Anderson 1936
Anderson 1936
Anderson 1936
CONTENTS.
PAGE PACE
1. I ntroduction 128 5. Origin of the Magma Reservoirs 154
2. Mathematical Solutions 137 6. Summary 156
3. Application to Cone-sheets 142 7. References to Literature 157
4. Application to Ring-dykes, Stocks,
and Subsidences 150
I. INTRODUCTION.
A SYSTEM of intrusions of the type now known as cone-sheets was first
definitely recognized and mapped by Harker in the Cuillin district of
Skye, and was described by him in the Geological Survey memoir issued
in 1904. The members of the complex were simply designated" inclined
sheets," but they incline inwards to\\"ards a common centre from north,
west, \ south, and south-east. 'Vhen the Scottish Survey undertook the
mapping of ?vI ull , in the years preceding the war, two further series of
centrally inclined intrusions were soon recognized . Owing to the number
of these sheets, and consequent liability to confusion, individual members
can seldom be traced very far, or shown to have arcuate curvature. But
the systems as a whole sweep round centres in continuous curves. In one
case the cun·e was originally closed, though it has been somewhat inter-
rupted by later intrusions. In the other case the main body of sheets
only forms a horse-shoe. Nevertheless the term cone-sheets, which was
here applied to these intrusions by .Profes~or Bailey, is extremely
appropriate.
The intrusions forming the horse-shoe are the earlier in date. They
dip towards their centre at angles of about 45°, and average maybe 30 ft .
in thickness. They include two main petrological types, but the petrology
of these and the other igneous rocks here dealt with has already been
fully described, and will only be incidentally referred to in this paper.
The width of the horse-shoe is about ten miles. The cone-sheets which
belong ~o it are intersected by those of the other system, which dip some-
what more steeply towards a centre lying two or three miles farther to
,,
the north-west. The earlier sheets are very numerous, while the later
are so abundant as to be often contiguous, lea\'ing only. remnants of the
ianeous
b
rocks into which they were originally intruded (Bailey, 1924).
Well-developed cone-sheet systems also occur in Ardnamurchan (see
n of Cone-sheets, Ring- fig. 1), where they have been described by Richey ( 1930), and a few sheets
;. By E. M. Anderson, have been found in Rum, There is also a series round the Carlingford
xt-figures.) plutonic centre in Northern Ireland, where they had been mapped by
d June 1,1936.) Trail!, but their identity as a cone-sheet system was first recognized by
Richey. This does not complete the list, as, except for Arran, cone-sheets
seem to occl.tr round all the important British Tertiary centres.
PAGE
n of the Magma Reservoirs 154
Outside of Britain the cone-sheet principle of intrusion has hardly
lary 156 as yet been recognized. Recently, however, what appears to be a series
cnces to Literature 157 of very thick cone-sheets has been found by Bain in the Kudaru Hills of
I
Nigeria (1934) .
A point of some importance 'with regard to the mechanism of these
intrusions was noticed by Harker in Skye, 'where the inner members of
the complex were found to be dipping at steeper angles than the outer.
wn as cone-sheets was first This is also the case, at least to a limited extent, with regard to the later
'r in the Cuillin district of sheets in Mull. The rule has, in addition, been found by Richey to apply
gical Survey memoir issued to the cone-sheets connected with" Centre 2" in Ardnamurchan, where,
simply designated" inclined however, the inner and steeper sheets are later in date than the outer.
common centre from north, In sharp contrast to these centrally inclined intrusions are the more
ttish Survey undertook the or less vertical ring-dykes. Individual ring-dykes were already known,
, war, two further series of for instance, that partly encircling the Glencoe caldron-subsidence. The
lcd. Owing to the number occurrence of a numerous system of concentric ring-dykes was, however,
fusion, individual members a possibility first realized in Mull, and it was during the survey of Mull
\'e arcuate curvature. But that the term ring-dyke was introduced by Bailey and first applied
continuous curves. In one In Mull there are two centres, which are certainly connected with the same
It has been somewhat inter- underground reservoirs which gave rise to the two sets of cone-sheets.
'c the main body of sheets Round the earlier or Beinn Chaisgidle centre there is a complex system of
'rm cone-sheets, which \\'as
'ssor Bailey, is extremely
~ ::;s *. u: CF
. '" .
13 0 E. M . Anderson, The Dynamics of the Formation of
,. tlte Formatz"oiZ of
. Cone-sheets, Rz"ng-dykes, and Caldron-subsz·dences. 13 1
ring-dyke, the Loch Ba
another centre, and are extremely perfect. They border one another
The curve is, however, not
with hardly any remnants or "screens" of the intruded rock, and the
ircular, although it has
order of intrusion was towards the centre. The rings thus became
symmetry about a north-
successively smaller in diameter, and the centre is occupied by a boss.
axis. This dyke is later
:one-sheets of Its own centre,
t
ntrast to them has an out-
lination which varies from
° or 80°, as judged from
nar structure. It followed
ting fissure v\'hich was itself
'e ring. This fissure was a
1 central down throw, and
./
t of throw is estimated at
to be not less than 3000 ft.
len More ring-dyke is
the outermost member of
connected '"ith the earlier ./
Chaisgidle centre. Its
ever, suggests that it came
influence of both centres,
of special interest also in
f' ,.,
spect. At one point this
ical intrusion splits, send-
~"'i!
'., ,
'"
.. ' ':';47r 9
Irke complex is probably has been brought to light by Richey's study of the relations of the different
las been recently described granites constituting the Mourne Mountains in Ireland (Richey, I9 z8 ).
as being that of a modified
have also been found in
Id elsewhere, and it seems
~ eds their number will be
e·
136 E. 111. Anderson, The Dynamics of the Formahon of
would have superimposed on it a system of tensions, acting across surfaces
which near the basin were roughly conical. The fine firm lines in fig. I "
(fig. 5 of present paper) " are intended to show the intersection of these
surfaces with the plane of the diagram . A superimposed system of pres-
sures would also act across surfaces which cut the former orthogonally
and are indicated in section by the fine broken lines. The superimposed
tensions, together with the increased pressure of the magma, might cause
a series of fractures to develop, along which the magma would intrude.
The opening fractures would follow the fine firm lines of fig. I, and thus
Magma
Reservoir
may have originated the cone-sheets of Mull. It will be seen from the
diagram that if the surface were denuded to a certain depth the cone-
sheets exposed might be expected to be steeper in the central parts of th e
area of intrusion . This is actually the ~ase.
"Rz"ng-dykes.-If the conditions were reversed and the pressure of the
magma fell. below that which was at fi~st assumed, the original 'hydro-
static' pressure in the crust would be modified in a different way. Super-
imposed pressures would act across the surfaces whose trace is shown by
the fine firm lines of fig . I, and superimposed tensions across thos e which
are indicated by the broken lines. It seems likely that, in this case, sur-
faces of fracture would originate inclined at an angle to the surfaces
across which there were maximum superimposed tensions, as in the case
of normal faults (Anderson, 1905). The angle may have been about 20°
--- -----
..
oj the FormaNon oj
Cone-sheets, R£ng-dykes, and CaZdron-subs£dences. · 137
_nsions, acting across surfaces!
The fine firm lines in fig. I " or 30° . . Such surfaces of fracture correspond, not to tension-cracks, but,
how the intersection of these in theory at least, more nearly to planes of maximum shearing-stress.
superimposed system of pres- They deviate from the directions across which this stress is an absolute
cut the former orthogonally maximum owing to certain considerations of friction. An attempt to
.en lines. The superimposed show the trace of such surfaces, taking the angle mentioned as about
e of the magma, might cause 25°, has been made in the diagram. It can easily be seen that the theory
"l the magma would intrude.
explains the tendency to an outward slope, which is perhaps a feature of
firm lines of fig. I, and thus ring-dykes. If the fractures formed curves that were closed in cross-
section, the rock inside them might tend to become detached and to
sink down into the magma. The gap between the subsiding mass and
the stationary walls would widen with the subsidence, and this perhaps
explains, in part, the greater width of ring-dykes when compared with
cone-sheets. It is uncertain whether, in the majority of cases, the ring-
fractures continued upwards to the surface of the ground. \Vhen they
did so they must have given rise to circular depressions. Such a sub-
sidence o£ the surface is known to have happened at Glencoe, and it
appears to have happened in Mull in the case of the supposed south-
eastern caldera."
There is bound, of course, to be a tendency to tangential tension
round any com'exly bounded enclosure containing fluid under pressure.
There must also be a tendency near it to a radial pressure. If the enclosure
I contains only vacancy and there is pressure in the surrounding solid, the
conditions are more or less reversed. There will then be a tangential
f formation of cone·sheets J' pressure along the walls with vanishing normal pressure; one has only
nes, see text.
'ertiary Geology of "rulI, etc.," t to consider the example of an arch. The mathematical formulation of
g. I, p. 12. the cone-sheet problem proved, however, somewhat difficult, and it \\'ould
be practically impossible to calculate the stresses corresponding either to
f
It wiII be seen from the a parabolodial or any other arbitrarily chosen shape of the underground
a certain depth the cone- caldron . Two solutions of the equations of equilibrium have neverthe-
r in the central parts of the less been found, satisfying the surface conditions and giving displacements
which might be caused by the presence of a magma basin. It is probably
led and the pressure of the of little consequence that the different possible surfaces of pressure which
umed, the original 'hydro- will produc~ these displacements are none of them paraboloidal. In one
n a different way. Super- of the solutions the surfaces open downwards, while the directions of stress
's whose trace is shown by seem to fit the facts of central intrusion fairly well.
ensions across those which
e<ely that, in this case, sur- 2. MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIOKS.
an angle to the surfaces
Use is made, in the first place, of two well-known systems of strain
ed tensions, as in the case
which may occur in a homogeneous, isotropic, and infinite solid. The
may have been about 20°
first of these is that which surrounds a "Centre of Dilatation." In this
138 E. M. Anderson, The Dynamics of the Form ation of
ou
where ~=-+-+-.
aVOw
ax oy oz
These solutions refer, however, to an infinite solid. To apply them
to the case of central intrusions one must find the effect (I) of a centre of
dilatation, and (2) of an upward point-push in the "semi-infinite" solid
",.hich is otherwise unlimited, but bounded upwards by a horizontal plane.
This plane may be denoted by z=o, z being measured downwards, while
x and yare horizontal. The solutions must have the property that near
some point 0, 0, a the other terms which they contain must become
negligible in comparison with those which denote the point dilatation or
the point-push. They must satisfy the equations of equilibrium, and in
addition the components of traction must vanish across the plane z=o.
I shall use the symbols P 1/Z> etc., to denote the tractions, with the usual
convention that P lm is the force per unit area, in the m direction, acting
on the I face of the element dx, dy, dz from the side on which I is greatest.
P .,,'" P !1U' and p .. will then be positive when· they denote tensions and
negative when they denote pressures.
To obtain the solution for the case of the point dilatation one must
---
r the Formatz"on of Cone-s heets, Ring-dykes, and Caldron-subsz'dences. I39
given point and inversely revert for the meantime to the supposition that one is dealing with an
his is expressed by . infinite solid. One must then suppose that the dilatation at 0, 0, a is
balanced by a similar dilatation at 0, 0, - a. The resulting displacements
(r) are
z-a z+a)
lleI to x, y, 'and z. These w 1 =A ( -3-+--3 '
1'1 1'2
Ie produced in such a solid
where 1'1 and 1'2 are the distances from the points 0, 0, a and 0, 0, - a
::rually all round.
respectively. It can easily be shown that where z = 0 the tractions P %:z:
-d Kelvin, and was named
and P %11 vanish, while ,
grales" (rSSS). It is given OWl 3a2)
Pu =2}.1-Tz+M=4}.1-A ;a --;s ,
(I
I
f
where l' denotes either 1'1 or 1'2'
One may endeavour next to obtain a displacement u 2, V2, W2, \vhich
e displacements would be shall satisfy the field equations, and give rise to the same values of P Z%
d be inserted into a homo- I across the plane z=o, where it likewise makes P::Z:=P'1I=0. If such a
at the origin, and were to I displacement can be found, containing no singularities where z is positive,
~ simple term for the stress I and vanishing at infinity, then by subtracting its components from ul> VI'
s suggested that it may be
and (2) both satisfy the I WI we shall arrive at a resultant strain which is a solution of the problem.
This result may be attained by using a theorem of Hertz, which may
be stated as follows (rSSr). If to the plane z=o which bounds as before
a semi-infinite solid we apply any general pressure p =f(x, y) without
, w)=o, associated shearing stress, then if P be the electric potential of a density
caused by the pressure may be derived from this potential. The quantity
ite solid. To apply them II is first defined as follows;-
the effect (r) of a centre of
1 the "semi-infinite" solid
zp
Il=--+-- r
}.I- A+}.I-
[J"" Pdz-J]
z '
ards by a horizontal plane. where J is a constant so chosen as to make II finite. We then have
easured downwards, while
oIl oIl _ oIl 2(A + 2}.1-)p
ave the property that near Uz = ox; Vz = oy ; W 2- oz + ,>_ + }.I- .
ley contain must become
lOte the point dilatation or One has next to consider what is the potential of a distribution
,ms of equilibrium, and in - }.I-A(~ _ 3~2) of electricity, over an infinite plane, where r is the distance
7T l' l'
ish across the plane z=o.
, tractions, with the usual from a point whose perpendicular distance from the plane is a. This
in the m direction, acting can be found by the method of electric images. 'Where z is positive the
ide on which I is greatest. potential will in fact be that of an electric dipole, of direction 02 and
they denote tensions and strength ,2}.1-A, situated at 0, 0, - a. Its value is thus
2}.1-A(z+a).
·1 3
point dilatation one must 1'2
,J . ' '.
We have therefore
~.
v =2A{3yz(z+a) _~L}
2 1"2
5
A+ fL 1"23 '
W = 2A{3 (Z + a)2 + --L .!.. + A + 2fL .!!....}.
Z
5 3 3
, 2 1"2 A + fL 1"2 A + fL 1"2
v
=
VI
_
V2 -
-A{z.... + A+3fL
,
3
L 3
_ 6yz(z+a)} 5'
1"1 1\ + fL 1"2 1"2
W= _B{(Z-:)2 + A+3fL
A+fL
~}.
1"1 1"1
VI =etc.;
These displacements as before cause p.", and P' II to vanish along the
plane Z =0, while the pressure p across this plane (p = - P zz) has the value
4fL2 a a3 }
B{ A+ fL ;3 + 12fL;S .
Applying the same method as before it is necessary to find what is the
.
- ........... """ .............~
---'....."""'. """-'.:.;..:..--"'-"""'-'
v2=etc.,
We therefore have
pwardly directed point-push,
at the point 0, 0, a. In an U = 11 _ U = B{_ax
_ -_x_z + >'_+_3_fL a_x_'_- _x_·'z + 2fL(>. + 2fL) x _ 6axz(z + a)}
'n by
1 2 7 3
1
>'+fL 7 3
2
(A+fL)2 2 2+z+a) - - ' 72'-;-5-":""
1' (7
V=V 1 -v2=etc.,
By(z - a)
7 13 W=W -W =B{_>'+3fL ..:._>.2+4>.fL+5fL2 ..:._(a-z)2
3
1 2 >'+fL 71 (>'+fL}2 72 1'1
1
J' (A + 3fL)Z2 + 4fLaz + (>. + 3fL)a 2 _ 6az(z + a)2}
(A + fL)r 23 1'25 '
by an equal but downward
btain As before, it may be independently verified that these expressions satisfy
the equations of equilibrium and the boundary conditions.
=etc. ; It has next to be shown how these two sets oJ results may be applied
to the cone-sheet and ring-dyke problem. In the first place it may be
-=- + A+ 3fL .:...} noted that the displacements, and therefore the stresses they correspond
71 >'+fL 72 •
to, have radial symmetry about a vertical axis. It fo11o'ws that the stresses
d P Z1/ to vanish along the may be represented as regards direction by the const~uction of isostatic
ane (p = - P .Z) has the value
, cessary to find what is the i connection a rather unfortunate one. It has nothing to do with isostasy
as understood in geology.
t
l
:
o•
_--..J... ..... . _ _ ~.--...:
One set of isostatic surfaces will be in each case vertical and radial
to the axis . . The other two systems may be determined by fixing
their intersections with the plane of x and z. vVe have, in fact,
tan 28=(:; + ~~) l(:: -~;). where 8 is tan- 1 ~:. This equation leads
to two sets of curves which are orthogonal. The pressures or tensions
acros~ the corresponding surfaces are given by the formula
(~: + ~~). The other value refers to the surface which is at right angles
to the first, and also to XOZ. Across the plane XOZ itself the tension is
given by
These formulce, ' and those for the displacements themselves, may be
simplified by assuming A= fL. This corresponds to a value of Poisson's
ratio a which is accurately i , and the assumption is on the whole justified
both by experimental evidence and the facts of seismology. In drawing
up figs. 6 to 9, and the table of principal pressures which is given below,
this simplification has been used.
Figs. 6, 7 show the directions of the displacements for the point-
dilatation system and the point-push system respectively. The amounts
of displac~ment are shown approximately by the lengths of the arrows.
Figs. 8, 9 show the corresponding networks formed by the isostatic
surfaces. The plane of the diagrams is in all cases XOZ.
3. ApPLICATION TO CONE-SHEETS.
each case vertical and radial One may, for instance, select that surface in each of the two cases
lay be determined by fixing which is distinguished by a shaded margin. It will be noticed that in
and z. We have, in fact, fig. 8, which shows the type of solution arising from a point dilatation,
one is dealing with a closed nearly spherical cayity. It must be supposed
;m- 1 ~:. This equation leads
11. The pressures or tensions
by the formula
:! + aw)2 + (aU_aW)2
:r ax ax az
obtain the pressure or tension
lane XOZ itself the tension is that the magma is introduced into this cavity by a pipe of inappreciable
width. It must be under such pressure as to cause it to push outwards
, aw)
oz . in all directions. These conditions seem unlikely to be realized in fact,
and it is fig. 9, giving the solution corresponding to an upward point push,
cements themselves, may be which is put forward as the more probable approximation to reality.
onds to a value of Poisson's
,
tion is on the whole justified
of seismology. In drawing
It
\
ot
\
, '\
\
i
t
\
i t t r t r
\ T T r l' r /r
t \
\ t t t i, if tr f,
ssures which is given below, t \
i
t i t i i f J
\
t
.lisplacements for the point- ! T
respectively. The amounts tI t ;
t
1 \ i t t 1-,
t l' 1
i
r t tr t t 1i +t
I
t
y the lengths of the arro\vs.
ks formed by the isostatic
I cases XOZ .
t
i
t
I
I
+
t r
t t
1 \
~ t
t i
~ t t
ti ,t
~
it
-SHEETS . FIG. 7.-Upward point·push beneath horizontal surface. Dotted lines show
direction, small arrows proportionate amounts of displacement.
roblem of central intrusions
:ith the case of cone-sheets. The thin firm lines in figs. 8, 9 indicate isostatic surfaces across which
' rfaces across which there is there is a tension, and along which one may therefore expect the formation
I3 are taken to be positive. of cone-sheets. In accordance with fact, these increase in steepness
e that the part of the solid towards the centre. 'Within a certain radius the sheets should also
rna. If this magma exerts theoretically steepen upwards, and approach the surface in a dyke-like
Imbent rock as the substance manner (see, however, p. 149). It is unknown whether any of them
ill be unaltered. actually reached it, as the superficial layers have, of course, been removed
I
f
f
I
144 E. M. Anderson, The Dynamics oj the For'm ation oj
by erosion. Beyond the radius they should flatten upwards, and become
sill-like. This is perhaps the explanation of certain horizontal intrusions,
%
o ----~--~~~--~--.-~T__,rr----
0';;-
/ ·s_
%.
FIG. S.-Isostatic surfaces produced by point dilatation beneath free horizontal
surface. Further explanation, see text.
,:,
...............
.
, ,
,
,
, ,\,
.. ... ........ ........ . , '!
'\
,
, . '\.: " ..... : . . ... ,
,:
:-
,'"
"
,
........ --; .. : ..... .
\ . \ :
\ \.
'\
ycf;. .......:........ ..
FIG. 9.-Isostatic surfaces produced by vertical point-push beneath free
horizontal surface. Further explanation, see text.
••
~
oj the Forma#on of
Cone-sheets, Ring-dykes, and Caldr on -subsidences. 145
flatten upwards, and become
Figs. 8, 9 also show proportionally at certain points the amounts of
f certain horizontal intrusions,
magma pressure which are implied in the two solutions. In fig. 9 these
~---r-i---
% diminish rapidly in depth, and farther down it is evident that they would
decrease asymptotically to zero. This is importa nt as showing that the
shape of the caldron, beyond a certain point, is probably inessential.
The same thing might be deduced from the likeness of the two sets of
results. All that is necessary for a cone-sheet tension seems, in fact, to
be an upward pressure on some type of dome.
In speaking of the pressures and tensions which result from the for-
mulre, it has so far been assumed that there is a w eightless medium. In
reality, however, the medium is not weightless, an d the matter is further
complicated by the possibility that there may have b een pre-existing lateral
pressures or tensions. The simplest possible supposition is that which
atation beneath free horizontal was made in the Mull memoir, namely, that the density of the intruded
n, see text.
rock is uniform, and that before the period of intrusion there was every-
where a "hydrostatic" pressure, equivalent to the s uperincumbent weight.
This extra pressure has no effect on the directions of the isostatic surfaces,
ou ow
,:, .. ... .. ... ... . . I . . . OU ow
as It leads to no alteratIOn In the values of OZ + ox or ox - oz' It has,
: ,, : however, to be added to the pressures which are indicated in the magma
.. ..... .. . -.- -,... -... - basins, and combined with the stresses correspond ing to the chosen valu e
"\ . ~
\ "\ . of A or B. It will be instructive to enquire \\-hether the approximate
"\ :
.: .)... .... . .. .\.: .... ... .- -. _ .. . amount of B can be calculated for a particular case, assuming these simple
: \ ,:
': \ ~ conditions, and the validity of the solution which corresponds to the
\ \
. ~ \... . .
:',
\ . .. ..: ... "'~.~- .. ... point-push .
The value arrived at \\-ill depend altogether on the nature of another
\;
:\
\
\
\
, :
\.
assumption. It is sometimes supposed that dyke formation, for instance,
can only occur under actual tension. This need in any case only be small,
as the tensile strength of a rock is always much less than its compressive
strength. It might be taken as from 30 to 50 bars, which are the limits
given for granite in the I nternahonal Cn'hcal Tables (vol. ii, New York,
1927). This is, however, not the only possible hypothesis, as when
! molten fluid is intruded into a crack under pressure it must exert a wedging
action. It is possible that tension only exists a cross the edges of such
al point· push beneath free I cracks, and that in this way dykes may propagate themselves perpendi-
nation, see text.
I,
;
cularly to what are not actually directions of tension, but only of minimum
pressure. The necessary condition might be that the magma itself was
apped, on the outer fringe of
he change in behaviour of the at a pressure a certain amount greater than this minimum. This has to
'ram which was published in be taken account of in estimating the constant, and it will be found that
as a matter of fact the cone-sheet theory will itself afford a criterion which
tt will help to decide between the two hypotheses.
P.R.S.E .-VOL. LVI, 1935-36, PART u.
, 10
146 E. M. Anderson, The Dynamics of the Fonna#on of
To evaluate B one may use in the first place a datum given , by Richey
(1932 b, p. 129), that the cone-sheets round Centre 2 in Ardnamurchan
would converge, if they continued downwards \yith their surface inclina-
tion, at a depth of about 3 miles. The fine firm lines in fig. 9 radiate
roughly from a point a little below 0, 0, a, in the lower part of the diagram.
The latter point may therefore at present be less than 3 miles in depth,
but allowing for denudation a may well be taken as approximately 3 miles
or S km. (S x 105 cm.). The subterranean reservoirs were situated well
below the surface basaltic lavas, and probably in some type of crystalline
metatnorphic rock. The density will be assumed to be 2'7, which is
~lightly above the specific gravity of granite.
It will now be of advantage to compare fig. 9 with the table below,
which gives the principal pressures and tensions due to an upward point-
push at a given depth, at different points in the surrounding rock. These
are equivalent to the stresses caused by the upward and outward pressure
of the assumed magma: They refer, however, to a weightless medium,
and do not take into account any" hydrostatic" pressure. The figures
shown are. to be multiplied by B~,
a p. being taken to be equal to.t a IS
" IJ
oj the Form.at£01i oj
Cone-sheets, Ring-dykes, and Caldron-subsidences. 147
ace a datum given, by. Richey TABLE OF PRINCIPAL TENSIOXS AND PRESSURES,
Centre 2 in Ardnamurchan
tls with their surface incIina-
o 'Ia '3 a 'sa '9a -+ x
12'50 12'07 9'13 5'3 2 0'3 8
e firm lines in fig, 9 radiate o 12'5 0 12'27 10'62 8'28 4'37
he 100yer part of the diagram, 0'00 0'00 0'00 0'00 0'00
" ·A. e F
•
. ",
ve been at the "hydrostatic" make observation difficult, but the sheets are never present there so far
ne point much farther down in as can be judged. This suggests that the actual outline of the caldron is
Ie are dealing. If then it was a little different from that which corresponds to the point-push. If the
d decrease less quickly upwards real shape were something intermediate between that of fig. 9 and an
k. There would thus come to inverted flowe~-pot, the concentration of the cone-sheets could perhaps
creasing towards the surface be explained. Under increased magma pressure the sharp edge might
noticed in the distribution of cause a local intensification of the tension. This would die out rapidly
ligher effective pressure in the upwards, but might nevertheless effect the localization of the intrusions
,m e-sheets, however, there is a in the manner which has been observed.
by the possible variations in The second figure which is given for each point in the table refers to
en if the density of the liquid the tangential tension, which, if it had been greater than the cone-sheet
e caldron would need to have tension, would have led to the formation of radial dykes. In this respect
the solution which has been arrived at corresponds to what, in most cases,
e, and the upward excess of is the reality, as the cone-sheet tension is almost everywhere the greater.
on of the amount which has It has to be noted, however, that the rule is reversed at the surface and at
the level' la, which in the example chosen would have been at a depth of
the cone-sheet tension. The
if a difference in shape of the
I half a kilometre. The rocks to beneath this level have undoubtedly been
. latter to be increased. The I removed by erosion, so that it is impossible to say whether this is a real
al~ulated is therefore probably t effect or due only to an imperfect solution of the problem . A slight change
nSlOn can have preceded the in the shape of the caldron might in any case have caused a more general
reversal, and in some such manner the Spanish Peaks exa mple of radial
'e in the general mechanics of dyke formation may be explained.
~xpected: While dykes may The different inclination of the cone-sheets of different systems was
er tenslOn, the same cannot referred to in the introductory section, but has still to be discussed. Thus
" in general, split apart the the sheets of Centre 2 in Mull are, partly at least, steeper than those which
~ onding to the weight of the surround' Centre I. Round Centre 2 in Ardnamurchan Richey gives the
average angle of the earlier sheets as from 35 ° to 40°, and that of the later
actual tension, but only a sheets as from 65° to 70°. This may perhaps be explained as follows.
s which have been follo\ved In treating the two solutions it has so far been assumed that a "hydro-
least resistance; that is, they static" pressure only is superimposed. If in addition there is a relative
the transverse pre~sure was regional tension, say in all horizontal directions, the results will be some-
becomes difficult to estimate. what modified. The directions of principal pressure in the plane XOZ
still have been considerable are given by the formula, which has been already quoted
lated at first. '
olution corresponding to the tan 2(} = ( OU OW)/(OU
OZ + ox ox - OW)
OZ •
. cone-sheet tensions on any
The tension would leave unaltered the values of such differentials as
they are seen always to be
OU ow . . OU d OV . . h -ow T he
d d'lmlnlS
where x =0; that is, directly OZ and ox' but It would Increase - an - an
ot, however, correspond with
ox oy OZ
numerator of the fraction would thus be unaltered; the denominator
ccupya belt one or two miles
would either be increased o'r given a smaller negative value. It follows
j by later ring-dykes, which
I
- .. . . ." , .
ISO E. ·M. Anderson, The Dynamz'cs of the Form ation of
I
-:=) ,(
, '",
I,i
I
v'
154 E. M. Anderson, The Dynamics of the Formation of
then have been localized above this, as one supposes the tensions to have
been during the formation of cone-sheets.
For the shape of caldron shown by the shaded margin in fig. 9, and the
corresponding magmatic pressures, the maximum tendency to fracture
will occur at the point 0, ·sa. Assuming as before that a = 5 km., the
Bp.
total lateral pressure is here 660 bars + 6· I4 The superimposed
-2 .
a
vertical tension cannot, however, exceed the" hydrostatic" pressure, as
the magma cannot exert an actual suction upon the rock; in other 'words,
Bp.
its pressure cannot fall below zero. One has therefore 2 I ·93 -21>660 bars,
a
and with this as a limitation one finds that the horizontal pressure cannot
exceed 845 bars. Even if there is no transverse pressure, however,
fracture will not take place unless the main pressure exceeds the ordinary
crushing strength of the rock, \vhich for granite is about 800 bars. Two
conclusions may apparently be drawn from this calculation. The magma
in the basin must have been at a pressure much below the" hydrostatic"
pressure for any particular level, and at the top this may have fallen
nearly to zero. There is also an additional reason for supposing that
the shape of the caldron is somewhat different from what has been repre-
sented. The point-push solution sho\\"S how some of the conditions of
central intrusion can be represented mathematically, but it can only be a
first approximation to reality.
The steeply dipping outer margins of granite stocks may in general
have been initiated as ring-fractures, but the present theory does not
give an explanation of these, which can be regarded as complete. It
might be objected that to explain a stock in terms of the point-push
solution one had to assume a previously existing basin which was itself
more or less of a stock. The origin of the basins will be discussed in the
last section, but the point is not fully met. A difficulty of another type is
involved in the explanation of surface subsidences. The ring-fracture
directions flatten upwards, and if such ~ fracture were initiated close to
the surface its angle of dip would be only about 25°. The fault which
bounds the Glencoe subsidence was, however, originally vertical. It
may have originated at some depth and gradually extended upwards.
In doing so it may have retained its original direction, but it must be
admitted that the dynamics of the process has not been worked out.
.
156 E. JVJ. Anderson, The Dynamics oj the Formatioll oj i
These suggestions are, of course, purely speculative, and the theory of 1•
central intrusion is still far from complete. An attempt has only been
I
made to sketch the outlines of this very complex problem.
I am indebted to the Director of the Geological Survey and the Con-
!
j
I
tr~ller of the Stationery Office for permission to reproduce figs. I, 3, and 5; j
I
and in the case of fig. 2, to the above and to the Council of the Geological
Society of Glasgow, as well as to Dr Richey. With regard to fig. 4, the I
j
Council of the Geological Society of London and Dr Richey have kindly
given similar consent. I
6. SUtiIMARY.
.
!
- - -----
,
e>eF Ii
llze Formation of
Cone-sheets, Ring-dykes, and Caldron -subsidences. 157
eculative, and the theory of
.-\n attempt has only been
7. REFERENCES TO LITERATURE.
lex problem.
ANDERSON, E. M., 1905. "The Dynamics of Faulting," Trans. Geo!. Soc. Edin .,
gical Survey and the Con- vol. viii, pt. 3, p. 38 7.
'0 reproduce ~gs . I, 3, and 5; ANDERSON, E. M., 1934. "Earth Contraction and Mountain Building (II),"
Ie Council of the Geological Gerlands Bdtrage zur Geophysik, vol. xliii, p . 1.
With regard to fig. 4, the BAILEY, E. B., and others, 1924. "Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Geology of l'.-Iull,
lnd Dr Richey have kindly Loch Aline, and Oban," Mem. Geol. Surv.
BAIN, A. D. N., 1934. "The Younger Intrusive Rocks of the Kudaru Hills,
I
Nigeria," Quart. jount. Geol. Soc., vol. xc, p. 201.
BOUSSINESQ, J., 1885. AppNcat£on des potentiels a l'itude de l'iquiNbre et du
mouvement des soNdes ilastiques, Paris.
, due to a point dilatation
CLOUGH, C. T., MAUFE, H. B., and BAILEY, E. B., 1909. "The Cauldron-
Ibourhood of a free plane Subsidence of Glen Coe, and the Associated Igneous Phenomena," Quart.
or the strain corresponding ,
'i
jOllnt. Geol. Soc., vol. lxv, p. 6II.
I
'e renamed the point-push. DALY, R. A., 1912. "Geology of the North American Cordillera at the Forty-
other applications, besides ninth Parallel," l11em. iVo . 38, Dept. Mines, Canada . (Figs. 39, 40 are
reproduced as figs. 46 and 5 I in volume next quoted.)
n upward point-push at a DALY, R. A ., 1933. Igneous Rocks and the D epths of the Earth, New York.
DAY, A. L., SOSMAN, R. B., and HOSTETTER, J. C., 1914. "The Determination
ens ions which have given
of Mineral and Rock Densities at High Temperatures," Amer. jount. Sci.,
ry, however, for the thrust
vol. x.xxvii, p. I.
The same solution will HARKER, A., 1904. "The Tertiary Igneous Rocks of Skye," Mem. Geol. Surv.
xerted by a magma i~ a HERTZ, H., 1881. "Ueber die Beruhrun'g fester elastischer Karper," journ.
ximation, probably repre- reine u. angewandte fila th ., vol. xcii, p. 156. Translated in 1liscellaneous
e basins must have been a Papers, London, 1896.
m the formulce. KINGSLEY, L., 1931. "Cauldron-subsidence of the Ossipee Mountains," Amer.
ding depth, might h~ve j ount. Sci., vol. x..'cii, p. 139·
RICHEY, J. E., 1928. "The Structural Relations of the Mourne Granites
'ions now followed by any
(Northern Ireland)," Quart. journ. Geol: Soc., vol. lxxxiii, p. 653·
been effected by a falling RICHEY, J. E., and others, 1930. "The Geology of Ardnamurchan, North-west
reater width of ring-dykes Mull and Coll," JII£em. Geo!. Surv.
ed in cross-section. The RICHEY, J. E., 1932 a. "The Tertiary Ring Complex of Slieve Gullion (Ireland),"
have become completely Quart. journ. Geol. Soc., voL 1x.;·O{viii, p. 77 6 .
1ey sank into the magma, RICHEY, J. E., 1932 b. "Tertiary Ring Structures in ~ritain," Trans. Geol. Soc.
ir sides, to be filled by the Glasgow, vol. xix, pt. I, p. 4 2 •
SHAND, S. J., 1928. "The Geology of Pilansberg (Pilaan's Berg) in the Western
Transvaal: A Study of Alkaline Rocks and Ring-Intrusions," Trans . Geol.
Soc. S. Africa, vol. x.x.,'"i, p. 97·
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(£ssued separately August 7, 193 6 .)