University of Babylon Automobiles Electrical and Electronics Eng.

Chapter Three: Starting System

Introduction
The internal combustion engine must be rotated before it will run
under its own power. The starting system is a combination of mechanical
and electrical parts that work together to start the engine. The starting
system is designed to change the electrical energy, which is being stored in
the battery, into mechanical energy. To accomplish this conversion, a
starter or cranking motor is used. The starting system includes the
following components:
1. Battery.
2. Cable and wires.
3. Ignition switch.
4. Starter solenoid or relay.
5. Starter motor.
6. Starter drive and flywheel ring gear.
7. Starter safety switch.
Condition at Starting: The starting torque should be very high and the speed
should be very low while starting the starter motor of an automobile.

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D.C MOTORS

An electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy to

mechanical energy.
Why the D.C motors so common, when D.C power systems
themselves were fairly rare?
1. The D.C power systems are still common in trucks, aircraft and
cars (starting motor on all automobiles, outsider rear-view mirrors,
windshield wipers, fuel pump, water injection pump, cooling fan).
2. D.C Motor was a situation in which wide variations in speed are
needed.
If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field
produced by permanent magnets, then the field due to the current-carrying
conductor and the permanent magnets interact and cause a force to be
exerted on the conductor as shown in fig.(2.1). The force on the current-
carrying conductor in a magnetic field depends upon:
(a) The flux density of the field B (teslas).
(b) The strength of the current, I (Amperes).
(c) The length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field,
 (meters).
(d) The direction of the field and current (angle).
When the magnetic field, the current and the conductor are mutually at
right angles then
Force F = B..I Newton's
When the conductor and the field are at an angle (   ) to each other then
Force F = B..I . sin( ) Newton's

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As shown in figure (2.1), the field is strengthened above the

conductor and weakened below, thus tending to move the conductor down
wards. This is the basic principle of operation of the electric motor.

Fig.(2.1)
The direction of the force exerted on a conductor can be predetermined by
using Fleming's left-hand rule (often called the motor rule).

Fig.(2.2)

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1.2 Principle of Operation of a Simple D.C Motor

A rectangular coil which is free to rotate about a fixed axis shown
placed inside a magnetic field produced by permanent magnets in
fig.(2.3). A direct current is fed into the coil via carbon brushes bearing
on a commutator, which consists of a metal ring split into two halves
separated by insulation.

Fig.(1.3)

When current flows in the coil a magnetic field is set up around the
coil which interacts with the magnetic field produced by the magnets. This
causes a force (F) to be exerted on the current-carrying conductor which
by Fleming's left-hand rule, is down wards between point (A) and (B), up

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ward between (C) and (D) for the current direction shown. This causes a
torque and the coil rotates anticlockwise.

When the coil has turned through ( 90 o ) from the position shown in
figure, the brushes connected to the positive and negative terminals of
supply make contact with different halves of the commutator ring, thus
reversing the direction of the current flow in the conductor. If the current
is not reversed and the coil rotates past this position the forces acting on it
change direction and it rotates in the opposite direction thus never making
more than half a revolution.
The current direction is reversed every time the coil swing through
the vertical position and thus the coil rotates anti-clockwise for as long as
the current flows. This is the principle of operation of a D.C motor which
is thus a device that takes in electrical energy and converts it into
mechanical energy.
1.3 Significance of the Back e.m.f.
When the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotate and
hence cut the flux. In accordance with the laws of electromagnetic
induction, e,m.f. is induced in them whose direction, as found by Fleming's
Right-hand Rule, is in opposition to supplied voltage. Because of its
opposing direction, it is referred to as counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f. (Eb). It
will be seen that
V = Eb + I a .Ra

V − Eb
Ia =
Ra

Where ( Ra) is the resistance of the armature circuit.

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Back e.m.f. depends, among other factors, upon the armature

speed. If speed is high, Eb is large, hence armature current (Ia), as seen
from the above equation, is small.
If the speed is less, then (Eb) is less, hence more current flows which
develops more torque. So, we find that (Eb) acts like a governor i.e. it
makes a motor self-regulating so that it draws as much current as is just
necessary.

1.4 Induce Torque equation of a D.C Machine

The torque in any D.C machine depends on three factor:
1. The flux () in the machine.
2. The armature (or rotor) current (Ia) in the machine.
3. A constant depending on the construction of the machine.
The torque on the armature of a real machine is equal to the number of
conductors (Z) times the torque on each conductor. The torque in any
single conductor under the pole faces is.
TCond. = r.F
+ 
F = B..I Cond.

T = r.B..I Cond.

If there are ( a ) current paths in the machine, then the total armature
current ( I a ) is split among the ( a ) current path, so the current in a single
conductor is given by
Ia
I Cond . =
a

and the torque in a single conductor on the motor may be expressed as

r.B..I a
TCond . =
a

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Since there are (Z) conductors, the total induce torque in a D.C
machine rotor is:
Z .r.B..I a
Tind . =
a

The flux per pole in this machine can be expressed as

B(2 .r.)
 = B. AP =
p

So the total induce torque can be re-expressed as

Z ..I a P
Tind . =  
2 a

Finally,

Tind . = K ..I a

Where
Z .P
K=
2. .a

The induce torque equations given above are only approximations,

because not all the conductors in the machine are under the pole faces at
any given time .

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1.5 Types of D.C Motors

(a) Permanent-Magnet D.C Motor
The permanent-magnet D.C motor shown in fig.(2.4), is
construction in the same manner as its D.C generator.

Fig.(2.4)
When this type of motor is used, the D.C power supply is connected
directly to the armature conductors through the brush to commutator
assembly. The magnetic field is produced by permanent-magnets mounted
on the stator. The permanent-magnet motor has several advantages over
conventional types of D.C motors. The advantage is a reduced
operational cost, and The direction of rotation of a permanent-magnet
motor can be reversed by reversing the two power lines. The speed
(c/s) of the permanent-magnet motor are similar to those of the shunt
wound D.C motor.

Fig.(2.5)

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(b) Shunt- Wound D.C Motor

Shunt-wound D.C motors are more commonly used than any other
type of D.C motor. As shown in figure(2.6), the shunt-wound D.C
motor has field coils connected in parallel with its armature. This type
of D.C motor has field coils that are wound of many turns of small-
diameter wire and have a relatively high resistance. Since the field is
a high-resistant parallel path of the circuit of the shunt motor, a small
amount of current flows through the field. A strong electromagnetic
field is produced because of the many turns of wire that form the
field windings. Since the field current has little effect on the strength
of the field, motor speed is not affected appreciably by variation in load
current.
V = Eb + I a .Ra

I = Ia + I f

Fig.(2.6)

Because of its good speed regulation, and its ease of speed control, the
D.C shunt motor is commonly used for industrial applications.

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(c) Series-Wound D.C Motor

In the series-wound motor the field winding is in series with the
armature across the supply as shown in fig.(2.7). There is only one path for
current to flow from the D.C voltage source. Therefore, the field is wound
of relatively few turns of large-diameter wire, giving the field a low
resistance. Changes in load applied to the motor shaft cause change in
current through the field. If the mechanical load increase, the current also
increase. The increased current creates a stronger magnetic field. The
speed of a series motor varies from very fast at no load, to very slow at
heavy loads. Since large currents may flow through the low resistance
field, the series motor produces a high torque output. Series motors are
used when heavy loads must be moved, and speed regulation is not
important. A typical application is automobile starter motors.
V = Eb + I (Ra + R f )
I = Ia

Fig.(2.7)

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(d) Compound-Wound D.C Motor

The compound-wound D.C motor, has two sets of field windings, one
in series with the armature and one in parallel. This motor combines the
desirable characteristics of the series-and shunt- wound motors. It has high
torque similar to that of a series-wound motor, along with good speed
regulation similar to that of a shunt motor. Therefore, when good torque
and good speed regulation are needed, the compound-wound D.C motor
can be used

Fig.(2.8)

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1.6 Motors Characteristics

The characteristic curves of a motor are those curve which shown
relationship between the following quantities:
1. Torque and armature current i.e. (T/Ia) characteristic.
2. Speed and armature current (n/Ia) characteristic.
3. Speed and torque (n/T) characteristic.
1.6.1 Characteristic of shunt-wound motor
1. (T/Ia) Characteristic
The theoretical torque/ armature current (c/s) can be derived from
the expression T  .I a for a shunt-wound motor, the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature circuit and thus the applied voltage
gives a constant field current, i.e. a shunt-wound motor is a constant flux
machine. Since (  ) is constant, it follows that T  I a , and the (c/s) is as
shown in fig.(2.9).

Fig.(2.9)

2. (n / Ia) Characteristic
For a shunt motor, V,  and Ra are constants, hence as armature current
(Ia) increases, Ia Ra increase and (V-Ia Ra) decrease, and the speed is
proportional to a quantity, which is decreasing and is shown in fig.(2.10).

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As the load on the shaft of the motor increases, (I a) increases and the
speed drops slightly. In practice, the speed falls by about (10%) between
no-load and full-load on many D.C shunt-wound motors. Due to this
relatively small drop in speed, the D.C shunt-wound motor is taken as
basically being a constant-speed machine.
From equation :
V = Eb + I a .Ra

Eb = V − I a Ra

Eb  .n hence  is constant then

3. (n / T) Characteristic
The theoretical speed/ torque Characteristic can be deduced from (1)
and (2) above and is shown in fig.(2.11).
Eb = K

T
T = KI a , Ia =
K

Eb = V − I a Ra

T
K = V − Ra
K

This equation is just a straight line with a negative slope.

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2.6.2 Characteristic of series-wound motor

1. (T/Ia) Characteristic
In a series motor, the armature current flows in the field winding and
is equal to the supply current (I). The torque T  .I a over a limited range,
before magnetic saturation of the magnetic circuit of the motor is reached.
Thus (   I ) and ( T  I 2 ). Hence, (T/Ia) curve is a parabola as shown in
fig.(2.12). After magnetic saturation,  almost becomes a constant and (
T  I ), so the characteristic becomes a straight line.

Fig.(2.12)

2. (n / Ia) Characteristic
In a series motor, I a = I and below the magnetic saturation level,

  I . Thus n 
(V − IR) when ( R ) is the combined resistance of the
I
series field and armature circuit.

Fig.(2.13)

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Since ( I.R ) is small compared with (V), then an approximate

V
relationship for the speed is n  since (V) is constant. Hence,
I

Speed varies inversely as armature current as shown in fig.(2.13).

The high speed at small values of current indicate that this type of motor
must not be run on very light loads and invariably. Such motors are
permanently coupled to their loads.
3. (n / T) Characteristic
The theoretical speed/ torque (c/s) may be derived from (1) and (2)
above by obtaining the torque and speed for various values of current and
plotting the co-ordinates on the speed/torque (c/s). The series-wound motor
has a large torque when the current is large on starting. A typical speed/
torque (c/s) is shown in fig.(2.14).
Eb = V − I  R

T
T = K   I , I , I= , Eb = K
K
K = V − IR

KI = V − IR

T T
K  =V − R
K K

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2.7 D.C Motor Starter

If a D.C motor whose armature is stationary is switched directly to
its supply voltage, it is likely that the fuses protecting the motor will burn
out. Because the armature resistance is small, frequently being less than
one ohm. Thus, additional resistance must be added to the armature circuit
at the instant of closing the switch to start the motor.
As the speed of the motor increases. The armature conductors are
cutting flux and a generated voltage, acting in opposition to the applied
voltage, is produced, which limits the flow of armature current. Thus the
value of the additional armature resistance can then be reduced.
When at normal running speed, the generated e.m.f. is such that no
additional resistance is required in the armature circuit. To achieve this
varying resistance in the armature circuit on starting a D.C motor starter is
used, as shown in fig.(2.17). The starting handle is moved slowly in a
clockwise direction to start the motor. For a shunt-wound motor, the field
winding is connected to stud (1) or (M) via a sliding contact on the starting
handle. To give maximum field current hence maximum flux, hence
maximum torque on starting, since T  .I a .

Fig.(2.17)

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Example (2.1) A D.C motor has a speed of (900 r.p.m) when connected
to a (460 V) supply. Find the approximate value of the speed of the motor
when connected to a (200 V) supply, assuming the flux decreases by (30%)
and neglecting the armature volt drop?
Solution:
Eb1 = K1 .n1 Eb 2 = K 2 .n2

 2 = 1 − 1  0.3  2 = 0.71

Now
Eb1   900
= 1
Eb 2 0.7.1  n2

n 2 = 559 r.p.m

Example (2.2): A series motor has an armature resistance of (0.2 ) and a

series field resistance of (0.3 ). It is connected to a (240 V) supply and at
a particular load runs at (1440 r.p.m) when drawing (15 A) from the
supply.
(a) Determine the back e.m.f at this load.
(b) Calculate the speed of motor when the load is changed such that the
current is increased to (30 A). Assume that this cases a doubling of
flux.
Solution:
(a) at initial load, is given by
Eb1 = V − I a (Ra + R f )
Eb1 = 240 - 15(0.2+0.3)

= 232.5 Volt.
(b) When the current is increased to (30 A), the back e.m.f. is given by.
Eb 2 = V − I a (Ra + R f )
=240 – 30(0.2+0.3)
=225 volt
Now back e.m.f Eb  .n

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Thus
Eb1  .n
= 1 1
Eb 2 2.1 .n2

i.e.
232.5 1  1440
=
225 2  1  n2

1440  225
n2 = = 696.77 r.p.m
232.5  2
********************************************
Example (2.3); A series motor runs at (800 r.p.m) when the voltage is
(400 V) and the current is (25 A). The armature resistance is (0.4 ) and
the series field resistance is (0.2 ). Determine the resistance to be
connected in series to reduce the speed to (600 r.p.m) with same
current.
Solution:
at (800 r.p.m)
Eb1 = V − I ( Ra + R f )

= 400 – 25(0.4+0.2)
=385 volt
at (600 r.p.m), since the current is unchanged, the flux is unchanged.
Eb1 n1
Thus Eb    n , or Eb  n , and =
Eb 2 n2

Eb 2 =
(385)(600) = 288.75 volt
(800)
And
Eb 2 = V − I (Ra + R f + R )

288.75=400-25(0.4+0.2+R)
Rearranging gives
400 − 288.75
0.6 + R = = 4.45
25
From which, extra series resistance,
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R=4.45-0.6
i.e. , R=3.85 
thus the addition of a series resistance of (3.85 ) has reduced the speed
from (800 r.p.m) to (600 r.p.m).
*************************************************
Example (2.4): On full-load a (300 V) series motor takes (90 A) and runs
at (900 r.p.m) the armature resistance is (0.1 ) and the series winding
resistance is (50 m). Determine the speed when developing full load
torque but with a (0.2 ) diverter in parallel with the field winding.
(assume that the flux is proportional to the field current).
Solution:
at (300 V)
Eb1 = V − I (Ra + R f ) IX

= 300 − 90(0.1 + 0.05)

=286.5 Volts
With the (0.2 ) diverter in parallel with ( R f )

The equivalent resistant

0.2  0.05
R= = 0.04
0.2 + 0.05

By current division, current I X = I 

0.2 

 0.2 + 0.05 
I X = 0.8I , I X = 0.8I a 2

Torque, T  I a and for full load torque I a11 = I a 22

Since flux is proportional to field current 1  I a1 and 2  0.8I a 2

Then (90)(90) = ( I a 2 )(0.8I a 2 ) , I 2

=
(90)
2
and I a 2 = 100.62 A
a2
0.8
Hence Eb 2 = V − I a 2 ( Ra + R)
= 300 − 100.62(0.1 + 0.04 ) = 285.9 Volts

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Eb1 1  n1 I a1  n1
Back e.m.f. , Eb  .n from which = =
Eb 2  2  n2 0.8  I a 2  n2

285.9  90  900
new speed n2 = = 1004.4 r.p.m
286.5  0.8  100.62

1.9 The efficiency of a D.C. motor

It was stated in section (1.14), that the efficiency of a D.C. machine
is given by.
output  power
Efficiency,  =  100 0
input  power 0

Also, the total losses = I a2 Ra + I f V + C (for a shunt motor) and,

total losses= I 2 R + C (for a series motor), where C is the sum of the iron,
friction and windage losses, R is the total resistance for series motor
R = ( Ra + R f )

for a motor, the input power=VI

and the output power=VI-losses
hence,
 VI − I a2 R − I f V − C 
 =   100 0 (for shunt motor)
 VI  0
 

 VI − IR − C 
 =   100 0 0 (for series motor)
 VI 
The efficiency of a motor is a maximum when the load is such that
I a2 Ra = I f V + C (for shunt motor), I 2 R = C (for series motor)

Example (2.5): A 250 V series motor draws a current of 40 A. The

armature resistance is 0.15  and the field resistance is 0.05 . Determine
the maximum efficiency of the motor.
Solution:
 VI − I 2 (Ra + R f ) − C 
For series motor  =   100
 VI 
 

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 VI − 2 I 2 ( Ra + R f ) 
For maximum efficiency ,  =  
  100

 VI 

 (250)(40) − 2(40) 2 (0.15 + 0.05) 

=    100 = 93.6 0
0
 ( 250)( 40) 

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