “When you’re up in an airplane, all that light you
see on the ground from the city is wasted. It’s going up into the night sky. That’s why you can see it.”

D But don’t we need all those lights to ensure our safety? The answer from light engineers, light
pollution control advocates and astronomers is an emphatic “no.” Elizabeth Alvarez of the
International Dark Sky Association (IDA), a non-profit organization in Tucson, Arizona, says that overly
bright security lights can actually force neighbours to close the shutters, which means that if any
criminal activity does occur on the street, no one will see it. And the old assumption that bright lights
deter crime appears to have been a false one: A new Department of Justice report concludes that
there is no documented correlation between the level of lighting and the level of crime in an area.
And contrary to popular belief, more crimes occur in broad daylight than at night.

E For drivers, light can actually create a safety hazard. Glaring lights can temporarily blind drivers,
increasing the likelihood of an accident. To help prevent such accidents, some cities and states prohibit
the use of lights that impair night-time vision. For instance, New Hampshire law forbids the use of
“any light along a highway so positioned as to blind or dazzle the vision of travellers on the adjacent
highway.”

F Badly designed lighting can pose a threat to wildlife as well as people. Newly hatched turtles in
Florida move toward beach lights instead of the more muted silver shimmer of the ocean. Migrating
birds, confused by lights on skyscrapers, broadcast towers and lighthouses, are injured, sometimes
fatally, after colliding with high, lighted structures. And light pollution harms air quality as well:
Because most of the country’s power plants are still powered by fossil fuels, more light means more
air pollution.

G So what can be done? Tucson, Arizona is taking back the night. The city has one of the best lighting
ordinances in the country, and, not coincidentally, the highest concentration of observatories in the
world. Kitt Peak National Optical Astronomy Observatory has 24 telescopes aimed skyward around
the city’s perimeter, and its cadre of astronomers needs a dark sky to work with.

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H For a while, that darkness was threatened. “We were totally losing the night sky,” Jim Singleton of
Tucson’s Lighting Committee told Tulsa, Oklahoma’s KOTV last March. Now, after retrofitting
inefficient mercury lighting with low-sodium lights that block light from “trespassing” into unwanted
areas like bedroom windows, and by doing away with some unnecessary lights altogether, the city is
softly glowing rather than brightly beaming. The same thing is happening in a handful of other states,
including Texas, which just passed a light pollution bill last summer. “Astronomers can get what they
need at the same time that citizens get what they need: safety, security and good visibility at night,”
says McDonald Observatory’s Mark Adams, who provided testimony at the hearings for the bill.

I And in the long run, everyone benefits from reduced energy costs. Wasted energy from inefficient
lighting costs us between $1 and $2 billion a year, according to IDA. The city of San Diego, which
installed new, high-efficiency street lights after passing a light pollution law in 1985, now saves about
$3 million a year in energy costs.

J Legislation isn’t the only answer to light pollution problems. Brian Greer, Central Ohio representative
for the Ohio Light Pollution Advisory Council, says that education is just as important, if not more so.
“There are some special situations where regulation is the only fix,” he says. “But the vast majority of
bad lighting is simply the result of not knowing any better.” Simple actions like replacing old bulbs and
fixtures with more efficient and better-designed ones can make a big difference in preserving the night
sky.

Questions 26-30

The first six paragraphs of Reading Passage 1 are lettered A-F.

Choose the most suitable headings for paragraphs A-F from the list of headings below.

NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

List of Headings
i Why lights are needed

ii Lighting discourages law breakers

iii The environmental dangers

iv People at risk from bright lights

v Illuminating space

vi A problem lights do not solve

vii Seen from above

viii More light than is necessary

ix Approaching the city

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 26) Paragraph A

27) Paragraph B

28) Paragraph C

29) Paragraph D

30) Paragraph E

31) Paragraph F

32) Paragraph G

Questions 33-36

Complete each of the following statements with words taken from the passage.

Write ONE or TWO WORDS for each answer.

33) According to a recent study, well-lit streets do not .................... or make neighbourhoods safer
to live in.

34) Inefficient lighting increases .................... because most electricity is produced from coal, gas or
oil.

35) Efficient lights .................... from going into areas where it is not needed.

36) In dealing with light pollution .................... is at least as important as passing new laws.

Questions 37-40

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage.

YES if the statement agrees with the writer's claims

37) One group of scientists find their observations are made more difficult by bright lights.

38) It is expensive to reduce light pollution.

39) Many countries are now making light pollution illegal.

40) Old types of light often cause more pollution than more modern ones.