Engineering Mathematics-I

Department of Mathematics
Chapter 2. Limit and Continuity
Limit: Suppose f (x ) is defined on an open interval about x0 ,
except possibly at x0 itself. If f (x ) is arbitrarily close to L (as close
to L as we like) for all x sufficiently closed to x0 , we say that f
approaches the limit L as x approaches x0 , and we write
lim f (x ) = L
x →x0

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 Left hand limit (LHL)

lim f (x ) = lim f (a − h) = l1
x →a− h→0

Right hand limit (RHL)

lim f (x ) = lim f (a + h) = l2
x →a+ h→0

Note: If LHL and RHL exist finitely at x = a and LHL = RHL, then

lim f (x ) = l1 = l2
x →a

i.e.
lim f (x ) = lim+ f (x ) = lim f (x )
x →a− x →a x →a

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 Example. Discuss the behaviour of the following functions as
x → 0. (
0 if x < 0
(1) U(x ) =
1 if x ≥ 0
(
0 if x < 0
Solution: Given U(x ) =
1 if x ≥ 0

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 lim f (x ) = lim f (0 − h) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− h→0 h→0

and
lim f (x ) = lim f (0 + h) = lim 1 = 1
x →0+ h→0 h→0

Here, RHL 6= LHL.

Theroefore, limit does not exist at x = 0.

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 (
0 if x ≤ 0
(2) f (x ) =
sin( x1 ) if x > 0
Solution:

Here, f (x ) has no limit as x → 0, because the function value oscillate

between +1 and −1 in every open interval containing 0. The values
do not stay close to any one number as x → 0.

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Algebra of Limits

If L, M, c and k are real numbers and

lim f (x ) = L and lim g(x ) = M

x →c x →c

then
1 Sum rule: lim [f (x ) + g(x )] = L + M
x →c
2 Difference rule: lim [f (x ) − g(x )] = L − M
x →c
3 Constant multiple rule: lim [k · f (x )] = k · L
x →c

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 4 Product rule: lim [f (x ) · g(x )] = L · M
x →c
f (x ) L
5 Quotient rule: lim = , M 6= 0
g(x )
x →c M
6 Power rule: lim [f (x )]n = Ln , n is positive integer.
x →c
q √
n
7 Root rule: lim n f (x ) = L = L1/n , n ∈ N
x →c

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The Sandwich Theorem

Statement: Suppose that g(x ) ≤ f (x ) ≤ h(x ) for all x in some

open interval containing c, except possibly at x = c itself.
Suppose also that lim g(x ) = lim h(x ) = L, then lim f (x ) = L.
x →c x →c x →c

Note: The Sandwich theorem is also called the Squeeze theorem or

Pinching theorem.

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 x2 x2
Example. If 1 − ≤ u(x ) ≤ 1 + , ∀x 6= 0, then find
4 2
lim u(x ).
x →0
x2 x2
Solution: Let g(x ) = 1 − and h(x ) = 1 +
4 2
x2
Now, lim g(x ) = lim 1 − = 1 and
x →0 x →0 4
x 2
lim h(x ) = lim 1 + =1
x →0 x →0 2

Therefore, by Sandwich theorem, lim u(x ) = 1.

x →0

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 Example. Using Sandwich (squeeze) theorem establish the
following limit rules.
(a) lim sin(θ) = 0
θ→0
(b) lim cos(θ) = 1
θ→0
(c) For any function f , lim |f (x )| = 0 ⇒ lim f (x ) = 0.
x →c x →c
Solution: (a) We know that, for any θ, −|θ| ≤ sin(θ) ≤ |θ|
Also, lim −|θ| = 0 and lim |θ| = 0
θ→0 θ→0
Therefore, by Sandwich theorem, lim sin(θ) = 0.
θ→0
Solution: (b) We know that, for any θ, −|θ| ≤ 1 − cos(θ) ≤ |θ|
Also, lim −|θ| = 0 and lim |θ| = 0
θ→0 θ→0
Therefore, by Sandwich theorem, lim [1 − cos(θ)] = 0
θ→0
⇒ lim cos(θ) = 1.
θ→0

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 Solution: (c) We know that, −|f (x )| ≤ f (x ) ≤ |f (x )|
Also, lim −|f (x )| = 0 and lim |f (x )| = 0
x →c x →c
Therefore, by Sandwich theorem, lim f (x ) = 0.
x →c
Example. It can be shown that the inequalities
x2 xsinx
1− < < 1 hold for all values of x close to zero.
6 2 − 2cosx
xsinx
What if anything, does this tell you about lim ?. Give
x →0 2 − 2cosx
reason for your answer.

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Continuity

Any function y = f (x ) whose graph can be sketched over its

domain in one continuous motion without lifting the pencil is an
example of a continuous function.
Continuity at a point.
Continuity at interior point: A function y = f (x ) is continuous
at an interior point c of its domain if, lim f (x ) = f (c).
x →c
Continuity at end point: A function y = f (x ) is continuous at
a left end point a or is continuous at a right end point b of its
domain if,
lim+ f (x ) = f (a) or lim f (x ) = f (b) respectively.
x →a x →b −

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 Example. Find the points at which the function f in given figure is
continuous and points at which f is not continuous.

Solution: The function f is continuous at every point in its

domain [0, 4] except at x = 1, x = 2 and x = 4. At these points
there breaks in the graph.

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 points at which f is continuous are as
at x = 0, lim+ f (x ) = f (0).
x →0
at x = 3, lim f (x ) = f (3).
x →3
at 0 < c < 4, c 6= 1, 2, lim f (x ) = f (c).
x →c
Points at which f is not continuous
at x = 1, lim f (x ) does not exist.
x →1
at x = 2, lim f (x ) = 1 but, f (2) 6= 1.
x →2
at x = 4, lim f (x ) = 1 but, f (4) 6= 1.
x →4−
at c < 0, c > 4 these point are not in the domain of the function f .

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 Note:
A function f is right continuous at a point x = c, in its
domain if lim+ f (x ) = f (c)
x →c
A function f is left continuous at a point x = c, in its domain
if lim f (x ) = f (c)
x →c −
At left end point function is right continuous and at right end
point function is left continuous.
Continuity Test:
A function f (x ) is continuous at an interior point x = c of its
domain if and only if it holds following:
f (c) exists i.e. c lies in domain of f
lim f (x ) exist i.e. f has limit as x → c
x →c
lim f (x ) = f (c) i.e. the limit equals the function value.
x →c

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 √
Example. f (x ) = 4 − x 2 is continuous at every point of its
domain [−2, 2].
Solution:

At x =p−2, f is right continuous as

lim + 4 − x 2 = 0 = f (−2)
x →−2
At x =
p2, f is left continuous as
lim 4 − x 2 = 0 = f (2)
x →2−
Therefore, function is continuous on [−2, 2].

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 Ex. y = f (x ) = 1/x is continuous on any interval except
x = 0, since domain of f is R \ {0}.
Ex. y = f (x ) = x is continuous everywhere

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Algebra of Continuous Functions

If the function f and g are continuous at x = c, then the following

combinations are continuous at x = c
1 Sums: f + g
2 Differences: f − g
3 Constant multiples: k · f , for any number k
4 Products: f · g
5 Quotients: f /g, provided g(c) 6= 0
6 Power: f n , n ∈ N.

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Continuous Extension to a Point

A function (rational function) may have a limit even at a point

where it is not defined. If f (c) is not defined, but lim f (x ) = L
x →c
exists, then we define new function F (x ) as
(
f (x ), if x is in domain of f
F (x ) =
L, if x = c
Therefore, F is continuous at x = c, it is called the continuous
extension of f to x = c.

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 x2 + x − 6
Example. Show that f (x ) = , x 6= 2 has a continuous
x2 − 4
extension to x = 2, and find that extension.
Solution: Here f (2) is not defined, if x 6= 2 we have

x2 + x − 6
f (x ) =
x2 − 4
(x − 2)(x + 3) x +3
= =
(x − 2)(x + 2) x +2

x +3
The new function, F (x ) = is equal to f (x ) for x 6= 2, but is
x +2
continuous at x = 2, having there the value of 5/4.
Thus F is the continuous extension of f to x = 2 and
x2 + x − 6
lim = lim f (x ) = 5/4
x →2 x2 − 4 x →2

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 Example. For what values of a and b is

 −2,
 if x ≤ −1
f (x ) = ax − b, if − 1 < x < 1
if x ≥ 1

 3,
continuous at every x ?. 
 −2,
if x ≤ −1
Solution: Given f (x ) = ax − b, if − 1 < x < 1
if x ≥ 1

 3,
Now, for checking continuity at x = −1, we have
lim f (x ) = lim −2 = −2,
x →−1− x →−1−
lim + f (x ) = lim + ax − b = −a − b and f (−1) = −2
x →−1 x →−1
If function is continuous at x = −1, then we have

lim f (x ) = lim + f (x ) = lim f (x )

x →−1− x →−1 x →−1

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 −2 = −a − b (1)
Now for checking continuity at x = 1, we have
lim f (x ) = lim ax − b = a − b,
x →1− x →−1−
lim f (x ) = lim+ 3 = 3 and f (1) = 3
x →1+ x →1
If function is continuous at x = 1, then we have

3=a−b (2)
5 −1
From equations (1) and (2), we have a = 2 and b = 2

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 Example. For what values of a and b is

 ax + 2b,
 if x ≤ 0
g(x ) = x 2 + 3a − b, if 0 < x ≤ 2
 3x − 5,

if x > 2

continuous at every x ?.

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 Example. Show that y = bx c is right continuous at every integer n.
Solution: Given y = f (x ) = bx c

For any integer n with n − 1 ≤ x < n we have f (x ) = n − 1 and ,

lim bx c = n − 1 and lim+ bx c = n and f (n) = bnc = n
x →n− x →n
Therefore, lim bx c =
6 f (n) = lim+ bx c
x →n− x →n
⇒ y = bx c is right continuous at every integer n.

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