Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.

Kaliamoorthy

CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
(Line Commutated AC to DC converters)
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power converters which are
used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply into variable dc output
voltage.
+
AC Line DC Output
Input Commutated V0(dc )
Voltage Converter
-
Type of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply.
Type of output: Variable dc output voltage
The input supply fed to a controlled rectifier is ac supply at a fixed rms voltage
and at a fixed frequency. We can obtain variable dc output voltage by using controlled
rectifiers. By employing phase controlled thyristors in the controlled rectifier circuits we
can obtain variable dc output voltage and variable dc (average) output current by varying
the trigger angle (phase angle) at which the thyristors are triggered. We obtain a uni-
directional and pulsating load current waveform, which has a specific average value.
The thyristors are forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply
and can be turned ON by applying suitable gate trigger pulses at the thyristor gate leads.
The thyristor current and the load current begin to flow once the thyristors are triggered
(turned ON) say at  t   . The load current flows when the thyristors conduct from
 t   to  . The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage
through the conducting thyristor. At  t   , when the load current falls to zero, the
thyristors turn off due to AC line (natural) commutation.
In some bridge controlled rectifier circuits the conducting thyristor turns off,
when the other thyristor is (other group of thyristors are) turned ON.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

The thyristor remains reverse biased during the negative half cycle of input
supply. The type of commutation used in controlled rectifier circuits is referred to AC
line commutation or Natural commutation or AC phase commutation.
When the input ac supply voltage reverses and becomes negative during the
negative half cycle, the thyristor becomes reverse biased and hence turns off. There are
several types of power converters which use ac line commutation. These are referred to
as line commutated converters.
Different types of line commutated converters are
 Phase controlled rectifiers which are AC to DC converters.
 AC to AC converters
 AC voltage controllers, which convert input ac voltage into
variable ac output voltage at the same frequency.
 Cyclo converters, which give low output frequencies.
All these power converters operate from ac power supply at a fixed rms input
supply voltage and at a fixed input supply frequency. Hence they use ac line
commutation for turning off the thyristors after they have been triggered ON by the
gating signals.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIODE RECTIFIERS AND PHASE CONTROLLED

RECTIFIERS
The diode rectifiers are referred to as uncontrolled rectifiers which make use of
power semiconductor diodes to carry the load current. The diode rectifiers give a fixed dc
output voltage (fixed average output voltage) and each diode rectifying element conducts
for one half cycle duration (T/2 seconds), that is the diode conduction angle = 1800 or 
radians.
A single phase half wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal conditions) an average
Vm
dc output voltage VO dc   and single phase full wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal

2Vm
conditions) an average dc output voltage VO dc   , where Vm is maximum value of

the available ac supply voltage.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Thus we note that we can not control (we can not vary) the dc output voltage or
the average dc load current in a diode rectifier circuit.
In a phase controlled rectifier circuit we use a high current and a high power
thyristor device (silicon controlled rectifier; SCR) for conversion of ac input power into
dc output power.
Phase controlled rectifier circuits are used to provide a variable voltage output dc
and a variable dc (average) load current.
We can control (we can vary) the average value (dc value) of the output load
voltage (and hence the average dc load current) by varying the thyristor trigger angle.
We can control the thyristor conduction angle  from 1800 to 00 by varying the
trigger angle  from 00 to 1800, where thyristor conduction angle      

APPLICATIONS OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

 DC motor control in steel mills, paper and textile mills employing dc motor
drives.
 AC fed traction system using dc traction motor.
 Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical processes.
 Magnet power supplies.
 Reactor controls.
 Portable hand tool drives.
 Variable speed industrial drives.
 Battery charges.
 High voltage DC transmission.
 Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS).
Some years back ac to dc power conversion was achieved using motor generator
sets, mercury arc rectifiers, and thyratorn tubes. The modern ac to dc power converters
are designed using high power, high current thyristors and presently most of the ac-dc
power converters are thyristorised power converters. The thyristor devices are phase
controlled to obtain a variable dc output voltage across the output load terminals. The
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

phase controlled thyristor converter uses ac line commutation (natural commutation) for
commutating (turning off) the thyristors that have been turned ON.
The phase controlled converters are simple and less expensive and are widely
used in industrial applications for industrial dc drives. These converters are classified as
two quadrant converters if the output voltage can be made either positive or negative for
a given polarity of output load current. There are also single quadrant ac-dc converters
where the output voltage is only positive and cannot be made negative for a given
polarity of output current. Of course single quadrant converters can also be designed to
provide only negative dc output voltage.
The two quadrant converter operation can be achieved by using fully controlled
bridge converter circuit and for single quadrant operation we use a half controlled bridge
converter.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
The phase controlled rectifiers can be classified based on the type of input power
supply as
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from single phase ac input
power supply.
 Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from three phase ac input power
supply.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are further subdivided into different types
 Half wave controlled rectifier which uses a single thyristor device (which
provides output control only in one half cycle of input ac supply, and it provides
low dc output).
 Full wave controlled rectifiers (which provide higher dc output)
o Full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer (which
requires two thyristors).
o Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers (which do not require a center
tapped transformer)
 Single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter, using two SCR’s
and two diodes, to provide single quadrant operation).
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

 Single phase full converter (fully controlled bridge converter which requires four
SCR’s, to provide two quadrant operations).
Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers are of different types
 Three phase half wave controlled rectifiers.
 Three phase full wave controlled rectifiers.
o Semi converter (half controlled bridge converter).
o Full converter (fully controlled bridge converter).
PRINCIPLE OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER OPERATION
The basic principle of operation of a phase controlled rectifier circuit is explained
with reference to a single phase half wave phase controlled rectifier circuit with a
resistive load shown in the figure 1.

R  RL  Load Resistance
Fig.1: Single Phase Half-Wave Thyristor Converter with a Resistive Load

A single phase half wave thyristor converter which is used for ac-dc power
conversion is shown in the above figure. The input ac supply is obtained from a main
supply transformer to provide the desired ac supply voltage to the thyristor converter
depending on the output dc voltage required. vP represents the primary input ac supply

voltage. vS represents the secondary ac supply voltage which is the output of the
transformer secondary.
During the positive half cycle of input supply when the upper end of the
transformer secondary is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end, the
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

thyristor anode is positive with respect to its cathode and the thyristor is in a forward
biased state. The thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of  t   , by applying a suitable
gate trigger pulse to the gate lead of thyristor. When the thyristor is triggered at a delay
angle of  t   , the thyristor conducts and assuming an ideal thyristor, the thyristor
behaves as a closed switch and the input supply voltage appears across the load when the
thyristor conducts from  t   to  radians. Output voltage vO  vS , when the thyristor

conducts from  t   to  .
For a purely resistive load, the load current iO (output current) that flows when

the thyristor T1 is on, is given by the expression

vO
iO  , for    t  
RL
The output load current waveform is similar to the output load voltage waveform
during the thyristor conduction time from  to  . The output current and the output
voltage waveform are in phase for a resistive load. The load current increases as the input

supply voltage increases and the maximum load current flows at  t  , when the input
2
supply voltage is at its maximum value.
The maximum value (peak value) of the load current is calculated as
Vm
iO max   I m  .
RL

Note that when the thyristor conducts ( T1 is on) during  t   to  , the thyristor

current iT 1 , the load current iO through RL and the source current iS flowing through the
transformer secondary winding are all one and the same.
Hence we can write
vO Vm sin  t
iS  iT 1  iO   ; for    t  
R R
I m is the maximum (peak) value of the load current that flows through the

transformer secondary winding, through T1 and through the load resistor RL at the instant


t  , when the input supply voltage reaches its maximum value.
2
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

When the input supply voltage decreases the load current decreases. When the
supply voltage falls to zero at  t   , the thyristor and the load current also falls to zero
at  t   . Thus the thyristor naturally turns off when the current flowing through it falls
to zero at  t   .
During the negative half cycle of input supply when the supply voltage reverses
and becomes negative during  t   to 2 radians, the anode of thyristor is at a negative
potential with respect to its cathode and as a result the thyristor is reverse biased and
hence it remains cut-off (in the reverse blocking mode). The thyristor cannot conduct
during its reverse biased state between  t   to 2 . An ideal thyristor under reverse
biased condition behaves as an open switch and hence the load current and load voltage
are zero during  t   to 2 . The maximum or peak reverse voltage that appears across
the thyristor anode and cathode terminals is Vm .
The trigger angle  (delay angle or the phase angle  ) is measured from the
beginning of each positive half cycle to the time instant when the gate trigger pulse is
applied. The thyristor conduction angle is from  to  , hence the conduction angle
      . The maximum conduction angle is  radians (1800) when the trigger angle
  0.

Fig 2: Quadrant Diagram

The waveforms shows the input ac supply voltage across the secondary winding
of the transformer which is represented as vS , the output voltage across the load, the
output (load) current, and the thyristor voltage waveform that appears across the anode
and cathode terminals.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Fig 3: Waveforms of single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with resistive load

EQUATIONS
vs  Vm sin  t  The ac supply voltage across the transformer secondary.

Vm  Max. (Peak) value of input ac supply voltage across transformer secondary.

Vm
VS   RMS value of input ac supply voltage across transformer secondary.
2
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

vO  vL  The output voltage across the load; iO  iL  output (load) current.

When the thyristor is triggered at  t   (an ideal thyristor behaves as a closed switch)
and hence the output voltage follows the input supply voltage.
vO  vL  Vm sin  t ; for  t   to  , when the thyristor is on.

vO
iO  iL  = Load current for  t   to  , when the thyristor is on.
R
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE (DC) OUTPUT VOLTAGE
ACROSS THE LOAD
If Vm is the peak input supply voltage, the average output voltage Vdc can be
found from

1
vO .d  t 
2 
VO dc   Vdc 


1
Vm sin  t.d  t 
2 
VO dc   Vdc 


1
Vm sin  t.d  t 
2 
VO dc  


Vm
sin  t.d  t 
2 
VO dc  


Vm  
VO dc     cos  t 
2  

Vm
VO dc     cos   cos   ; cos   1
2
Vm
VO dc   1  cos   ; Vm  2VS
2

The maximum average (dc) output voltage is obtained when   0 and the
Vm
maximum dc output voltage Vdc max   Vdm  .

The average dc output voltage can be varied by varying the trigger angle  from
0 to a maximum of 1800  radians  .
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

We can plot the control characteristic, which is a plot of dc output voltage versus
the trigger angle  by using the equation for VO dc  .

CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE PHASE

CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD

The average dc output voltage is given by the expression

Vm
VO dc   1  cos  
2
We can obtain the control characteristic by plotting the expression for the dc
output voltage as a function of trigger angle 
Trigger angle 
VO dc  %
in degrees
Vm
0 Vdm  100% Vdm

300 0.933 Vdm 93.3 % Vdm
Vm
600 0.75 Vdm 75 % Vdm Vdm   Vdc max 

900 0.5 Vdm 50 % Vdm

1200 0.25 Vdm 25 % Vdm

1500 0.06698 Vdm 6.69 % Vdm

1800 0 0
V O(dc)
V dm

0.6V dm

0.2 V dm

0 60 120 180
Trigger angle  in degrees
Fig.4: Control characteristic
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to Vdm , the normalized output
voltage
VO ( dc ) Vdc
Vdcn  
Vdc max  Vdm

Vm
Vdc 2 
1  cos  
Vdcn  Vn  
Vdm Vm

Vdc 1
Vn   1  cos    Vdcn
Vdm 2
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT
VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
WITH RESISTIVE LOAD

The rms output voltage is given by

2
 1 
VO RMS     v .d  t 
2

 2
O
0

Output voltage vO  Vm sin  t ; for  t   to 

1
 1  2 2 2
VO RMS    m
V sin  t .d   t  
 2  
1  cos 2 t
By substituting sin 2  t  , we get
2
1
 1  2 1  cos 2 t  2
VO RMS    V .d   t  
 2 
m
2 
1

 Vm2 2
VO RMS    1  cos 2 t  .d   t  
 4  
1
 Vm2  
 2
VO RMS      d  t    cos 2 t.d  t  
 4   
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy
1

V 1  
 sin 2 t   2

VO RMS   m   t    
2      2   
1

Vm 1   sin 2  sin 2    ; sin 2  0 2

VO RMS          
2    2  
Hence we get,
1
V 1  sin 2   2
VO RMS   m         
2   2  
1
V  sin 2  2
VO RMS   m       
2   2 
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Output dc power (average or dc output power delivered to the load)
PO dc   VO dc   I O dc  ; i.e., Pdc  Vdc  I dc

Where
VO dc   Vdc  average or dc value of output (load) voltage.

I O dc   I dc  average or dc value of output (load) current.

Output ac power
PO ac   VO RMS   I O RMS 

Efficiency of Rectification (Rectification Ratio)

PO dc  PO dc 
Efficiency   ; % Efficiency    100
PO ac  PO ac 

The output voltage can be considered as being composed of two components

 The dc component VO dc  = DC or average value of output voltage.

 The ac component or the ripple component Vac  Vr  rms   RMS value of all

the ac ripple components.

The total RMS value of output voltage is given by

VO RMS   VO2 dc   Vr2 rms 

Therefore
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Vac  Vr  rms   VO2 RMS   VO2 dc 

Form Factor (FF) which is a measure of the shape of the output voltage is given by
VO RMS  RMS output  load  voltage
FF  
VO dc  DC output  load  voltage

The Ripple Factor (RF) which is a measure of the ac ripple content in the output
voltage waveform. The output voltage ripple factor defined for the output voltage
waveform is given by
Vr  rms  Vac
rv  RF  
VO dc  Vdc

2
VO2 RMS   VO2 dc   VO RMS  
rv     1
VO dc   VO dc  

Therefore rv  FF 2  1
Current Ripple Factor defined for the output (load) current waveform is given by
I r  rms  I ac
ri  
I O dc  I dc

Where I r  rms   I ac  I O2  RMS   I O2  dc 

Some times the peak to peak output ripple voltage is also considered to express
the peak to peak output ripple voltage as
Vr  pp   peak to peak ac ripple output voltage

The peak to peak ac ripple load current is the difference between the maximum
and the minimum values of the output load current.
I r  pp   I O max   I O min 

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

PO dc 
TUF  Where
VS  I S

VS  RMS value of transformer secondary output voltage (RMS supply

voltage at the secondary)
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

IS  RMS value of transformer secondary current (RMS line or supply

current).

vS  Supply voltage at the transformer secondary side .

iS  Input supply current (transformer secondary winding current) .

iS 1  Fundamental component of the input supply current .

I P  Peak value of the input supply current .

  Phase angle difference between (sine wave components) the fundamental

components of input supply current and the input supply voltage.
  Displacement angle (phase angle)
For an RL load   Displacement angle = Load impedance angle

L 
   tan 1   for an RL load
 R 
Displacement Factor (DF) or Fundamental Power Factor
DF  Cos
Harmonic Factor (HF) or Total Harmonic Distortion Factor (THD)
The harmonic factor is a measure of the distortion in the output waveform and is
also referred to as the total harmonic distortion (THD)
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

1 1

I  I 
2  I  2  2
2 2
HF        1
S SS1

 S 1  
2
 S1 
I I

Where
I S  RMS value of input supply current.

I S 1  RMS value of fundamental component of the input supply current.

Input Power Factor (PF)
VS I S 1 I
PF  cos   S 1 cos 
VS I S IS
The Crest Factor (CF)
I S  peak  Peak input supply current
CF  
IS RMS input supply current
For an Ideal Controlled Rectifier
FF  1 ; Which means that VO RMS   VO dc  .

Efficiency   100% ; which means that PO dc   PO ac  .

Vac  Vr  rms   0 ; So that RF  rv  0 ; Ripple factor = 0 (ripple free converter).

TUF  1 ; Which means that PO dc   VS  I S

HF  THD  0 ; Which means that I S  I S 1

PF  DPF  1 ; Which means that   0

SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH AN RL
LOAD
In this section we will discuss the operation and performance of a single phase
half wave controlled rectifier with RL load. In practice most of the loads are of RL type.
For example if we consider a single phase controlled rectifier controlling the speed of a
dc motor, the load which is the dc motor winding is an RL type of load, where R
represents the motor winding resistance and L represents the motor winding inductance.
A single phase half wave controlled rectifier circuit with an RL load using a
thyristor T1 ( T1 is an SCR) is shown in the figure below.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply.

Let us assume that T1 is triggered at  t   , by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to

T1 during the positive half cycle of input supply. The output voltage across the load

follows the input supply voltage when T1 is ON. The load current iO flows through the

thyristor T1 and through the load in the downward direction. This load current pulse

flowing through T1 can be considered as the positive current pulse. Due to the inductance

in the load, the load current iO flowing through T1 would not fall to zero at  t   , when
the input supply voltage starts to become negative. A phase shift appears between the
load voltage and the load current waveforms, due to the load inductance.
The thyristor T1 will continue to conduct the load current until all the inductive

energy stored in the load inductor L is completely utilized and the load current through T1
falls to zero at  t   , where  is referred to as the Extinction angle, (the value of  t )
at which the load current falls to zero. The extinction angle  is measured from the point
of the beginning of the positive half cycle of input supply to the point where the load
current falls to zero.
The thyristor T1 conducts from  t   to  . The conduction angle of T1 is

       , which depends on the delay angle  and the load impedance angle  . The

waveforms of the input supply voltage, the gate trigger pulse of T1 , the thyristor current,
the load current and the load voltage waveforms appear as shown in the figure below.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

i1  iO  iS

Fig.5: Input supply voltage & Thyristor current waveforms

 is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.

Fig.6: Output (load) voltage waveform of a single phase half wave controlled
rectifier with RL load
From  to 2 , the thyristor remains cut-off as it is reverse biased and behaves
as an open switch. The thyristor current and the load current are zero and the output
voltage also remains at zero during the non conduction time interval between  to 2 .

In the next cycle the thyristor is triggered again at a phase angle of  2    , and the

same operation repeats.

 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE OUTPUT (INDUCTIVE LOAD)

CURRENT, DURING  t   to  WHEN THYRISTOR T1 CONDUCTS
Considering sinusoidal input supply voltage we can write the expression for the
supply voltage as
vS  Vm sin  t = instantaneous value of the input supply voltage.

Let us assume that the thyristor T1 is triggered by applying the gating signal to T1

at  t   . The load current which flows through the thyristor T1 during  t   to  can
be found from the equation
 di 
L  O   RiO  Vm sin  t ;
 dt 
The solution of the above differential equation gives the general expression for
the output load current which is of the form
t
Vm
iO  sin  t     A1e  ;
Z
Where Vm  2VS = maximum or peak value of input supply voltage.

Z  R 2   L  = Load impedance.
2

L 
  tan 1   = Load impedance angle (power factor angle of load).
 R 
L
 = Load circuit time constant.
R
Therefore the general expression for the output load current is given by the
equation
R
Vm
sin  t     A1e L ;
t
iO 
Z
The value of the constant A1 can be determined from the initial condition. i.e.

initial value of load current iO  0 , at  t   . Hence from the equation for iO equating

iO to zero and substituting  t   , we get

R
Vm
sin      A1e L
t
iO  0 
Z
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy
R
Vm
sin    
t
Therefore A1e L 
Z
1  Vm 
A1  R Z sin     
Lt 
e
R
 Vm 
 Z sin     
t
A1  e L

 
R  t 
 Vm 
A1  e  Z sin     
L
 
By substituting  t   , we get the value of constant A1 as
R  
 V 
A1  e  L  m sin     
 Z 
Substituting the value of constant A1 from the above equation into the expression for iO ,
we obtain
R   R
Vm L 
Vm 
sin  t     e e sin      ;
t
iO  L

Z  Z 
 R  t  R 
Vm  V 
iO  sin  t     e L
e  L  m sin     
Z  Z 
R
Vm  t    Vm 
iO  sin  t     e L
 sin     
Z  Z 
Therefore we obtain the final expression for the inductive load current of a single phase
half wave controlled rectifier with RL load as

V  R
 t   
iO  m sin  t     sin     e Where    t   .
L
 ;
Z  
The above expression also represents the thyristor current iT 1 , during the conduction time

interval of thyristor T1 from  t   to  .

TO CALCULATE EXTINCTION ANGLE 
The extinction angle  , which is the value of  t at which the load current
iO falls to zero and T1 is turned off can be estimated by using the condition that

iO  0 , at  t  
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

By using the above expression for the output load current, we can write

Vm  R
    
iO  0  sin       sin     e
L

Z  
Vm
As  0 , we can write
Z
 R
    
           0
L
sin sin e
 
Therefore we obtain the expression
R
   
sin       sin     e  L

The extinction angle  can be determined from this transcendental equation by

using the iterative method of solution (trial and error method). After  is calculated, we

can determine the thyristor conduction angle        .

 is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.
Conduction angle  increases as  is decreased for a specific value of  .

Conduction angle        ; for a purely resistive load or for an RL load

when the load inductance L is negligible the extinction angle    and the conduction

angle      

SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD

AND FREE WHEELING DIODE
T
i0
+
V0
+ R
Vs

~ FWD

L

Fig.7 : Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Free
Wheeling Diode (FWD)
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

With a RL load it was observed that the average output voltage reduces. This
disadvantage can be overcome by connecting a diode across the load as shown in figure.
The diode is called as a Free Wheeling Diode (FWD). The waveforms are shown below.

Vs Vm
Supply voltage

0    t


iG
Gate pulses -V m

0 t


iO Load current

t=
0 t
   
 2
VO Load voltage

0    t


At  t   , the source voltage vS falls to zero and as vS becomes negative, the

freewheeling diode is forward biased. The stored energy in the inductance maintains the
load current flow through R, L, and the FWD. Also, as soon as the FWD is forward
biased, at  t   , the SCR becomes reverse biased, the current through it becomes zero
and the SCR turns off. During the period  t   to  , the load current flows through
FWD (free wheeling load current) and decreases exponentially towards zero at  t   .

Also during this free wheeling time period the load is shorted by the conducting
FWD and the load voltage is almost zero, if the forward voltage drop across the
conducting FWD is neglected. Thus there is no negative region in the load voltage wave
form. This improves the average output voltage.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Vm
The average output voltage Vdc  1  cos   , which is the same as that of a
2
purely resistive load. The output voltage across the load appears similar to the output
voltage of a purely resistive load.
The following points are to be noted.

 If the inductance value is not very large, the energy stored in the
inductance is able to maintain the load current only up to  t   , where
    2 , well before the next gate pulse and the load current tends to
become discontinuous.

 During the conduction period  to  , the load current is carried by the

SCR and during the freewheeling period  to  , the load current is carried
by the freewheeling diode.

 The value of  depends on the value of R and L and the forward

resistance of the FWD. Generally     2 .
If the value of the inductance is very large, the load current does not decrease to
zero during the freewheeling time interval and the load current waveform appears as
shown in the figure.

i0
t1 t2 t3 t4

SCR FWD SCR FWD

0
 t
  2 

Fig. 8: Waveform of Load Current in Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier
with a Large Inductance and FWD
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

During the periods t1 , t3 ,..... the SCR carries the load current and during the periods

t2 , t4 ,..... the FWD carries the load current.

It is to be noted that

 The load current becomes continuous and the load current does not fall to
zero for large value of load inductance.

 The ripple in the load current waveform (the amount of variation in the
output load current) decreases.
Equations
vs  Vm sin  t  Input supply voltage

vO  vL  Vm sin  t  Output load voltage for  t   to  ,

when the thyristor T1 conducts ( T1 is on).

Expression for the load current (thyristor current): for  t   to 

Vm  R
 t   
iO   sin   t     sin     e L
 ; Where    t   .
Z  
Extinction angle  can be calculated using the equation
R
   
sin       sin     e L

TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR AVERAGE (DC) LOAD VOLTAGE

2
1
VO dc   VL 
2  v .d  t 
0
O

1   2 
VO dc   VL    vO .d  t    vO .d  t    vO .d  t   ;
2  0   

vO  0 for  t  0 to  & for  t   to 2 ;


1  
 VO dc   VL    vO .d  t   ; vO  Vm sin  t for  t   to 
2  

1  
VO dc   VL    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2  
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Vm   Vm
VO dc   VL    cos  t   cos   cos  
2   2
Vm
 VO dc   VL   cos   cos  
2
Note: During the period  t   to  , we can see from the output load voltage waveform
that the instantaneous output voltage is negative and this reduces the average or the dc
output voltage when compared to a purely resistive load.

SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH A

GENERAL LOAD
A general load consists of R, L and a DC source ‘E’ in the load circuit

iO
R
+
~ vS
L
vO

+
 E

In the half wave controlled rectifier circuit shown in the figure, the load circuit
consists of a dc source ‘E’ in addition to resistance and inductance. When the thyristor is
in the cut-off state, the current in the circuit is zero and the cathode will be at a voltage
equal to the dc voltage in the load circuit i.e. the cathode potential will be equal to ‘E’.
The thyristor will be forward biased for anode supply voltage greater than the load dc
voltage.
When the supply voltage is less than the dc voltage ‘E’ in the circuit the thyristor
is reverse biased and hence the thyristor cannot conduct for supply voltage less than the
load circuit dc voltage.
The value of  t at which the supply voltage increases and becomes equal to the
load circuit dc voltage can be calculated by using the equation Vm sin  t  E . If we
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

assume the value of  t is equal to  then we can write Vm sin   E . Therefore  is

 E
calculated as   sin 1   .
 Vm 
For trigger angle    , the thyristor conducts only from  t   to  .
For trigger angle    , the thyristor conducts from  t   to  .
The waveforms appear as shown in the figure
vO Vm

Load voltage

  t
0   

iO
 
Im
Load current
0 t
   


Equations
vS  Vm sin  t  Input supply voltage .

vO  Vm sin  t  Output load voltage for  t   to 

vO  E for  t  0 to  & for  t   to 2

Expression for the Load Current

When the thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of  , the equation for the circuit
can be written as
 di 
Vm sin  t  iO  R  L  O  +E ;    t  
 dt 
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
t
Vm E
iO  sin  t      Ae 
Z R
Where
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Z  R 2   L  = Load Impedance
2

L 
  tan 1    Load impedance angle
 R 
L
  Load circuit time constant
R
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
R
Vm E
sin  t      Ae L
t
iO 
Z R
To find the value of the constant ‘A’ apply the initial condition at  t   , load
current iO  0 . Equating the general expression for the load current to zero at  t   , we
get
R 
Vm E 
iO  0  sin       Ae L 
Z R
We obtain the value of constant ‘A’ as

E V  
R
A    m sin      e  L
R Z 
Substituting the value of the constant ‘A’ in the expression for the load current,
we get the complete expression for the output load current as
R
Vm E  E Vm   L  t  
iO  sin  t        sin      e
Z R R Z 
The Extinction angle  can be calculated from the final condition that the output
current iO  0 at  t   . By using the above expression we get,
R
Vm E E V     
iO  0  sin          m sin      e  L
Z R R Z 
To derive an expression for the average or dc load voltage
2
1
VO dc  
2  v .d  t 
0
O

1  
  2
VO dc     vO .d  t    vO .d  t    vO .d  t  
2  0   
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

vO  Vm sin  t  Output load voltage for  t   to 

vO  E for  t  0 to  & for  t   to 2

1  
  2
VO dc    E .d    m
 t  V sin  t   E.d  t  
2  0   
2
1   

VO dc    E  t   Vm   cos  t   E  t  
2  0   
1
VO dc    E   0   Vm  cos   cos    E  2    
2 
Vm E
VO dc    cos   cos      2     
2 2
Vm  2       
VO dc    cos   cos     E
2  2 
Conduction angle of thyristor       

RMS Output Voltage can be calculated by using the expression

2
1  2 
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
2  0 
Average DC Load Current
VO dc  Vm
I O dc   I L Avg     cos   cos  
RL 2 RL
DISADVANTAGES OF SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED
RECTIFIERS
Single phase half wave controlled rectifier gives
 Low dc output voltage.
 Low dc output power and lower efficiency.
 Higher ripple voltage & ripple current.
 Higher ripple factor.
 Low transformer utilization factor.
 The input supply current waveform has a dc component which can result in dc
saturation of the transformer core.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Single phase half wave controlled rectifiers are rarely used in practice as they give
low dc output and low dc output power. They are only of theoretical interest.
The above disadvantages of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier can be
over come by using a full wave controlled rectifier circuit. Most of the practical converter
circuits use full wave controlled rectifiers.
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Single phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit combines two half wave
controlled rectifiers in one single circuit so as to provide two pulse output across the load.
Both the half cycles of the input supply are utilized and converted into a uni-directional
output current through the load so as to produce a two pulse output waveform. Hence a
full wave controlled rectifier circuit is also referred to as a two pulse converter.
Single phase full wave controlled rectifiers are of various types
 Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped
transformer (two pulse converter with midpoint configuration).
 Single phase full wave bridge controlled rectifier
 Half controlled bridge converter (semi converter).
 Fully controlled bridge converter (full converter).
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER USING A CENTER
TAPPED TRANSFORMER

A
iS T 1
+
vO
vS
R L
AC O iO
Supply

FWD

B
T2
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

vS = Supply Voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding

vS  v AO  Vm sin  t

vBO  v AO  Vm sin  t  supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer
secondary winding.
This type of full wave controlled rectifier requires a center tapped transformer and
two thyristors T1 and T2 . The input supply is fed through the mains supply transformer,
the primary side of the transformer is connected to the ac line voltage which is available
(normally the primary supply voltage is 230V RMS ac supply voltage at 50Hz supply
frequency in India). The secondary side of the transformer has three lines and the center
point of the transformer (center line) is used as the reference point to measure the input
and output voltages.
The upper half of the secondary winding and the thyristor T1 along with the load
act as a half wave controlled rectifier, the lower half of the secondary winding and the
thyristor T2 with the common load act as the second half wave controlled rectifier so as
to produce a full wave load voltage waveform.
There are two types of operations possible.
 Discontinuous load current operation, which occurs for a purely resistive
load or an RL load with low inductance value.
 Continuous load current operation which occurs for an RL type of load
with large load inductance.
Discontinuous Load Current Operation (for low value of load inductance)
Generally the load current is discontinuous when the load is purely resistive or
when the RL load has a low value of inductance.
During the positive half cycle of input supply, when the upper line of the
secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the center point ‘O’ the
thyristor T1 is forward biased and it is triggered at a delay angle of . The load current

flows through the thyristor T1 , through the load and through the upper part of the

secondary winding, during the period  to  , when the thyristor T1 conducts.

 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage that appears
across the upper part of the secondary winding from  t   to  . The load current
through the thyristor T1 decreases and drops to zero at  t   , where    for RL type

of load and the thyristor T1 naturally turns off at  t   .

vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
() ()
Fig.9: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation without FWD

During the negative half cycle of the input supply the voltage at the supply line
‘A’ becomes negative whereas the voltage at line ‘B’ (at the lower side of the secondary
winding) becomes positive with respect to the center point ‘O’. The thyristor T2 is
forward biased during the negative half cycle and it is triggered at a delay angle of
    . The current flows through the thyristor T2 , through the load, and through the

lower part of the secondary winding when T2 conducts during the negative half cycle the

load is connected to the lower half of the secondary winding when T2 conducts.
For purely resistive loads when L = 0, the extinction angle    . The load
current falls to zero at  t     , when the input supply voltage falls to zero at  t   .
The load current and the load voltage waveforms are in phase and there is no phase shift
between the load voltage and the load current waveform in the case of a purely resistive
load.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

For low values of load inductance the load current would be discontinuous and
the extinction angle    but       .

For large values of load inductance the load current would be continuous and does
not fall to zero. The thyristor T1 conducts from  to     , until the next thyristor T2

is triggered. When T2 is triggered at  t      , the thyristor T1 will be reverse biased

and hence T1 turns off.

TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD
(WITHOUT FREE WHEELING DIODE (FWD))
The average or dc output voltage of a full-wave controlled rectifier can be
calculated by finding the average value of the output voltage waveform over one output
T
cycle (i.e.,  radians) and note that the output pulse repetition time is seconds where T
2
1
represents the input supply time period and T  ; where f = input supply frequency.
f

Assuming the load inductance to be small so that    ,       we obtain

discontinuous load current operation. The load current flows through T1 form

 t   to  , where  is the trigger angle of thyristor T1 and  is the extinction angle

where the load current through T1 falls to zero at  t   . Therefore the average or dc
output voltage can be obtained by using the expression


2
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
2  t 


1
VO dc   Vdc   v .d  t 
  
t
O


1 
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
  
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  

Vm
VO dc   Vdc   cos   cos  

Vm
Therefore VO dc    cos   cos   , for discontinuous load current operation,

        .
When the load inductance is small and negligible that is L  0 , the extinction
angle    radians . Hence the average or dc output voltage for resistive load is
obtained as
Vm
VO dc    cos   cos   ; cos   1


 cos    1 
Vm
VO dc  

Vm
VO dc   1  cos   ; for resistive load, when L  0

THE EFFECT OF LOAD INDUCTANCE
Due to the presence of load inductance the output voltage reverses and becomes
negative during the time period  t   to  . This reduces the dc output voltage. To
prevent this reduction of dc output voltage due to the negative region in the output load
voltage waveform, we can connect a free wheeling diode across the load. The output
voltage waveform and the dc output voltage obtained would be the same as that for a full
wave controlled rectifier with resistive load.
When the Free wheeling diode (FWD) is connected across the load
When T1 is triggered at  t   , during the positive half cycle of the input supply

the FWD is reverse biased during the time period  t   to  . FWD remains reverse
biased and cut-off from  t   to  . The load current flows through the conducting
thyristor T1 , through the RL load and through upper half of the transformer secondary
winding during the time period  to  .
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

At  t   , when the input supply voltage across the upper half of the secondary
winding reverses and becomes negative the FWD turns-on. The load current continues to
flow through the FWD from  t   to  .

vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
() ()
Fig.10: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation with FWD
EXPRESSION FOR THE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL
WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD AND FWD

1
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
 t 0

Thyristor T1 is triggered at  t   . T1 conducts from  t   to 

Output voltage vO  Vm sin  t ; for  t   to 

FWD conducts from  t   to  and vO  0 during discontinuous load current


1
Therefore VO dc   Vdc   V sin  t.d  t 
 m


V  
VO dc   Vdc  m   cos  t 
  

Vm
VO dc   Vdc    cos   cos   ; cos   1

 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Vm
Therefore VO dc   Vdc  1  cos  

The DC output voltage Vdc is same as the DC output voltage of a single phase full
wave controlled rectifier with resistive load. Note that the dc output voltage of a single
phase full wave controlled rectifier is two times the dc output voltage of a half wave
controlled rectifier.
CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE
CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH R LOAD OR RL LOAD WITH FWD
The control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the dc output voltage Vdc
versus the trigger angle  .
The average or dc output voltage of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier
circuit with R load or RL load with FWD is calculated by using the equation
Vm
VO dc   Vdc  1  cos  

Vdc can be varied by varying the trigger angle  from 0 to 1800 . (i.e., the range

of trigger angle  is from 0 to  radians).

Maximum dc output voltage is obtained when   0
Vm 2Vm
Vdc max   Vdc  1  cos 0  
 
2Vm
Therefore Vdc max   Vdc  for a single phase full wave controlled rectifier.

Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, we can
write the normalized dc output voltage as
Vdc Vdc
Vdcn  Vn  
Vdc max  Vdm

Vm
1  cos  
Vdcn  Vn  
1
 1  cos  
 2Vm  2
 
  
1 V
Therefore Vdcn  Vn  1  cos    dc
2 Vdm
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

1
Vdc  1  cos  Vdm
2

Trigger angle  Normalized

VO dc 
in degrees dc output voltage Vn
2Vm
0 Vdm   0.636619Vm 1

300 0.593974 Vm 0.9330

600 0.47746 Vm 0.75

900 0.3183098 Vm 0.5

1200 0.191549 Vm 0.25

1500 0.04264 Vm 0.06698

1800 0 0

VO(dc)
Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0 60 120 180
Trigger angle in degrees
Fig.11: Control characteristic of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with R
load or RL load with FWD
CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION (WITHOUT FWD)
For large values of load inductance the load current flows continuously without
decreasing and falling to zero and there is always a load current flowing at any point of
time. This type of operation is referred to as continuous current operation.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Generally the load current is continuous for large load inductance and for low
trigger angles. The load current is discontinuous for low values of load inductance and
for large values of trigger angles. The waveforms for continuous current operation are as
shown.

vO Vm

t
0

iO
   

T1 ON T2 ON T1 ON
t
0
   
() ()
Fig.12: Load voltage and load current waveform of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier with RL load & without FWD for continuous load current
operation
In the case of continuous current operation the thyristor T1 which is triggered at a

delay angle of  , conducts from  t   to     . Output voltage follows the input

supply voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding
vO  v AO  Vm sin  t .

The next thyristor T2 is triggered at  t      , during the negative half cycle

input supply. As soon as T2 is triggered at  t      , the thyristor T1 will be reverse

biased and T1 turns off due to natural commutation (ac line commutation). The load

current flows through the thyristor T2 from  t      to  2    . Output voltage

 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

across the load follows the input supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer
secondary winding vO  vBO  Vm sin  t .

Each thyristor conducts for  radians 1800  in the case of continuous current

operation.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OR DC OUTPUT
VOLTAGE OF SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
WITH LARGE LOAD INDUCTANCE ASSUMING CONTINUOUS LOAD
CURRENT OPERATION.
  
1
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
  t 

  
1 
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
   
   
V 
VO dc   Vdc  m   cos  t 
   
Vm
VO dc   Vdc   cos   cos      ; cos       cos 
 
Vm
VO dc   Vdc   cos   cos  

2Vm
 VO dc   Vdc  cos 

The above equation can be plotted to obtain the control characteristic of a single
phase full wave controlled rectifier with RL load assuming continuous load current
operation.
Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, the
normalized dc output voltage is given by
2Vm
 cos  
 
Vdc
Vdcn  Vn   cos 
Vdc max  2Vm

Therefore Vdcn  Vn  cos 
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Trigger angle 
VO dc  Remarks
in degrees
 2V  Maximum dc output voltage
Vdm   m 
0     2V 
Vdc max   Vdm   m 
  

300 0.866 Vdm

600 0.5 Vdm

900 0 Vdm

1200 -0.5 Vdm

1500 -0.866 Vdm

 2V 
1800 Vdm    m 
  

V O(dc)

Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0
30 60 90 120 150 180
-0.2Vdm

-0.6 V dm

-V dm
Trigger angle in degrees

Fig.13: Control Characteristic

We notice from the control characteristic that by varying the trigger angle  we
can vary the output dc voltage across the load. Thus it is possible to control the dc output
voltage by changing the trigger angle  . For trigger angle  in the range of 0 to 90
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

degrees  i.e., 0    90 0  , Vdc is positive and the circuit operates as a controlled

rectifier to convert ac supply voltage into dc output power which is fed to the load.
For trigger angle   900 , cos  becomes negative and as a result the average dc
output voltage Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive
direction. Hence the output power becomes negative. This means that the power flows
from the load circuit to the input ac source. This is referred to as line commutated
inverter operation. During the inverter mode operation for   900 the load energy can
be fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE
The rms value of the output voltage is calculated by using the equation
1
 2    2
VO RMS    vO .d  t  
2

 2  
1
 1    2 2 2
VO RMS    Vm sin  t.d  t 
   
1
V 2    2
VO RMS   m  sin  t.d  t  
2

   
1
  
V 2 1  cos 2 t  .d  t  2
VO RMS   m   
   2 
1
 1        2
VO RMS   Vm    d  t    cos 2 t.d  t  
 2    
1
 1    
 sin 2 t 
     2

VO RMS   Vm   t    
 2    2   
1
 1   sin 2      sin 2   2
VO RMS   Vm           
 2   2  
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy
1
 1   sin 2  cos 2  cos 2  sin 2  sin 2    2
VO RMS   Vm       
 2   2  
1
 1   0  sin 2  sin 2    2
VO RMS   Vm       
 2   2  
1
 1 2 V
VO RMS   Vm      m
 2  2
Therefore
Vm
VO RMS   ; The rms output voltage is same as the input rms supply voltage.
2
SINGLE PHASE SEMICONVERTERS

Errata: Consider diode D2 as D1 in the figure and diode D1 as D2

Single phase semi-converter circuit is a full wave half controlled bridge converter
which uses two thyristors and two diodes connected in the form of a full wave bridge
configuration. The two thyristors are controlled power switches which are turned on one
after the other by applying suitable gating signals (gate trigger pulses). The two diodes
are uncontrolled power switches which turn-on and conduct one after the other as and
when they are forward biased. The circuit diagram of a single phase semi-converter (half
controlled bridge converter) is shown in the above figure with highly inductive load and a
dc source in the load circuit. When the load inductance is large the load current flows
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

continuously and we can consider the continuous load current operation assuming
constant load current, with negligible current ripple (i.e., constant and ripple free load
current operation). The ac supply to the semiconverter is normally fed through a mains
supply transformer having suitable turns ratio. The transformer is suitably designed to
supply the required ac supply voltage (secondary output voltage) to the converter.
During the positive half cycle of input ac supply voltage, when the transformer
secondary output line ‘A’ is positive with respect to the line ‘B’ the thyristor T1 and the

diode D1 are both forward biased. The thyristor T1 is triggered at  t   ;  0     

by applying an appropriate gate trigger signal to the gate of T1 . The current in the circuit

flows through the secondary line ‘A’, through T1 , through the load in the downward

direction, through diode D1 back to the secondary line ‘B’. T1 and D1 conduct together
from  t   to  and the load is connected to the input ac supply. The output load
voltage follows the input supply voltage (the secondary output voltage of the transformer)
during the period  t   to  .
At  t   , the input supply voltage decreases to zero and becomes negative
during the period  t   to     . The free wheeling diode Dm across the load

becomes forward biased and conducts during the period  t   to     .

The load current is transferred from T1 and D1 to the FWD Dm . T1 and D1 are

turned off. The load current continues to flow through the FWD Dm . The load current
free wheels (flows continuously) through the FWD during the free wheeling time period
 to     .
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage the secondary line ‘A’
becomes negative with respect to line ‘B’. The thyristor T2 and the diode D2 are both

forward biased. T2 is triggered at  t      , during the negative half cycle. The FWD

is reverse biased and turns-off as soon as T2 is triggered. The load current continues to

flow through T2 and D2 during the period  t      to 2

 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Fig:14. Waveforms of single phase semi-converter for RLE load and constant load
current for  > 900
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OR DC OUTPUT

VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE SEMI-CONVERTER

The average output voltage can be found from


2
Vm sin  t.d  t 
2 
Vdc 

2Vm
  cos  t 

Vdc 
2
Vm
Vdc    cos   cos   ; cos   1

Vm
Therefore Vdc  1  cos  

2Vm
Vdc can be varied from to 0 by varying  from 0 to  .

The maximum average output voltage is
2Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 

Normalizing the average output voltage with respect to its maximum value
Vdc
Vdcn  Vn   0.5 1  cos  
Vdm

The output control characteristic can be plotted by using the expression for Vdc

SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER (FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE

CONVERTER)
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is shown in
the figure with a highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit so that the load
current is continuous and ripple free (constant load current operation).
The fully controlled bridge converter consists of four thyristors T1 , T2 , T3 and T4
connected in the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown in the figure. Each
thyristor is controlled and turned on by its gating signal and naturally turns off when a
reverse voltage appears across it. During the positive half cycle when the upper line of
the transformer secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end
the thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased during the time interval  t  0 to  . The

thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered simultaneously  t   ; 0      , the load is

connected to the input supply through the conducting thyristors T1 and T2 . The output
voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage and hence output voltage
vO  Vm sin  t . Due to the inductive load T1 and T2 will continue to conduct beyond

 t   , even though the input voltage becomes negative. T1 and T2 conduct together

during the time period  to     , for a time duration of  radians (conduction angle

of each thyristor = 1800 )

During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage for  t   to 2 the
thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased. T3 and T4 are triggered at  t      . As

soon as the thyristors T3 and T4 are triggered a reverse voltage appears across the

thyristors T1 and T2 and they naturally turn-off and the load current is transferred from

T1 and T2 to the thyristors T3 and T4 . The output voltage across the load follows the

supply voltage and vO  Vm sin  t during the time period  t      to  2    . In

the next positive half cycle when T1 and T2 are triggered, T3 and T4 are reverse biased
and they turn-off. The figure shows the waveforms of the input supply voltage, the output
load voltage, the constant load current with negligible ripple and the input supply current.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

During the time period  t   to  , the input supply voltage vS and the input

supply current iS are both positive and the power flows from the supply to the load. The
converter operates in the rectification mode during  t   to  .During the time period
 t   to     , the input supply voltage vS is negative and the input supply current

iS is positive and there will be reverse power flow from the load circuit to the input
supply. The converter operates in the inversion mode during the time period
 t   to     and the load energy is fed back to the input source.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

The single phase full converter is extensively used in industrial applications up to

about 15kW of output power. Depending on the value of trigger angle  , the average
output voltage may be either positive or negative and two quadrant operation is possible.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE (DC) OUTPUT VOLTAGE
The average (dc) output voltage can be determined by using the expression
2
1  
VO dc   Vdc    vO .d  t   ;
2  0 
The output voltage waveform consists of two output pulses during the input
supply time period between 0 & 2 radians . In the continuous load current operation of
a single phase full converter (assuming constant load current) each thyristor conduct for
 radians (1800) after it is triggered. When thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered at  t  

T1 and T2 conduct from  to     and the output voltage follows the input supply

voltage. Therefore output voltage vO  Vm sin  t ; for  t   to    

Hence the average or dc output voltage can be calculated as

 
2  
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2   
 
1 
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
 
 
Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    sin  t.d  t  
  
Vm
  cos  t 
 
VO dc   Vdc 

Vm
VO dc   Vdc    cos      cos   ; cos       cos 
 
2Vm
Therefore VO dc   Vdc  cos 

The dc output voltage Vdc can be varied from a maximum value of

2Vm 2Vm
for   00 to a minimum value of for    radians  1800 .The maximum
 
average dc output voltage is calculated for a trigger angle   00 and is obtained as
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

2Vm 2Vm
Vdc max   Vdm   cos  0  
 
2Vm
Therefore Vdc max   Vdm 

The normalized average output voltage is given by
2Vm
VO dc  cos 
Vdcn  Vn  
V
Vdcn  Vn   dc  cos 
Vdc max  Vdm 2Vm

Therefore Vdcn  Vn  cos  ; for a single phase full converter assuming continuous
and constant load current operation.
CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER
The dc output control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the average or dc
output voltage Vdc versus the trigger angle 
For a single phase full converter the average dc output voltage is given by the
2Vm
equation VO dc   Vdc  cos 


Trigger angle 
VO dc  Remarks
in degrees
 2V  Maximum dc output voltage
Vdm   m 
0     2V 
Vdc max   Vdm   m 
  

300 0.866 Vdm

600 0.5 Vdm

900 0 Vdm

1200 -0.5 Vdm

1500 -0.866 Vdm

 2V 
1800 Vdm    m 
  
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

V O(dc)

Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0
30 60 90 120 150 180
-0.2Vdm

-0.6 V dm

-V dm
Trigger angle in degrees

Fig.15: Control Characteristic

We notice from the control characteristic that by varying the trigger angle  we
can vary the output dc voltage across the load. Thus it is possible to control the dc output
voltage by changing the trigger angle  . For trigger angle  in the range of 0 to 90
degrees  i.e., 0    90 0  , Vdc is positive and the average dc load current I dc is also

positive. The average or dc output power Pdc is positive, hence the circuit operates as a
controlled rectifier to convert ac supply voltage into dc output power which is fed to the
load.
For trigger angle   900 , cos  becomes negative and as a result the average dc
output voltage Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive

direction i.e., I dc is positive . Hence the output power becomes negative. This means that
the power flows from the load circuit to the input ac source. This is referred to as line
commutated inverter operation. During the inverter mode operation for   900 the load
energy can be fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

TWO QUADRANT OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

The above figure shows the two regions of single phase full converter operation in
the Vdc versus I dc plane. In the first quadrant when the trigger angle  is less than 900,

Vdc and I dc are both positive and the converter operates as a controlled rectifier and
converts the ac input power into dc output power. The power flows from the input source
to the load circuit. This is the normal controlled rectifier operation where Pdc is positive.

When the trigger angle is increased above 900 , Vdc becomes negative but I dc is

positive and the average output power (dc output power) Pdc becomes negative and the
power flows from the load circuit to the input source. The operation occurs in the fourth
quadrant where Vdc is negative and I dc is positive. The converter operates as a line
commutated inverter.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF THE OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
The rms value of the output voltage is calculated as
2
1  2 
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
2  0 

The single phase full converter gives two output voltage pulses during the input
supply time period and hence the single phase full converter is referred to as a two pulse
converter. The rms output voltage can be calculated as
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

 
2  
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
2

2   
 
1 
   Vm sin  t.d  t  
2 2
VO RMS 
 
 
Vm2  
   sin  t.d  t  
2
VO RMS 
  

Vm2  1  cos 2 t 
 

VO RMS     .d  t  
  2 
   
Vm2  
VO RMS     d   t    cos 2 t.d  t  
2    
   
Vm2   sin 2 t  
VO RMS     t    
2    2   

Vm2   sin 2      sin 2  

VO RMS            
2   2  

Vm2   sin  2  2   sin 2  

VO RMS          ; sin  2  2   sin 2
2   2  

Vm2  sin 2  sin 2  

VO RMS        
2   2 

Vm2 V2 V
VO RMS      0  m  m
2 2 2
Vm
Therefore VO RMS    VS
2
Hence the rms output voltage is same as the rms input supply voltage
The rms thyristor current can be calculated as
Each thyristor conducts for  radians or 1800 in a single phase full converter
operating at continuous and constant load current.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

Therefore rms value of the thyristor current is calculated as

 1
IT  RMS   I O RMS   I O RMS 
2 2
I O RMS 
IT  RMS  
2
The average thyristor current can be calculated as
  1
IT  Avg   I O dc      I O dc    
 2   2
I O dc 
IT  Avg  
2
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A
SINGLE PHASE SEMI-CONVERTER
The rms output voltage is found from
1
 2  2 2 2
VO RMS    V sin  t .d   t  
 2 
m

1

 Vm2 2
VO RMS    1  cos 2 t  .d   t  
 2  
1
V 1  sin 2   2
VO RMS   m     
2   2  
SINGLE PHASE DUAL CONVERTER
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

We have seen in the case of a single phase full converter with inductive loads the
converter can operate in two different quadrants in the Vdc versus I dc operating diagram.
If two single phase full converters are connected in parallel and in opposite direction
(connected in back to back) across a common load four quadrant operation is possible.
Such a converter is called as a dual converter which is shown in the figure.
The dual converter system will provide four quadrant operation and is normally
used in high power industrial variable speed drives. The converter number 1 provides a
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

positive dc output voltage and a positive dc load current, when operated in the
rectification mode.
The converter number 2 provides a negative dc output voltage and a negative dc
load current when operated in the rectification mode. We can thus have bi-directional
load current and bi-directional dc output voltage. The magnitude of output dc load
voltage and the dc load current can be controlled by varying the trigger angles 1 &  2
of the converters 1 and 2 respectively.

Fig.: Four quadrant operation of a dual converter

There are two modes of operations possible for a dual converter system.
 Non circulating current mode of operation (circulating current free mode
of operation).
 Circulating current mode of operation.
NON CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION (CIRCULATING
CURRENT FREE MODE OF OPERATION)
In this mode of operation only one converter is switched on at a time while the
second converter is switched off. When the converter 1 is switched on and the gate
trigger signals are released to the gates of thyristors in converter 1, we get an average
output voltage across the load, which can be varied by adjusting the trigger angle 1 of

the converter 1. If 1 is less than 900, the converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier

and converts the input ac power into dc output power to feed the load. Vdc and I dc are
both positive and the operation occurs in the first quadrant. The average output power
Pdc  Vdc  I dc is positive. The power flows from the input ac supply to the load. When 1
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

is increased above 900 converter 1 operates as a line commutated inverter and Vdc

becomes negative while I dc is positive and the output power Pdc becomes negative. The
power is fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source through the converter 1. The
load current falls to zero when the load energy is utilized completely.
The second converter 2 is switched on after a small delay of about 10 to 20 mill
seconds to allow all the thyristors of converter 1 to turn off completely. The gate signals
are released to the thyristor gates of converter 2 and the trigger angle  2 is adjusted such

that 0   2  900 so that converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier. The dc output

voltage Vdc and I dc are both negative and the load current flows in the reverse direction.

The magnitude of Vdc and I dc are controlled by the trigger angle  2 . The operation

occurs in the third quadrant where Vdc and I dc are both negative and output power Pdc is
positive and the converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the ac supply
power into dc output power which is fed to the load.
When we want to reverse the load current flow so that I dc is positive we have to

operate converter 2 in the inverter mode by increasing the trigger angle  2 above 900 .

When  2 is made greater than 900 , the converter 2 operates as a line commutated
inverter and the load power (load energy) is fed back to ac mains. The current falls to
zero when all the load energy is utilized and the converter 1 can be switched on after a
short delay of 10 to 20 milli seconds to ensure that the converter 2 thyristors are
completely turned off.
The advantage of non circulating current mode of operation is that there is no
circulating current flowing between the two converters as only one converter operates
and conducts at a time while the other converter is switched off. Hence there is no need
of the series current limiting inductors between the outputs of the two converters. The
current rating of thyristors is low in this mode.
But the disadvantage is that the load current tends to become discontinuous and
the transfer characteristic becomes non linear. The control circuit becomes complex and
the output response is sluggish as the load current reversal takes some time due to the
time delay between the switching off of one converter and the switching on of the other
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

converter. Hence the output dynamic response is poor. Whenever a fast and frequent
reversal of the load current is required, the dual converter is operated in the circulating
current mode.
CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION
In this mode of operation both the converters 1 and 2 are switched on and
operated simultaneously and both the converters are in a state of conduction. If converter
1 is operated as a controlled rectifier by adjusting the trigger angle 1 between 0 to 900
the second converter 2 is operated as a line commutated inverter by increasing its trigger
angle  2 above 900. The trigger angles 1 and  2 are adjusted such that they produce the
same average dc output voltage across the load terminals.
The average dc output voltage of converter 1 is
2Vm
Vdc1  cos 1

The average dc output voltage of converter 2 is
2Vm
Vdc 2  cos  2

In the dual converter operation one converter is operated as a controlled rectifier
with 1  900 and the second converter is operated as a line commutated inverter in the

inversion mode with  2  900 .

Vdc1  Vdc 2

2Vm 2Vm 2Vm

cos 1  cos  2    cos  2 
  
Therefore cos 1   cos  2 or cos  2   cos 1  cos   1 

Therefore  2    1  or 1   2    radians

Which gives  2    1 

When the trigger angle 1 of converter 1 is set to some value the trigger angle  2

of the second converter is adjusted such that  2  1800  1  . Hence for circulating

current mode of operation where both converters are conducting at the same time
1   2   1800 so that they produce the same dc output voltage across the load.
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

When 1  900 (say 1  300 ) the converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier

and converts the ac supply into dc output power and the average load current I dc is
positive. At the same time the converter 2 is switched on and operated as a line
commutated inverter, by adjusting the trigger angle  2 such that  2  1800  1  , which

is equal to 1500 , when 1  300 . The converter 2 will operate in the inversion mode and
feeds the load energy back to the ac supply. When we want to reverse the load current
flow we have to switch the roles of the two converters.
When converter 2 is operated as a controlled rectifier by adjusting the trigger
angle  2 such that  2  900 , the first converter1 is operated as a line commutated

inverter, by adjusting the trigger angle 1 such that 1  900 . The trigger angle 1 is

adjusted such that 1  1800   2  for a set value of  2 .

In the circulating current mode a current builds up between the two converters
even when the load current falls to zero. In order to limit the circulating current flowing
between the two converters, we have to include current limiting reactors in series
between the output terminals of the two converters.
The advantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that we can have
faster reversal of load current as the two converters are in a state of conduction
simultaneously. This greatly improves the dynamic response of the output giving a faster
dynamic response. The output voltage and the load current can be linearly varied by
adjusting the trigger angles 1 &  2 to obtain a smooth and linear output control. The
control circuit becomes relatively simple. The transfer characteristic between the output
voltage and the trigger angle is linear and hence the output response is very fast. The load
current is free to flow in either direction at any time. The reversal of the load current can
be done in a faster and smoother way.
The disadvantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that a current
flows continuously in the dual converter circuit even at times when the load current is
zero. Hence we should connect current limiting inductors (reactors) in order to limit the
peak circulating current within specified value. The circulating current flowing through
the series inductors gives rise to increased power losses, due to dc voltage drop across the
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

series inductors which decreases the efficiency. Also the power factor of operation is low.
The current limiting series inductors are heavier and bulkier which increases the cost and
weight of the dual converter system.
The current flowing through the converter thyristors is much greater than the dc
load current. Hence the thyristors should be rated for a peak thyristor current of
IT  max   I dc max   ir  max  , where I dc max  is the maximum dc load current and ir  max  is the

maximum value of the circulating current.

TO CALCULATE THE CIRCULATING CURRENT

Fig.16: Waveforms of dual converter

 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

As the instantaneous output voltages of the two converters are out of phase, there
will be an instantaneous voltage difference and this will result in circulating current
between the two converters. In order to limit the circulating current, current limiting
reactors are connected in series between the outputs of the two converters. This
circulating current will not flow through the load and is normally limited by the current
reactor Lr .
If vO1 and vO2 are the instantaneous output voltages of the converters 1 and 2,
respectively the circulating current can be determined by integrating the instantaneous
voltage difference (which is the voltage drop across the circulating current reactor Lr),
starting from t = (2 - 1). As the two average output voltages during the interval t =
(+1) to (2 - 1) are equal and opposite their contribution to the instantaneous
circulating current ir is zero.

1  t 
ir    vr .d  t   ; vr   vO1  vO 2 
 Lr   2 1  

As the output voltage vO 2 is negative

vr   vO1  vO 2 

1  
t
Therefore ir     vO1  vO 2  .d  t   ;
 Lr   2 1  
vO1  Vm sin  t for  2  1  to  t

Vm  t t 
ir     sin  t.d  t    sin  t.d  t  
 Lr   2 1   2 1  
t t
Vm  
ir   cos  t    cos  t  
 Lr   2 1   2 1  

Vm
ir   cos  t   cos  2  1    cos  t   cos  2  1  
 Lr 
Vm
ir   2 cos  t  2 cos  2  1  
 Lr 
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers, M.Kaliamoorthy

2Vm
ir   cos  t  cos 1 
 Lr
The instantaneous value of the circulating current depends on the delay angle.
For trigger angle (delay angle) 1 = 0, its magnitude becomes minimum when
 t  n , n  0, 2, 4,.... and magnitude becomes maximum when  t  n , n  1,3,5,....

If the peak load current is I p , one of the converters that controls the power flow

4Vm
may carry a peak current of Ip  ,
 Lr
Vm 4V
Where I p  I L max   , & ir  max   m
RL  Lr