AP Psychology

Chapter 3 Notes: Biopsychology

I. Neuroanatomy
A. Neuroanatomy
1. ​The study of the parts and functions of nerves
2. Neurons
a) ​individual nerve cells
B. ​Parts of the Neuron
1. ​Dendrites
a) ​root like parts of the cell
b) stretch out from the cell body
c) ​grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons
2. ​Cell body (soma)
a) ​contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell necessary for its life
3. ​Axon
a) ​wire like structure ending in the terminal buttons
b) extend from the cell body
4. ​Myelin sheath
a) ​a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural
impulses
5. ​Terminal buttons
a) ​end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic knobs
b) branched end of the axon
c) contains neurotransmitters
6. ​Neurotransmitters
a) ​chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to
communicate
7. ​Synapse
a) ​the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of
the next neuron
II. ​How a Neuron “Fires”
A. ​Resting State
1. ​Neuron has negative charge with positive ions surrounding the cell
B. ​Steps
1. ​Neuron is stimulated
a) ​it releases neurotransmitters
2. ​Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron
3. ​If the threshold is reached, the cell membrane of the receiving neuron becomes
permeable
a) ​positive ions rush in
b) action potential
4. ​Axons release neurotransmitters to another neuron
C. ​All-or-None Principle
 1. ​The neuron will fire completely or not at all
D. ​Neurotransmitters
1. ​Acetylcholine
a) ​motor movement
b) ​lack → Alzheimer’s
2. ​Dopamine
a) ​motor movement and alertness
b) lack → Parkinson’s disease
c) too much → schizophrenia
3. ​Endorphins
a) ​pain control
b) involved in addiction
4. ​Serotonin
a) ​mood control
b) lack → clinical depression
III. ​Nervous System
A. ​Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons)
1. ​Take information from the senses to the brain
B. ​Interneurons
1. ​Send information to elsewhere in the brain or to efferent neurons
C. ​Efferent (Motor) Neurons
1. ​Take information from the brain to the rest of the body
D. ​Central Nervous System (CNS)
1. ​Consists of the brain and the spinal cord
a) ​spinal cord- a bundle of nerves
E. ​Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
1. ​All nerves not encased in bone
2. ​Somatic
a) ​controls voluntary muscle movements
3. ​Autonomic
a) ​controls responses to stress
b) sympathetic arouses
c) parasympathetic calms
4. ​Our pain reflexes help prevent us from harming ourselves
IV. ​Brain
A. ​Ways to Study it
1. ​Accidents
a) ​studying the effects
2. ​Lesions
a) ​the removal or destruction of part of the brain
b) studying the effects
3. ​Electroencephalogram (EEG)
a) ​detects brain waves
 b) examines brain waves in different stages of consciousness, especially
sleep
4. ​Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan
a) ​sophisticated x-ray
b) shows brain structure
c) uses x-ray cameras to get a 3-D picture
5. ​Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
a) ​shows brain structure
b) ​uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain
material
c) no radiation
d) more detailed than a CAT scan
6. ​Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan
a) ​shows how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain are using
b) measures which parts of the brain are most active during certain tasks
7. ​Functional MRI
a) ​ties brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks
b) combines elements of MRI and PET
B. ​Brain Structure and Function
1. ​Hindbrain
a) ​controls basic biological functions that keep us alive
b) medulla
(1) controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
c) ​pons
(1) ​controls facial expressions
(2) connects the hindbrain with the rest of the brain
d) ​cerebellum
(1) ​“little brain”
(2) coordinates muscle movement
(3) on the bottom of the brain
2. ​Midbrain
a) ​coordinates simple movements with sensory information
b) integrates sensory information and muscle movements
c) reticular formation
(1) ​controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention
3. ​Forebrain
a) ​controls thought and reason
b) thalamus
(1) ​receives sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sends them
to other forebrain areas
c) ​hypothalamus
(1) ​controls hunger, sexual arousal, thirst, and the endocrine system
d) ​amygdala
 (1) ​vital for emotion
e) ​hippocampus
(1) ​vital for memory and retaining new information
C. ​Cerebral Cortex
1. ​Gray wrinkled surface of the brain
a) ​the wrinkles are called fissures
(1) ​increase available surface area
2. ​Hemispheres
a) ​contralateral control
(1) ​left hemisphere- right half of body
(2) right hemisphere- left half
b) ​brain lateralization (hemispheric specialization)
(1) ​the specialization of function in each hemisphere
c) ​split brain patients
(1) ​the corpus collosum has been cut to treat severe epilepsy
(2) can’t orally report information presented to only the right
hemisphere of the brain
3. ​Association area
a) ​any area of the cerebral cortex not associated with receiving sensory
information or controlling muscle movements
4. ​Frontal lobes
a) ​prefrontal cortex
(1) ​at front of frontal lobe
(2) ​brain’s central executive
(3) foreseeing consequences, pursuing goals, and emotional control
b) ​Broca’s area
(1) ​left hemisphere of frontal lobe
(2) controls the muscles involved in producing speech
c) ​motor cortex
(1) ​at the back of the frontal lobe
(2) controls our voluntary movements
(3) top controls toes, bottom controls top of body
5. ​Parietal lobes
a) ​sensory (somato-sensory) cortex
(1) ​right behind the motor cortex
(2) receives incoming touch sensations
(3) top receives information from the bottom of the body
6. ​Occipital lobes
a) ​interprets messages from the eyes in the visual cortex
b) messages in the left half of the retina go the to right visual cortex
7. ​Temporal lobes
a) ​process sound
 b) sound waves are processed by the ears and turned into neural impulses that
temporal lobes interpret
D. ​Brain Plasticity
1. ​Parts of the brain can adapt to perform other functions
2. Because dendrites grow throughout our lives
3. Younger brains are more plastic
V. ​Endocrine System
A. ​Adrenal Glands
1. ​Produce adrenaline → “fight or flight” prep
B. ​Ovaries and Testes
1. ​Produce sex hormones
2. May explain gender differences
C. ​Controlled by the hypothalamus
VI. ​Basic Genetic Concepts
A. ​Twins
1. ​Identical (monozygotic) twins
a) ​effective psychological environment
(1) ​physical similarity in twins causes them to be treated the same way
B. ​Chromosomal Abnormalities
1. ​Turner’s Syndrome
a) ​only single X chromosome
b) ​causes shortness, webbed necks, and different sexual development
2. ​Klinefelter’s Syndrome
a) ​XXY chromosome pattern
b) causes minimal sexual development and extreme introversion
3. ​Down’s Syndrome
a) ​extra chromosome on 21st pair
b) intellectual disability