MODULE 1

Subject: CE 214 – Fundamentals of Surveying

Topic

A. ELEMENTARY SURVEYING

1. Introduction

• Introduction to Surveying
• Types of Survey

ELEMENTARY SURVEYING INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Surveying
“Surveying is the art of determining the positions of points on or near the earth’s surface
by means of measurements in the three elements of space; namely, distance, direction
and elevation.” – Rayner and Schmidt.
“Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of
measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.” – Davis,
Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail.
Surveying is now much more wider and complex in extent, and feels that it shoulb be
redefined appropriately as,
The practice of measuring angles and distances on the ground so that they can be
accurately plotted on a map.
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the
surface and below the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical
distances between them and by preparing a map to any suitable scale. Thus, in
discipline, the measurements are taken in the horizontal plane alone.
Leveling is the art of determining the relative vertical distances of different points on
the surface of the earth. Therefore, in levelling, the measurements are taken only in the
vertical plane.
Objective of surveying
The aim of surveying is to prepare a plan or map to show the relative positions of the
objects on the surface of the earth. The map is drawn to some suitable scale .It shows
the natural features of a country such as towns, villages, roads, railways, rivers, etc.
Maps may also include details of different engineering works, such as roads, railways,
irrigation, canals, etc.

Uses of surveying
Surveying may be used for the following various applications.
To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns,
forests, etc. of a country.
To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses, and other
properties.
To prepare an engineering map showing details of engineering works such as roads,
railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different
parts of a country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for the
defense of a country.
To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of reservoir and to find the best
possible route for roads, railways, etc.
To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources exist.
To prepare an archeological map including places where ancient relics exist.

GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF SURVEYING

The general principles of surveying are:

1. To work from the whole to the part, and
2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from
fixed reference points.
According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e.
controlling stations) and main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines). The area is then
divided into a number of parts by forming well-conditioned triangles. A nearly equilateral
triangle is considered to be the best well-conditioned triangle. The main survey lines are
measured very accurately with a standard chain. Then the sides of the triangles are
measured. The purpose of this process of working is to prevent accumulation of error.
During this procedure, if there is any error in the measurement of any side of a triangle,
then it will not affect the whole work. The error can always be detected and eliminated.
• But, if the reverse process (i.e. from the part to the whole) is followed, then the
minor errors in measurement will be magnified in the process of expansion and stage
will come when these errors will become absolutely uncontrollable.
According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at least
two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear measurements
refer to horizontal distances measured by chain or tape. Angular measurements refer to
the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken by a prismatic compass or theodolite.
• In chain surveying, the positions of main stations and directions of main survey
lines and check lines.

TYPES OF SURVEY
Generally, surveying is divided into two major categories: plane and geodetic surveying.
PLANE SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the portion of the earth being
surveyed is considered a plane. The term is used to designate survey work in which the
distances or areas involved are small enough that the curvature of the earth can be
disregarded without significant error. In general, the term of limited extent. For small
areas, precise results may be obtained with plane surveying methods, but the accuracy
and precision of such results will decrease as the area surveyed increases in size. To
make computations in plane surveying, you will use formulas of plane trigonometry,
algebra, and analytical geometry.
A great number of surveys are of the plane surveying type. Surveys for the location and
construction of highways and roads, canals, landing fields, and railroads are classified
under
plane surveying. When it is realized that an arc of 10 mi is only 0.04 greater that its
subtended chord; that a plane surface tangent to the spherical arc has departed only
about 8 in. at 1 mi from the point of tangency; and that the sum of the angles of a
spherical triangle is only 1 sec greater than the sum of the angles of a plane triangle for
a triangle having an area of approximately 75 sq. mi. on the earth’s surface, it is just
reasonable that the errors caused by the earth’s curvature be considered only in precise
surveys of large areas.
In this topic, we will discuss primarily the methods used in plane surveying rather than
those used in geodetic surveying.
GEODETIC SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the shape and size of the
earth are considered. This type of survey is suited for large areas and long lines and is
used to find the precise location of basic points needed for establishing control for other
surveys. In geodetic surveys, the stations are normally long distances apart, and more
precise instruments and surveying methods are required for this type of surveying than
for plane surveying. The shape of the earth is thought of as a spheroid , although in a
technical sense, it is not really a spheroid. In 1924, the convention of the International
Geodetic and Geophysical Union adopted 41,852,960 ft as the diameter of the earth at
the equator and 41,711,940 ft as the diameter at its polar axis. The equatorial diameter
was computed on the assumption that the flattening of the earth caused by gravitational
at traction is exactly 1/297. Therefore, distances measured on or near the surface of the
earth are not along straight lines or planes, but on a curved surface. Hence, in the
computation of distances in geodetic surveys, allowances are made for the earth’s
minor and major diameters from which a spheroid of reference is developed. The
position of each geodetic station is related to this spheroid. The positions are expressed
as latitudes (angles north or south of the Equator) and longitudes (angles east or west
of a prime meridian) or as northings and castings on a rectangular grid.

Classifications of Surveying
Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been
classified into:
• Control surveying:
To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.
• Land surveying:
To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as property
survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.
• Topographic survey:
To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as and man-made
features including elevation.
• Engineering survey:
To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of engineering projects.
Three broad steps are
1) Reconnaissance survey:
To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.
2) Preliminary survey:
To collect adequate data to prepare plan/map of area to be used for planning and
design. 3) Location survey:
To set out work on the ground for actual construction/execution of the project.

•Route survey:
To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals, pipelines,
and other linear projects.
Construction surveys:
Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines, grades, and for staking
out engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the structural design
has been done).

•Astronomic surveys:
To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and azimuth (of a line
through observation station) from astronomical observation.

•Mine surveys:
To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining purposes
•City Surveys:
Are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning or improvements,
locating property lines, fixing reference monuments, determining the physical features
and configuration of the land, and preparing maps.
SPECIAL SURVEYS
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, SPECIAL SURVEYS are conducted for a specific
purpose and with a special type of surveying equipment and methods. A brief
discussion of some of the special surveys familiar to you follows.
LAND SURVEYS (sometimes called cadastral or property surveys) are conducted to
establish the exact location, boundaries, or subdivision of a tract of land in any specified
area.
This type of survey requires professional registration in all states. Presently, land
surveys generally consist of the following chores:
1. Establishing markers or monuments to define and thereby preserve the
boundaries of land belonging to a private concern, a corporation, or the government.
2. Relocating markers or monuments legally established by original surveys. This
requires examining previous survey records and retracing what was done. When some
markers or monuments are missing, they are re-established following recognized
procedures, using whatever information is available.
3. Rerunning old land survey lines to determine their lengths and directions. As a
result of the high cost of land, old lines are re-measured to get more precise
measurements.
4. Subdividing landed estates into parcels of predetermined sizes and shapes.
5. Calculating areas, distances, and directions and preparing the land map to
portray the survey data so that it can be used as a permanent record.
6. Writing a technical description for deeds.
CONTROL SURVEYS provide "basic control" or horizontal and vertical positions of
points to which supplementary surveys are adjusted. These types of surveys
(sometimes termed and traverse stations and the elevations of bench marks. These
control points are further used as References for hydrographic surveys of the coastal
waters; for topographic control; and for the control of many state, city, and private
surveys.

References
1. La Putt, J.P., Elementary Surveying (3rd Edition) 2013 Reprint
2. La Putt, J.P., Higher Surveying (2nd Edition) 2013 Reprint