Chapter

Dimensions and Units

11 INTRODUCTION

their definiteness from the mathematical form in which

Physical theories gain
The function of numbering measuring is indispensa-
and
they are expressed. material of facts that are to be
in orderreproduce the
to
raw
hle even
in a theory.
reproduced and unified
DR. E.A. CASSIRER
German Philosopher

can be given than the above quotes of Dr. Cassirer

No beter introduction
that a thorough knowledge of dimensions and the various
which clearly indicate
is not only essential but a must for a logical understanding of
systems of units
and technology are international languages. Engineers
the subject. Mathematics one another, commu-
converse effectively
in formulae and units. To understand
units. The expression of results of
nication is required in commonly accepted
calculations in a symbolic and numerical
form is
measurements and/or of
and technology. The study of
essential for the development of physics, chemistry
than that of the other sciences and one must start
stoichiometry is no different dimensions. This will
with the understanding of fundamental quantities, namely,
units in solving stoichiometric problems.
facilitate appropriate and consistent
fundamentals but also with the methods of
This chapter not only deals with these

conversion of the units from one system to another.

 2
SYSTEMS
OF UNITS
DIMENSIONS
AND
.2 quantity can be e x p r e
physical pressed
raf sa. produc
Acvonding to
Matwell.every
unit is a selected
where the
and an unit,
be e x p r e s s e C e
ce quanti
numher can
same kind
a pure of the
terms of which all quantities
of certain
quantities, ass, en such as mas ical entitie
th,
means
two
are defined

energy.
he answered:
by
While defining
etc.
a particular
would be
(i) What
the
physical quantity,

most convenient unit?

standard, physically
iStion

andard, physically representing th

questionspreneeds ure e
and material for the
the hest form as fundamental
classified

Physical quantities
The
can be
first group
four impor
consist of fo quantities
ant quant
derivvd quantities.
thermodynamic temperature.
T
mass, time and ese are
namelyiength,
mbols L,
by symb
dimensions or base units and are
represented
of quantities derive
M, 0
ived ancallea
The second group consists
respectively.
such as arca, force, pressure, energy from
fandamental quantities,
represented algebraicall
quantities are
ically in terms
therefore. that derived
division of fundamental quantities. of
multiplication and
are represented by a system of units
theThe
fundamental quantities
system of measurement. Basically, the standardphysically represe cordingngthto
of units. In this chapter three three systems
base units differs in different systems
be discussed. of
units, viz. fps, mks and SI will
The fps system, developed in England, is based on foot, pound and seoe
d as
standard measurements for length, mass and time, respectively. This i
Units system. now
commonly known as US Customary
In 1791, in France, a system of units entirely based on unit of length .
metre was created. Because of is foundation entirely based on the metre. hthe
system got the name Systèm Metrique or Metric System (mks). The unit of maor
nass
system is kilogram. An
in the metric feature of this system
decimal expression. Thi system
important was th
increasingly adopted in various
was
countries, including India. In India, the mks system was introduced in 1957.
In another subsidiary system, the cgs system, the step is derived from
the mks
system. The base standards of the cgs system were accepted to be those of the
mks system. In practice these two systems were used side
the convenience. For
by side, depending on
example, it was common to express the density in
g/cm rather than in kg/m (or kg/L) in mks system.
For better international
understanding, in particular, in sCience and
technology and in international and trade relations, a need for an international
system of units was felt. At the 10th General
Measures in 1954 at Paris, it was decided Conference on Weights and
to have an international
system of units, based on six base units, practical
ampere, kelvin and candela. It namely, metre, kilogram, secona,
may be seen that first four base
as those in the
mks system. In units are the same
Measures in Paris gave the
1960, the 11th General
Conference on Weights and
name Le
Système International d'Unitès or n
International System of Units and
SIX base units, two more
abbreviated as SI in all languages. Along
were also defined. supplementary units, namely, radian and sterau
 Dinenuton and Ulte
Later it became evident that the quantity mass, although it may be an
opriate concept in mechar is entirely unsuitable for use in c
where the molecular structure and in particular, the number of molecules in a
much more relevant than it total mass. For this reason, the concept
systen
amount of substance was introdu as a base unit by the 14th (General
nference on Weights and Measures in 1971, which by definition is the
amount of substance of system contain as many clementary entities as there
atoms in 0.012 kilogram ofcarbon-12 and this unit of quantity was called a
are at
mole(abbreviated as mol). The unified scale of mole thus obtained gives value
atomic mass (m,). Referen 2 give most important aspects of
of the relative
basic meteorology.
References 2,3, and 4 give an excellent account of SI. India
SI units through the
Standar of Wcights and Measures Act, 1976.
adopted
13 FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

different systems of units are given in Table 1.1.

The fundamental quantities in
3,4
Fundamental Quantities2.
Table1.1
System of Units Symbolic Dimensions
Fundamental
Abbreviation
Quantity
Metric fps SI Metric fps
SI
Foot m mft L
Metre Metre
Length Kilogram Kilogram Pound kg kg lb M
Mass Celsius Fahrenheit K °C OF
Temperature
Kelvin
Second Second S
Time Second
Ampere Ampere Ampere
Electric current
Amount of
mol
substance Mole
Luminous
cd
intensity Candela
(kelvin), defined in SI, is accepted the
as
The thermodynamic temperature
metric system. The thermodynamic temperature
absolute temperature in the
of water as the fundamental fixed
scale is defined by choosing the triple point
and assigning to it the exact temperature
value 273.16 degrees kelvin.
of
point,
temperature, is 1/273.16 of
In other words, kelvin, the unit of thermodynamic
of water. In the fps system,
the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point
the unit of absolute temperature is Rankine.
Degree Kelvin (K) °C +273.15*
=

°F+ 459.67
DegreeRankine (°R) =

Use of degrees Fahrenheit is not permitted in S.

273.15 K isdefinition 0.01 K below the thermo-
by
*The thermodynamic temperature
In the examples in the text, Sl and
dynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
to °C or vice versa, the
metric units are given. While giving a conversion of K
values or
differenceof 0.15 will be for all
ignored purposes except for the
practical
high accuracy.
 8tolohtomeiry

interval in absolute temperat.

ture
the temperature
r
same
enpessing

symbol is used.
SCule, the
280 R- 2.35 K =45 K
480°R = 40°R
520°R -

30°C= 303K
35°F= 494°R
The supplementary Sl units, radian and steradiun, are not discusse
book. Although, the
International Organization f h
are not
andization
used in the have
(ISO)" recommended comma () as a decimal marng.

practice of using a point (.) as the decimal marker in India lie

current
will be
followed in this book.

14 DERIVED QUANTITIES

There can be any number of derived quantities, and hence, it is dificult to i

list all
of them. However, the commonly used quantities for stoichiometric calculati
in SI, mks and cgs systems are listed in Ta e 1.2. The International
fions
for Weights and Measures have considered that in general, cgs units shon
Commitee
preferably not be used with SI. Considering the increasing adoption of SI ina
large number of countries and also in India (particularly in science and technol.
ogy), the SI will be followed in this book.

Table 1.2 Derived Quantities2.3,4

Derived Units in Abbreviated Symbol Dimension

Quantity Si/mks/cgs System Units
Mass Kilogram <g m

Gram M
Area Square metres m A(S) L
Square centimetres cm L
Volume Cubic metres m V) L
Cubic centimetres cm
Cubic decimetres dm
Capacity Litres L V
Linear Metres per second m/s u,y,w Le
velocity
Linear Metres per second per m/s a, g (free fall) Le2
acceleration second
Density Kilograms per cubic kg/m ML
metre
3
Grams per millilitre ML
g/mL
Specific Cubic metres per m/kg LM
volume kilogram
Force Newtons N MLO
kilograms-force kgf F

*Base unit in mks system, but not used with SI. (Contd)
 Dit.enone and Unte
Table 1.2 Contd.

Derived
Units In Abbrevlated Syrmbol DImension
S/mks/cgsSystern Units
Quently
Dynes dyn ML2
Force
Newtons per square N/m (Pa) p (P) ML 'g2
Pressure
metre
(Pascels)
Kilograms-force kgl/cm FL2
per square
centimetre

Work Energy Joules

W ML'g2
erg ML'2
Ergs
Metres kilogram force m kgt MF
Heat/Enthalpy Joules q,Q,H ML 62
Kilocalorles
kcal ML' 02
kW P ML 6r3
Kilowatts
Power HP MF
Horsepower
Joules per second J/s or W ML 8r3
Heat flow ML2 g3
kilocalories per hour kcal/h
Kilograms water per kg/kg H, x M°L'O°
Specific
kilogram dry air
Absolute
humidity Nil RH ML'0°
Relative Nil
humidity Nil ML'8
Saturation Nil
ratio Me
rate Kilograms per
second kg/s m
Mass flow
Cubic metres per
second m/s Y V
L'er
Volumetric
Litres per second L/s Ler
flow rate
Joules per kilogram per
J/kg K) LeT
Heat capacity
degree kelvin
Kilocalories per kilo- kcal/(kg °C) LT
gram per degree
Celsius
Joules per mole Jmol K) Cm ML2er2n-'T
Molar heat
per degree kelvin
capacity Kilocalories per kilo- kcal/(kmol°C) ML20nT
gram mole per degree
Celsius

units are not recommended for use with Sl

Note: In general mks
1.4.1 Force
second law of motion, which
The definition of force follows from Newton's
states that force is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration.
Fam xa (1.1)
Introducing a proportionality constant K,
F Kma (1.2)
 Stotchiometry
Fone and acceleration are both vector quantities and hence
they she
the same direction. TThere are two ways of
K is selected as
selecting the constant k. In
K.In uldaone actcasein
unity (dimensionless), and with this value, the units its nes"
newton (S
and dyne are defined.
The newton (N)
the force which when applicd to a body
is
having a .
onc kilogram
gives it an acceleration of one m/s
The dyne (dyn) is the force which when
acceleration of
applicd
one cm/s".
to a body
havinga.
a nass of
one gram gives an
it
Based on these definitions.
N =10 dyn
A similar unit in the fps system is the
poundal which is the force
applied to a body having
a mass of ce
fus
one pound gives it an
acceleration whien
eleration ol one
pdl 30.48 x 453.5924 = 13 825.5 dyn
Another choice of the constant K yields the technical unit
defined as a fundamental of Force. and is
quantity. Thus, the constant K becomes a
dimensiSional
quantity. Its numerical value is not unity but fixed at
1/8

(1.3)
=9.806 65 (kg m)/(kgf
8
8c is
s') 32.174 (1b-ft)/(1bf =

s
called the Newton's law conversion factor. Its
the acceleration due to value
corresponds to
gravity (g) at the means seal level (9.806
32.174 f/s<). It should be
noted that 8e does not vary even m/s o
65
varies from place to clearly
place. In ordinary calculations, though
1.0 kgf/kg.
By definition, g, has the units of 1 (kg m/(N however,
g/g, is taken asas
The technical units of force in s*) in SI.
mks and fps systems are
pound-force, respectively. kilogram-force and
The
kilogram-force (kgf) is the force which when applied a
mass of one
kilogram gives it an acceleration of 9.806 65 to body having a
The pound force (1bf) is the force m/s.
which when
pound gives it an acceleration of 32.174applied body having a
to a
mass of one

The force becomes ft/ss.

weight when the body acts under
acceleration (g), i.e., when a =g in gravitational
Eq. (1.2).

Weight. G Amg (1.4)

Since g and g are assumed equal for all practical purposes,
G = m
(1.5)
Thus, the values of weight and mass become
In order to differentiate between the practically equal.
terms mass and force, their units are
distinguished by writing 'f° at the end of the fundamental unit of force.
 Diiol nO 7

mass and weight have in the past been

The measurement of force, pressure,
the use of gravitational acceleration without taking
conveniently made through
variation of this acceleration from one location to another
into account the
in the applications. However, as process
which was normally insignificant the processes involved require
geographically and as
industries have spread between the points of calibration and
control, the difference
more sophisticated The practice of ignoring the
has become more significant.
uSe of an instrument reasons have necessitated
wrong. Both these
was also fundamentally
difference and the term 'weight' is discarded for use
of SI in the current practice
the use
with SI.

1.4.2 Volume

and litres (SI) and in gallons (fps).

measured in cubic metres of pure air free
Volume is mass of one kilogram
the volume occupied by
a
and under
A litre is
its maximum density (at 277.15 K or 4°C)
temperature of decimetre and litre are unequal
and
water at the The cubic
normal atmospheric
pressure.
Hence the word
"litre' can be employed as
28 in 10" parts. litre should not be
differ by about partscubic decimetre. However, the name
name of the volume measurements.

a special results of high accuracy

the
employed to give 028 cubic
decimetres (exact)
1 litre 1.000
kilolitre
1000 litres 1 =

is defined as the
=
I cubic metre
Approximately,
are
different. The former
and US gallons which weighs 10 1b
in air at
The Imperial water,
quantity of distilled of 30 in Hg
volume occupied by
a
or 16.67°C)
and the pressure
of 62°F (289.82 K
the temperature to 231 in' (3.7854
L).
The US gallon is equal
(762 torr).
1.4.3 Pressure
the pressure
acting on unit area exposed to
is defined as the force
Pressure
F
(1.6)
A
N/m* (known as

of pressure in SI, mks and fps units are

The common units known as psi), respectively.
1bfin* (commonly
Pascal, Pa), kgflcm
and which registers the
with the help of a gauge
measured
Pressure is normally atmospheric pressure.
in vessel and the local
the pressure follows
difference between
(p,) and the letter 'g'
over pressure/gauge
pressure
This is known as the the true total pressure.
In order to
does not indicate
the unit. The gauge pressure to add
above reference zero, it is necessary
or pressure
obtain the true pressure to the
in coherent units
barometric pressure expressed
the local atmospheric or absolute pressure and
the letter 'a
This sum is called the
taken as
gauge pressure.
if no letter follows
the pressure units, it is
follows the units. In general,
book.
absolute pressure in this
 Btoehtomety
Ahsolte pressure - gauge resSure + ntmeospheric pressure

Athonugh the actual ntmosphetie pressure varies from one locality to

wanuther,
its value at the mean sea level is 101 325 N/m' or Pa (1.033 kgflem2
called the tandard atmosphere (symbol "atm'). In SI, the Kgilcm') and i
atmosphenr and bar are accepted ns the practical units.
atm= 101 325 Pa (exact)
standart
Ibar 10 Pa 1.019 716 kgf/em* = =
0.986 0
Quite often, the pressure is expressed in pressure heads,
Pressure head= absolute pressure/density
The more commonly used pressure heads are in terms of mercury
columns.
1 atm 760 torr (or
ater
=
mm Hg)= 10.33 m
H,O
Vacuum refers to sub-atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure = atnospheric pressure- vacuum

Vacuum is usually expressed in torr (mm Hg) or Pa or mbar. (1.9)

1.44 Work (Energy) and Power
Work (energy) defined as the
is
product of the force acting on a bod.
distance travelled by the body.
W Fxd
The units of work (energy) in SI, mks, cgs and ips systems
are joule. m.l
(L.10)
erg and ft 1bf, respectively.
Energy is
physical entity which is present in a system in
a
kgi.
e.g., mechanical (work),
electromagnetic, different fo
chemical or thermal.
energy is convertible to another from. One form of
One joule
is the work done when the
point oI application of one
moves a distance of one metre in newton forea
the direction of the
One erg is the work done when the applied force.
point of application of one
moves a distance of one
centimetre in the direction of the dyne force
applied force.
1J= 10' erg
Power P is defined as the work W done per unit time.
W
Power P=
(1.11)
I Watt = 1 J/s
I metric
horsepower =75 (m kgf)/s =
0.7355 kW
=
0.986 32 hp
1 British
horsepower =
550 (ft 1bf)/s =
0.7457 kW
 = 1.01387 metrie hp
recommended for with SI
Horsepower units afe not ue

1.4.5 Heat

form of energy that

flows from higher temperature to lower tempera-
Heat is
one

i.e,
of
enthalpy in transit. The units heat and
in
SI, mks, cgs and fps systems
ture,
(kcal), calorie (cal) British thermal unit (Btu),
the joule (J), kilocalorie
are those for energy.
are same as
respectively and All are defined in terms of the
There are
several definitions of Btu and cal.relate
corresponding cal are by a heat capacity equa-
Each Btu and its
joule.
jou (exact)
1 calorie (thermochemical) =
tion. 4.184
4.1868 J (exact)
Steam Tables, called IT)
=

I calorie (International 1055.056 J

Steam 1ables, called I1)=
1Btu(International and Therm were also used in the fps system.
Heat Unit (CHU)
The Celsius 1.8 Btu
1 CHU =

1 Therm 10 Btu
in
ß, is customarily expressed
(i.e., heat flow) rate,
heat flux
In SI system,
i.e. watts (W).
unit of power,
Electrical Units
Derived
1.4.6 unit of
The volt V is the
quantity in electricity.
undamental
Resistance (R in ohms)
of the
Current is the difference.
of potential
electromotive force
or

conductor is defined as
(1.12)

difference in volts and Iis

V is the potential
resistance in ohms,
where R is the
of
the current in amperes. and is defined as the quantity
of quantity of electricity
Coulomb is the unit one amperes
across any cross-
of
current
carried in one second by a
electricity
section
on carbon-12)
1 Faraday (F) = 96 485.309 C/mol (based

coulomb
quantity in electrochemistry.
(C) an important
The quantity

1.5 CONVERSIONS

to another.
particular from one system
to convert units of
a
It is often required *
,
in common use.
brief list of the conversions
Table 1.3 gives a
form.
the conversions in a direct usable
Appendix Igives and its applica-
conversion factor is known,
The precision to which a given
number of significant figures
which should be used. While
tion, determine the
 Stoichtonetty
10
with those given in many handbo
in Appendix I
comparing the
standards, it may
data given
be hinted that
disagree, in many case.
different s o u r c e cases, înandth
that four or five significant
fifth or further figure
represent the precision
which indicates
for these factors fairly accurately.
or digital, needs only
At present, the.
three significane
Fiacutgaorcyes
r
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , analog
of process
basic fundamental research andUre
d could be
Additional accuracy is only needed in
waste of time in the industrial practice.

Conversion Factors
Condensed Table of
Table 1.3
1 m = 1.093 613 yd
Length: = 3.280 84 ft
1 cm= 0.393 701 in
1 km = 0.621 37 miles
1m = 10.763 91 t
Area:
1.195 99 yd
=

1 cm2 = 0.155 in
1 km2 = 0.386 102 mile
1 ha = 100 00 m
= 2.471 05 acre
= 0.003 861 mile
1 m = 1000 dm = 1000L
Volume:
=
35.314 67 ft
=
1.307 95 yd
1 cm = 0.061 024 in
1 L = 0.219 969 Imperial gal
Capacity:
= 0.264 172 US gal
= 0.035 3147 ft
1 kL = 1000 L
= 0.000 810 71 acre ft

Mass: 1 kg 1000 g
2.204 623 lb
1t = 1000 kg
Mass:
= 0.984 21 T
= 1.102 311 T (short, used in USA)
= 2204.623 lb
1g 15.4324 grain
1 kg/dm = 1 kg/L
Density:
= 70 156.8 grain/lmperial gal
= 58 417.82 grain/US gal
l /cm = 62.427 95 Ib/ft
= 10.0224 Ib/Imperial gal
=
8.345 405 Ib/US gal
= 0.036 127 Ib/in

(Conta)
 Dimenee andUn 11

Table 13 Contd.
1 m /kg 16.018 48 AAb
Specilic volume:
99.7765 Imperial gal/b
=

119.8265 US gallb
-

1N 0.101 972 kgf

= 0.224 809 Ibf
Force:
1 kPa = 0.010 197 kgf/cm2
Pressure:
= 0.145 038 Ibf/inf or psi

1 bar = 0.1 MPa

= 1.019 716 kgf/cm
= 14.503 77 Ibf/in
atm= 101.325
kPa (defined)
1
= 1.013 25 bar
= 1.033 227 kgl/cm
= 14.695 95 lbfin
133.3224 Pa
(1 mm Hg) =

1 torr
= 1.333 224 mbar
= 0.039 37 in Hg
0.750 06 torr
1 mbar
=

1J = 0.238 846 cal ((T)

2.777 10 kWh 778 x
Energy Btu (IT)
=9.478 172 x 10
= 0.101 972 kgf m
= 0.737 562 Ibf-ft_
9.869 233 x
10 L atm
=

859.8452 kcal (IT)

1 kWh
=

= 3412.142 Btu (T1)

3.968 321 Btu (IT)
1 kcal (1T)
=

= 4.1868 kJ
7.233 Ibf.ft
kgfm
=

1
1 kW
1.359 62 metric hp
1.341 02 hp (British)
Power: =

= 859.8452 kcal (IT}h

= 3412.142 Btu (1T)/h

1 (m-kgf/s
= 7.233 (t.lbf?/s
0.238 846 kcal (IT)/(kg °C)
Jg K)
=

1 (IT/(b °F)
Heat capacity: = 0.238 846 Btu
C =
5/9 (F°
-

32)
Temperature: F = (9/5) °C+ 32

UNITS
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR USE OF
1.6 and
Conference on Weight
issued by the General
The recommendations Bureau of
Organization for the Standardization",
Society for Testing
International
Measures, American
1890 (Part 0)-1983]
and
Indian Standards [IS: follows.
are summarised as
Materials (E-380) for the use of units

i) SI prefixes are given in Table 1.4.

 SI Prefixes

Prefix
Factor
1024
yotta

zetta
Symbe
exa

peta
10'5
P
tera
102

giga
10
mega
106
kilo M
103
hecto
deca
10
deci
10-
centi
102
milli
l0-3
micro
10-6
nano
10
10-12 pico
P
10-15
femto
10-18
atto

10-21 zepto
10-24 yocto

ii) An exponent attached to compound prefix-unit imnl:

exponent refers to the entire compound unit and not inet the
symbol.
1 cm' means volume of a cube having one cm side.
(ii) The product of two or more units may be indicated in any one nt
oi te
following ways.
Correct: N m or Nm Incorrect: Nm
iv) A solidus (oblique stroke,/), a horizontal line or negative powers
used to express a derived unit, formed irom two otherS dy divisioa.eg.

m/s, , m.s or ms
S

must not be repeated on the same line unless ambiguiry s

(v) A solidus
avoided by parentheses.
Correct: Incorrect:
2
m/s or m s or m s m/s/s
J/(mol K) or J- mol K"' J/mol.K or J/mol/K
5 centinteuco
(Vi) Unit symbols do not change in the plural. For example,
should be abbreviated as 5 cm and not as 5 cms. the end

(vil) Unit symbols are not followed by a full stop (period) except a
of a sentence.
Incorrect:8kg.
Correct:8 kg
 13
(vii)
When numerical values fall outside the range of
0.1 to
recomm that the numerals be separated into 1000, it is
a space replacing the traditional comma. groups of three
with
Recormmended Not recommended
3 600 or 3600 3,600
19 625 725 19,625,725
0.001 625 0.001,625 or 0.001625
0.046 89 0.046,89 or 0.004689
In this book, four digits or decimals are grouped.
ix) Prefix symbols are printed without any space between the prefix symbol
and unit symbol.
Correct: 10.5 kW Incorrect: 10.5 kW
(x) Compound prefixes formed by the juxtaposition of two or more SI
are not to be used.
prefixes
Correct: 1 nm Incorrect: I mum
never be used alone.
(xi) A prefix should
Correct: 10/m3 Incorrect M/m
(xi) Although kilogram is the base unit in SI units, names of decimal
multiples and sub-multiples of mass are formed by attaching prefixes to
the word 'gram'.
Correct: 1 mg Incorrect: 1 ukg
(xii) Good practice recommends selection of a prefix which, whenever
possible, provides a numerical value between 0.l and 1000. Prefer
expression 10.0 kPa over 0.01 MPa. However, when a ground of values
is tabulated, they should be expressed in the same unit multiple even
though their numerical value lies outside 0.1l to 1000 range.
1.2x 10* N can be written as 12 kN.
1421 Pa can be written as 1.421 kPa.
(xiv) If the magnitude of the number is less than unity, the decimal sign
should preferably be preceded by a zero, e.g.,

.125 should be written as 0.125.

The SI prefixes are not to be used with °C or K.
(xv)
Example 1.1 The volumetric flow rate of kerosene in 80 mm nominal diameter pipe
minute. Taking the density of kerosene as 0.8 kg/dm, find
is 75 Imperial gallons per
the mass flow in kg/s.

Solution

Volumetric flow rate q, =75 (gallon/min)x(min/s)

60

0.129 (dm/gallon)
67)
5.683 dm''s
Density, p = 0.8 kg/dm*
 14
Btenchtomeiry
Mass flow rate. q,m= P
- 5.683 x 0.8 4.546 kg/s
Ans
rample 1.2 Steam is flowing at the rate of 2000 kg/h in a 3 NB 40
schedule ni.
at 440 kPa (4.4 bar) absolute and 453 K (180°C). Calculate the velocity of the steamn in
the pipeline.
Solution
Mass flow rate. g = 2000 kg/h
Intermal diameter of 3" NB 40 schedule pipe = 3.068 in = 77.927 mm

Cross-sectional area
of the pipe, A -((77.927)no*
47.694 x 10 m
Specific volume of the steam at 440 kPa a and 453 K,
V
0.461 66 m'kg (ref. Steam Tables; Appendix II.3)
Volumetric flow rate of

steam, q, 2000
=
(kg/h)x
3600
(h/s) x 0.461 66 (m'kg)

= 0.2565 m'/s

Velocity of steam, v, =
A

=
0.2565 m'/s x 1/(47.694 x 10) 1/mn
53.77 m/s Ans.
rample 1.3 A Ton of Refrigeration (TR) is classically defined as the rate of heat
Dsorption equivalent to the latent heat in a short ton (2000 1b) of ice melted in 24
hours. Latent heat of fusion (4,) of ice is 144 thermochemical Btu/lb at 32°F.
Calculate equivalent
energy in kW equivalent to 1 TR.
Solution
Heat absorption rate, equivalent to 1 Tr, o =
| (Ib/h)x 144 (therm Btu/lb)

x 0.251 996 (therm kcal/therm Btu)

x 4.184 (kJ/therm kcal) x (h/s)

3600)
= 3.5145 kW Ans.

Example 1.4 The conductance of a fluid-flow system is defined as the volumetric

flow rate, referred to a
pressure of one torr (133.322 Pa). For an orifice, the conduct
ance C can be computed'"' from

C 89.2 A ft's
 15
where A = area of opening. ft
T temperature, °R
Ans.
M Molar mass
edule pipe units
equation into SI
e steam in the empirical
Convert
conductance, area of opening and temperature in m'/s, m and
Solution

'and 7T "be the

Let
CA
Molar niass is
unaffected by change unite. of
Krespectively. C 35.314 67 C'

T 1.8 T'

A = 10.763 91 A

'= 89.2 x 10.763 91 A

35.341 67 C

C'-36.447 A ms Ans.

EXERCISES

conversions: [Ans. 550 nm]

following
1.1 Make 5500 A to nm.

(a)
Wavelength
air to g moisture/kg dry air.
moisture/lb dry
(b) 175 grain [Ans. 25 g moisture/kg dry air]
maintained
the second effect is
effect evaporator plant, in kPa.
Find the absolute
double pressure
In a
1.2
of 475 torr (mm Hg).
vacuum
1S. under
0.38 bar, 5.51 psi]
bar and psi. [Ans. 38 kPa, of 5
with a diameter
on a piston
4
equal to
192.6 kgf is applied bar and psi.
1.3 A
force
exerted on the piston in kPa,
14.227 psi
Find the pressure
kPa, 0.981 bar,
cm. [Ans. 98.066 the
29.25 L. Calculate
volume of
a
1b occupies
Iron metal
weighing 500
1.4 [Ans. 7.754 kg/dm']
density of Fe in kg/dm.
tank are 5 ft and 6 ft
cylindrical
a vertical
diameter and height of with carbon
tetrachloride

1.5 The 75% height

It is full up to
respectively. Find the mass in kilograms.
6 in kg/L.
the density of which is 1.6 Ans. 4336 kg]
(CCI), of
for a pressure drop

filter of 5 rating is designedwater solution in clean

micron
1.6 A bag minute of flow
US gallon per filter for water
O.05 1bfin per from the
in kPa
pressure drop
conditions. Calculate

m/h. Ans. 15.178 kPa]

rate of 10
in the
mills per year
(mpy)
in
Corrosion rates are
normally reported
1.7
 S t o l e h i o m e t r y

measturement of the rates. d

co
Pr
the
for a defini

hemical

cmon
pmese
indhrstry.

is
the
inserted
in
during
prcess

the
stream

period
o f insertion

kept
n.
in
period. The
PCri

cool1.5in95g w
atcmn e
.
measured
steel was
test
is 00l,
lose of
weight
a
cupon
of
carbon

were
measured t
test, coupon
In n
particular
of the beforn
d i m e n s i o n s

the coupon ns
1he Mass o f rtio,on in the
in uit. 0.1535
cm.
days
were
asured
measured
to be
1276 cm

and after
exposure
for 30
Calculate
the rate of co 14.941
rrosion. A\2
the one calculated
cinuit espectively.

and
14.6254

the density
of
g.
carbon
stecl to be the
same
Talke
Exenise 1.4 in per year
year1/1000

Note: 1 mil per

Ans. 5.3 mpy
of benzene
in he temperature
range
usi
rar
of 280
Vapour pressure can be calculated
1.8 (104°C)
377.15 K
(7.5°C) to

Antoine cquation.
1211.0
lowng
log10P= 6.9057(t +220.8)
Vapour pressure
in torr (mm Hg), and
where p
Temperature in °C
I =

Convert the above equation in SI units.

n - b u t a n e is given by
Heat capacity of gaseous
1.9
Co 4.429+ 40.159 x 10
mp
T-68.562x 107
Heat capacity in Btu/(lb mole °R) and
where CP in °R
T Temperature

Convert the equation in SI units.

1.10 Pressure drop acrossa venturi scrubber can be calculate
ed
following Calvert equation'. using
Ap (5x 10) L
where Ap pressure drop, in WC
L = liquid flow rate, US gal/1000 ft gas
gas velocity in the venturi throat, ft/s
Convert the equation in SI units.
1.11 In the case of fluids, the local heat-transfer coefficient for long tubes
and using bulk-temperature properties is expressed by the empirical
equation3

h= 0.023 G8 x k067 x
o.3(D2 4") x

where h = heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(h f t . °F)

 Dimenslons and Untts
17
G =mass velocity of fluids, Ib/(r2$
C. heat capacity ot id at constant
pressure, Btu/(lb"F
k - thermal conductivity. Btu/(h ft"F)

D = diameter of tube, ft and

I = viscosity of liquid, Ib/(ft 8)

into SI units.
empirical cquation
Convert the
above equation change when consistent St units are
Note:
Will the used
Why?

REFERENCES

Substance and Function, Dover Publication USA,

1 Cassirer, E.,
1953, p. 115.
(S), National Institut of
The Intenational System of Units
2.
Standards and Technology FuDIcauon No. 330, USA, 1991.
SI Units and Recommenda.
1992/Amd. 1: 1998 (E),
3. ISO 1000: their Multiples and Certain other Units
Use of
tions for the Organizaion for Standards,
Internationar
(Amendment 1),
Switzerlana. Homann, N. Kallay and K. Kuchitsu
T. Cvitas, K.
4. Mills, ., and symbois
n
Fnysical Chemistry, 2nd Ed.
Quantities, Units Ltd., UK, 1993.
IUPAC Chemical Data series, Backwel Scence
Hecommendations of forthe Use
and
005-1985, SI Units Bureau
5. IS: 10 other Units (First Revision),
and of Certain
their Multijples
Standards, New Delhi
of Indian Institute of
Chemical Engineers, USA,
American
AIChE,
6. SI for
Constants and
1979. Units-Physical
International System of Aeronautics and
7 The
Second Hevision,
National

Conversion Factors, SP-7012, USA, 1973.

Document No.
Conversion Tables (First
Administration
Space Conversion
Factors and
786-1967
8. 1S: New Delhi.
Bureau of Indian Standards,
Revision), Tables: Non-Hydrocar
Thermodynamic
Introduction to the TRC 1991.
9. Research Centre, USA,
bons,
Ihermodynamic
E-380, American Society for
ASTM Standard for Metric Practice
10. 1985.
and Materials,
USA, October
2sting Chemical Engineers
and Malony, J. O., Perry's
11. Green, D. W. York, 1984, pp. 5-33.
McGraw-Hill, New
Handbook, 6th Ed. Chemical Eng
and Venkatesh, M.,
Woodhull, J.
12. Doolittle, C.,
Dec. 2002, p. 50. of
neering, 109 (13), P. Harriott, Unit Operations
13. McCabe, W. J. C. Smith and
L., 2001,
New York,
McGraw-Hill,
Engineering., 6th Ed.
Cnemical
p. 348.