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DC Motor
2 .1 Introduction
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An electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy to

mechanical energy.
Why the D.C motors so common, when D.C power systems themselves
were fairly rare?
1. The D.C power systems are still common in trucks, aircraft and
cars (starting motor on all automobiles, outsider rear-view mirrors,
windshield wipers, fuel pump, water injection pump, cooling fan).
2. D.C Motor was a situation in which wide variations in speed are
needed.
If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field produced by
permanent magnets, then the field due to the current-carrying conductor
and the permanent magnets interact and cause a force to be exerted on the
conductor as shown in fig.(2.1). The force on the current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field depends upon:
(a) The flux density of the field B (teslas).
(b) The strength of the current, I (Amperes).
(c) The length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field,
l (meters).

(d) The direction of the field and current (angle).

When the magnetic field, the current and the conductor are mutually at
right angles then
Force F = B.l.I Newton's
When the conductor and the field are at an angle (θο ) to each other then

Force F = B.l.I.sin(θ) Newton's

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As shown in figure (2.1), the field is strengthened above the conductor

and weakened below, thus tending to move the conductor down wards.
This is the basic principle of operation of the electric motor.

Fig.(2.1)
The direction of the force exerted on a conductor can be predetermined
by using Fleming's left-hand rule (often called the motor rule).

Fig.(2.2)

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2 .2 Principle of Operation of a Simple D.C Motor

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A rectangular coil which is free to rotate about a fixed axis shown

placed inside a magnetic field produced by permanent magnets in
fig.(2.3). A direct current is fed into the coil via carbon brushes
bearing on a commutator, which consists of a metal ring split into two
halves separated by insulation.

Fig.(2.3)

When current flows in the coil a magnetic field is set up around the coil
which interacts with the magnetic field produced by the magnets. This
causes a force (F) to be exerted on the current-carrying conductor which
by Fleming's left-hand rule, is down wards between point (A) and (B),
up ward between (C) and (D) for the current direction shown. This
causes a torque and the coil rotates anticlockwise.

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When the coil has turned through ( 90o ) from the position shown in
figure, the brushes connected to the positive and negative terminals of
supply make contact with different halves of the commutator ring, thus
reversing the direction of the current flow in the conductor. If the
current is not reversed and the coil rotates past this position the forces
acting on it change direction and it rotates in the opposite direction thus
never making more than half a revolution.
The current direction is reversed every time the coil swing through the
vertical position and thus the coil rotates anti-clockwise for as long as the
current flows. This is the principle of operation of a D.C motor which is
thus a device that takes in electrical energy and converts it into
mechanical energy.

2 .3 Significance of the Back e.m.f.

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When the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotate and hence
cut the flux. In accordance with the laws of electromagnetic induction,
e,m.f. is induced in them whose direction, as found by Fleming's Right-
hand Rule, is in opposition to supplied voltage. Because of its opposing
direction, it is referred to as counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f. (E b ). It will be R R

seen that
V = Eb + I a .Ra

V  Eb
Ia 
Ra

Where ( R a ) is the resistance of the armature circuit. As pointed out above

R R

ZP
Eb = n Volts
60a

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Back e.m.f. depends, among other factors, upon the armature speed. If
speed is high, E b is large, hence armature current (I a ), as seen from the
R R R R

above equation, is small.

If the speed is less, then (E b ) is less, hence more current flows which
R R

develops more torque. So, we find that (E b ) acts like a governor i.e. it R R

makes a motor self-regulating so that it draws as much current as is just

necessary.
2 .4 Induce Torque equation of a D.C Machine
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The torque in any D.C machine depends on three factor:

1. The flux (ɸ) in the machine.
2. The armature (or rotor) current (I a ) in the machine. R R

3. A constant depending on the construction of the machine.

The torque on the armature of a real machine is equal to the number of
conductors (Z) times the torque on each conductor. The torque in any
single conductor under the pole faces is.
r
TCond . = r.F
F = B.l.ICond .
F
T = r.B.l.ICond .
If there are ( a ) current paths in the machine, then the total armature
current ( Ia ) is split among the ( a ) current path, so the current in a single
conductor is given by
Ia
I cond 
a
and the torque in a single conductor on the motor may be expressed as

rBlI a
Tcond 
a

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Since there are (Z) conductors, the total induce torque in a D.C
machine rotor is:
ZrBlI a
Tind 
a

The flux per pole in this machine can be expressed as

B(2rl )
  B. AP =
p

So the total induce torque can be re-expressed as

ZP
Tind  I a
2a

Finally,

Tind . = K.ɸ.Ia

Where

ZP
K
2a

The induce torque equations given above are only approximations,

because not all the conductors in the machine are under the pole faces at
any given time .

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2 .5 Types of D.C Motors

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(a) Permanent-Magnet D.C Motor

The permanent-magnet D.C motor shown in fig.(2.4), is construction in
the same manner as its D.C generator counterpart.

Fig.(2.4)
When this type of motor is used, the D.C power supply is connected
directly to the armature conductors through the brush to commutator
assembly. The magnetic field is produced by permanent-magnets
mounted on the stator. The permanent-magnet motor has several
advantages over conventional types of D.C motors. The advantage is a
reduced operational cost, and The direction of rotation of a permanent-
magnet motor can be reversed by reversing the two power lines. The
speed (c/s) of the permanent-magnet motor are similar to those of the
shunt wound D.C motor.

Fig.(2.5)

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(b) Shunt- Wound D.C Motor

Shunt-wound D.C motor are more commonly used than any other
type of D.C motor. As shown in figure(2.6), the shunt-wound D.C motor
has field coils connected in parallel with its armature. This type of D.C
motor has field coils that are wound of many turns of small-diameter
wire and have a relatively high resistance. Since the field is a high-
resistant parallel path of the circuit of the shunt motor, a small amount of
current flows through the field. A strong electromagnetic field is
produced because of the many turns of wire that form the field windings.
Since the field current has little effect on the strength of the field, motor
speed is not affected appreciably by variation in load current.
V = Eb + Ia .Ra

I=Ia+If

Fig.(2.6)

Because of its good speed regulation, and its ease of speed control, the
D.C shunt motor is commonly used for industrial applications.

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(c) Series-Wound D.C Motor

In the series-wound motor the field winding is in series with the armature
across the supply as shown in fig.(2.7). There is only one path for current
to flow from the D.C voltage source. Therefore, the field is wound of
relatively few turns of large-diameter wire, giving the field a low
resistance. Changes in load applied to the motor shaft cause change in
current through the field. If the mechanical load increase, the current
also increase. The increased current creates a stronger magnetic field.
The speed of a series motor varies from very fast at no load, to very slow
at heavy loads. Since large currents may flow through the low resistance
field, the series motor produces a high torque output. Series motors are
used when heavy loads must be moved, and speed regulation is not
important. A typical application is automobile starter motors.

V = Eb + I (Ra + R f )

I = Ia

Fig.(2.7)

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(d) Compound-Wound D.C Motor

The compound-wound D.C motor, has two sets of field windings, one in
series with the armature and one in parallel. This motor combines the
desirable characteristics of the series-and shunt- wound motors. It has
high torque similar to that of a series-wound motor, along with good
speed regulation similar to that of a shunt motor. Therefore, when good
torque and good speed regulation are needed, the compound-wound D.C
motor can be used. There are two common types of compound motor
connection, the long-shunt connection and short-shunt connection, as
shown in fig.(2.8). And there are two different types of compound motors
in common use, they are the cumulative compound motor and the
differential compound motor.

Fig.(2.8)

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2 .6 Motors Characteristics
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The characteristic curves of a motor are those curve which shown

relationship between the following quantities:
1. Torque and armature current i.e. (T/I a ) characteristic. R R

2. Speed and armature current (n/I a ) characteristic. R R

3. Speed and torque (n/T) characteristic.

2.6.1 Characteristic of shunt-wound motor
1. (T/I a ) Characteristic
R R

The theoretical torque/ armature current (c/s) can be derived from the
expression T ∝ ɸ.Ia for a shunt-wound motor, the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature circuit and thus the applied
voltage gives a constant field current, i.e. a shunt-wound motor is a
constant flux machine. Since (ɸ ) is constant, it follows that T ∝ Ia , and
the (c/s) is as shown in fig.(2.9).

Fig.(2.9)

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2. (n / I a ) Characteristic
R R

For a shunt motor, V, ɸ and R a are constants, hence as armature current

R R

(I a ) increases, I a R a increase and (V-I a R a ) decrease, and the speed is

R R R R R R R R R R

proportional to a quantity, which is decreasing and is shown in fig.(2.10).

As the load on the shaft of the motor increases, (I a ) increases and the R R

speed drops slightly. In practice, the speed falls by about (10%) between
no-load and full-load on many D.C shunt-wound motors. Due to this
relatively small drop in speed, the D.C shunt-wound motor is taken as
basically being a constant-speed machine.
From equation:
V = Eb + Ia .Ra

Eb =V − Ia Ra
Eb∝ɸn hence ɸ is constant then
V  ( I a Ra )
n


3. (n / T) Characteristic

The theoretical speed/ torque Characteristic can be deduced from (1) and
(2) above and is shown in fig. (2.11).

Eb = Kϕω
T = KϕIa Ia = T
K
Eb = V – IaRa
T
Kϕω = V - Ra
K
V T
ω=  Ra
K ( K ) 2

This equation is just a straight line with a negative slope.

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Fig.(2.10) fig.(2.11)

2.6.2 Characteistic of series-wound motor

1. (T/I a ) Characteristic
R R

In a series motor, the armature current flows in the field winding

and is equal to the supply current (I). The torque T ∝ ϕIa over a limited

range, before magnetic saturation of the magnetic circuit of the motor is

reached. Thus (ϕ ∝ I ) and (T ∝ I 2 ). Hence, (T/I a ) curve is a parabola as
R R

shown in fig.(2.12). After magnetic saturation, φ almost becomes a

constant and (T ∝I ), so the characteristic becomes a straight line.

Fig.(2.12)

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2. (n / I a ) Characteristic
R R

In a series motor, I a = I and below the magnetic saturation level,

(V  IR)
ϕ ∝ I .Thus n ∝ when ( R ) is the combined resistance of the series
I
field and armature circuit.

Fig.(2.13)

Since ( I.R ) is small compared with (V), then an approximate

V
relationship for the speed is n ∝ since (V) is constant. Hence,
I
Speed varies inversely as armature current as shown in fig.(2.13). The
high speed at small values of current indicate that this type of motor
must not be run on very light loads and invariably. Such motors are
permanently coupled to their loads.

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3. (n / T) Characteristic
The theoretical speed/ torque (c/s) may be derived from (1) and (2) above
by obtaining the torque and speed for various values of current and
plotting the co-ordinates on the speed/torque (c/s). The series-wound
motor has a large torque when the current is large on starting. A typical
speed/ torque (c/s) is shown in fig.(2.14).
Eb =V − I R

T
T=Kϕ I, φ ∝ I , I= , Eb = Kϕω
K
Kϕω =V − IR

KIω =V – IR

T T
K  V  R
K K

T
 T K V  R
K
T V R
 .
K K K
unsaturated the speed varies of square root of torque.

Fig.(2.14)

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2.6.3 Characteristic of Compound-wound motor

A compound-wound motor has both a series and a shunt field winding,
(i.e. one winding in series and one in parallel with the armature circuit),
by varying the number of turns on the series and shunt windings and the
directions of the magnetic fields produced by these windings (assisting or
opposing), families of (c/s) may be obtained to suit almost all
applications. There are two common types of compound motor
connection, the long-shunt connection and short-shunt connection. And
there are two different types of compound motors in common use, they
are the cumulative compound motor and the differential compound
motor. In the cumulative compound motor, the field produced by the
series winding aids the field produced by the shunt winding. The speed
of this motor falls more rapidly with increasing current than does that of
the shunt motor because the field increases. In the differential compound
motor, the flux from the series winding opposes the flux from the shunt
winding. The field flux, therefore, decreases with increasing load current.
Because the flux decreases, the speed may increases with increasing
load. Depending on the ratio of the series-to-shunt field ampere-turns,
the motor speed may increases very rapidly.

Fig.(2.15)

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The torque-speed (c/s) of a cumulatively compound D.C motor

In the cumulative compounded D.C. motor, there is a component of flux
which is constant and anther component which is proportional to its
armature current (and thus to its load). Therefore, the cumulatively
compounded motor has a higher starting torque than a shunt motor
(whose flux is constant) but a lower starting torque than a series motor
(whose entire flux is proportional to armature current). At light loads, the
series field has a very small effect, so the motor behaves approximately
as a shunt D.C. motor. As the load gets very large, the series flux
becomes quite important and the torque-speed curve begins to look like a
series motor's (c/s). A comparison of the torque-speed (c/s) of each of
these type of machines is shown in figure (2.16).
The torque-speed (c/s) of a differentially compound D.C motor
In a differentially compound D.C. motor, the shunt magneto motive force
and series magneto motive force subtract from each other. This means
that as the load on the motor increases, I a increases and the flux in the
R R

motor decreases. But as the flux decreases, the speed of the motor
increases. This speed increases causes anther increases in load, which
further increases I a , further decreasing the flux, and increasing the speed
R R

again. The result is that a differentially compounded motor is unstable

and tends to run away. It is so bad that a differentially compounded motor
is unsuitable for any application.
Cumulatively
n compound n

Series
Shunt

T
T
Figure (2.16)

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2 .7 D.C Motor Starter

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If a D.C motor whose armature is stationary is switched directly to its

supply voltage, it is likely that the fuses protecting the motor will burn
out. Because the armature resistance is small, frequently being less than
one ohm. Thus, additional resistance must be added to the armature
circuit at the instant of closing the switch to start the motor.
As the speed of the motor increases. The armature conductors are cutting
flux and a generated voltage, acting in opposition to the applied voltage,
is produced, which limits the flow of armature current. Thus the value of
the additional armature resistance can then be reduced.

When at normal running speed, the generated e.m.f. is such that no

additional resistance is required in the armature circuit. To achieve this
varying resistance in the armature circuit on starting a D.C motor starter
is used, as shown in fig.(2.17). The starting handle is moved slowly in a
clockwise direction to start the motor. For a shunt-wound motor, the field
winding is connected to stud (1) or (M) via a sliding contact on the
starting handle. To give maximum field current hence maximum flux,
hence maximum torque on starting, since T ∝ϕ.Ia .

Fig.(2.17)

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2 .8 Speed Control of D.C Motor

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2.8.1 Shunt-Wound Motor

(V  I a Ra )
The speed of a shunt-wound D.C motor, n, is proportional to

The speed is varied either by varying the value of flux, or

by varying the value of ( Ra ). The former is achieved by using a variable

resistor in series with the field winding, as shown in fig.(2.18) and such a
resistor is called the shunt field regulator. As the value of resistance of the
shunt field regulator is increased, the value of the field current, ( If ), is
decreased. This results in a decrease in the value of flux, (ϕ ), and hence an
1
increase in the speed, since n ∝ . Thus only speeds above that

given without a shunt field regulator can be obtained by this method.

(V  I a Ra )
Speeds below those given by are obtained by increasing


the resistance in the armature circuit, as shown in fig.(2.18), where

(V  I a Ra )
n∝


Since resistor (R) is in series with the armature, it carriers the full
armature current and results in a large power loss in large motors where a
considerable speed reduction is required for long periods.

Fig.(2.18)

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2.8.2 Series-Wound Motor

The speed control of series-wound motors is achieved using either (a)
field resistance, or (b) armature resistance techniques.
(a) The speed of a D.C series-wound motor is given by :

V  IR
n=K


Where (K) is a constant, (V) is the terminal voltage, (R) is the

combined resistance of the armature and series field and (ϕ ) is the
flux.
Thus, a reduction in flux results in an increase in speed. This is
achieved by putting a variable resistance in parallel with the field
winding and reducing the field current, and hence flux, for a given
value of supply current. A circuit diagram of this arrangement is
shown in fig. (2.19). A variable resistor connected in parallel with the
series-wound field to control speed is called a diverter speeds above
those given with no diverter are obtained by this method.

Fig.(2.19)

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(b) speed below normal are obtained by connecting a variable resistor

is series with the field winding and armature circuit, as shown in
fig.(2.20). This effectively increases the value of (R) in the
equation.
V  IR
n=K


And thus reduces the speed. Since the additional resistor carries the
full supply current, a large power loss is associated with large motors
in which a considerable speed reduction is required for long periods.

Fig.(2.20)

Example (2.1) A D.C motor has a speed of 900 r.p.m when connected to
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a 460 V supply. Find the approximate value of the speed of the motor
when connected to a (200 V) supply, assuming the flux decreases by
(30%) and neglecting the armature volt drop.
Answers: 559 r.p.m
Solution: U

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Example (2.2): A series motor has an armature resistance of (0.2 Ω) and

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a series field resistance of (0.3 Ω). It is connected to a (240 V) supply and

at a particular load runs at (1440 r.p.m) when drawing (15 A) from the
supply.
(a) Determine the back e.m.f at this load.
(b) Calculate the speed of motor when the load is changed such that
the current is increased to (30 A). Assume that this causes a
doubling of flux.
Answers: (a) 225 Volt , (b) 696.77 rpm
Solution: U

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Example (2.3); A series motor runs at (800 r.p.m) when the voltage is
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(400 V) and the current is (25 A). The armature resistance is (0.4 Ω) and
the series field resistance is (0.2 Ω). Determine the resistance to be
connected in series to reduce the speed to (600 r.p.m) with the same
current.
Answers: 3.85 Ω
Solution: U

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Example U (2.4): U On full-load a (300 V) series motor takes (90 A) and runs
at (900 r.p.m) the armature resistance is (0.1 Ω) and the series winding
resistance is (50 mΩ). Determine the speed when developing full load
torque but with a (0.2 Ω) diverter in parallel with the field winding.
(assume that the flux is proportional to the field current).
Answers: 1004.4 rpm
Solution: U

2 .9 The efficiency of a D.C. motor

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It was stated in section (1.14), that the efficiency of a D.C. machine is

given by.
output. power
Efficiency,   input. power x100%

Also, the total losses = Ia2 Ra + If V +C (for a shunt motor) and,

total losses = I2R + C (for a series motor), where C is the sum of the iron,
friction and windage losses, R is the total resistance for series motor
R = (Ra + Rf)

For a motor, the input power = VI

and the output power = VI – losses

Hence

 VI  I a 2 R  I f V  C 
   x100% for shunt motor
 VI 
 

 VI  I a 2 R  C 
    x100%
 for series motor
 VI 

The efficiency of a motor is maximum when the load is such that

2
Ia Ra = I f V +C (for shunt motor), I 2 R = C (for series motor)

Example (2.5): A 250 V series motor draws a current of 40 A. The

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armature resistance is 0.15 Ω and the field resistance is 0.05 Ω.

Determine the maximum efficiency of the motor.
Answers: 93.6 %

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