CBLM TM Basic #11

COMPETENCY – BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
QUALIFICATION : TRAINERS METHODOLOGYLEVEL I
COMPETENCY : DEVELOP AND PROMOTE APPRECIATION FOR COSTS

AND BENEFITS FOR TECHNICAL TRAINING
Technical Education & Skills Development Authority

SIMEON SUAN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL COLLEGE
Pag- asa, Bansud, Oriental Mindoro
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and Benefits for Ednalyn E.
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Technical Training Salcedo
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HOW TO USE COMPETENCY – BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
Welcome !
The unit of competency, “ Develop and Promote Appreciation for Costs
and Benefits of Technical Training ” is one of the basic competencies
Trainers Methodology Level I , a course which comprises the knowledge,
skills and attitudes required for a graduate of this course to possess.
You may be required to go through a series of learning activities in
order to complete each learning outcome of the module. In each learning
outcome there may be given Information Sheets, Self-Checks and Task
Sheets. Follow these activities on your own and answer the questions that
are given. Then, ask for the answer key from your instructor and check your
work honestly. If you have questions, please don’t hesitate to ask your
instructor for assistance.
This learning material was prepared to help you achieve the
required competency, in Developing and Promoting Appreciation for Costs
and Benefits of Technical Training. This will be the source of information for
you to acquire the knowledge and skills in this particular module
independently and at your own pace with minimum supervision or help from
your instructor.
In doing the activities to be completed as required in this module,
please be guided by the following:
• Talk to your instructor and agree on how you will both organize
in taking this module. Read through the module carefully.
• Work through all the information and complete the activities in
each section. Read information sheets and complete the self –
check. Suggested references are included to supplement the
materials provided in this module
• Most probably, your instructor will also be your supervisor or
manager. He is there to support you and show you the correct
way to do things.
• You will be given plenty of opportunities to ask questions and
practice on the job. Make sure you practice your new skills
during regular work shifts. This way, you will improve your
speed, memory and your confidence.
• Use the Self – Checks, operation Sheets or Task or Job Sheets
at the end of each section to test your own progress. Use the
Performance Criteria Checklist or Procedural Checklist located
after the sheet to check your own performance.
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• When you feel confident that you have had sufficient practice,
ask your instructor to evaluate you. The results of your
assessment will be recorded in your Progress Chart and
Accomplishment chart
• You need to complete this module before you can perform the
next module,
TRAINERS METHODOLOGY LEVEL I

COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
List of Core Competencies
No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

1. Lead Workplace Leading Workplace 500311109
Communication Communication
2. Apply Mathematics and Science Applying Mathematics 500232101
Principles in technical Training and Science Principles
in technical Training
3. Apply Environmental Principles Applying 500232102
and Advocate Conservation Environmental
Principles and
Advocate Conservation
4. Utilize IT Applications in Utilizing IT 500232103
Technical Training Applications in
Technical Training
5 Lead Small Teams Leading Small Teams 500311110
6 Apply Work Ethics, Values and Applying Work Ethics, 500232104

Quality Principles Values and Quality
Principles
7 Work effectively in Vocational Working effectively in 500232105

Education and Training Vocational Education
and Training
8 Foster and Promote a Learning Fostering and 500232106

Culture Promoting a Learning
Culture
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9 Ensure Healthy and Safe Ensuring Healthy and 500232107
Learning Environment Safe Learning
Environment
10 Maintain and Enhance Maintaining and 500232108

Professional Practice Enhancing
Professional Practice
11 Develop and Promote Developing and 500232109

Appreciation for Cost- Promoting
Benefits of Technical Awareness for Cost-
Training Benefits of Technical
Training
12 Develop and Promote Global Developing and 500232110

Understanding of Labor Promoting Global
Markets Understanding of
Labor Markets
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Module Content
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Develop and Promote Appreciation for Costs

and Benefits of Technical Training
MODULE TITLE : Developing and Promoting Appreciation for

Costs and Benefits of Technical Training
MODULE DESCRIPTOR :
This module covers the outcomes required in estimating and

evaluating costs and benefits of training , determining its cost-effectiveness
and returns , and identifying , recommending and advocating cost-efficient
training practices.
NOMINAL DURATION : 16 hrs.
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
At the end of this module you MUST be able to:
➢ Study and evaluate training cost components and benefits
➢ Monitor conduct and results of training
➢ Promote awareness of costs and benefits of training
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA :
➢ Features and benefits of training program are identified and analyzed
based on financial and customer requirements
➢ Cost components are analyzed to determine those which deliver the
desired training features and benefits
➢ Wastages or excesses are determined for possible reduction or
elimination
➢ Variances in training performance and results are studied to
determine good and bad practices.
➢ Planned performance is compared with actual performance to identify
future enhancements in conduct of training.
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➢ Cost reduction and control measures that do not impact greatly on
training results are recommended.
➢ Usage of training resources is analyzed for optimization or reduction.
➢ Simple formarive and summative evaluations of training are dine to
evaluate achievement of learning outcomes
➢ Quality training programsare monitored and noted/documented for
best practices and results replication.
➢ Benefits and return on training investments are studied using
relevant data.
➢ Cost-effective training programs are identified and recommended for
documentation, replication and further enhancement.
➢ Benefits of training as investment rather than cost center are
explained and stressed to trainees , fellow trainers and administraors
where applicable.
➢ Economy in use of training supplies and materials and care in the use
of training equipment and facilities are stressed continually.
➢ Model/best practices in optimum and judicious use of training
resources are documented, practiced and demonstrated.
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Study training cost components
LEARNING OUTCOME # 1
CONTENTS :
➢Basic arithmetic – four fundamental operations
➢Basic cost accounting and bookkeeping
➢Basic training methodology including training costs and benefits
➢Training system evaluation concepts
➢Positive work traits and values (attention to detail, persistence, cost-
consciousness, safety- and time-consciousness, quality-consciousness)
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
➢ Features and benefits of training programs are identified and analyzed
based on financial and customer requirements
➢ Cost components are analyzed to determine those which deliver the
desired training features and benefits
➢ Wastages or excesses are determined for possible reduction or elimination
➢ Variances in training performance and results are studied to determine
good and bad practices
➢ Planned performance is compared with actual performance to identify
future enhancements in conduct of training
➢ Cost reduction and control measures that do not impact greatly on training
results are recommended
➢ Usage of training resources is analyzed for optimization or reduction
CONDITIONS: Students/trainees must be provided with the following:

➢ Handouts or reference materials/books on the above stated contents
➢ PC/printer or laptop/printer with internet access
➢ Bond paper
➢ Ball pens/pencils and other office supplies and materials
➢ Training program/curriculum offering
METHODOLOGIES:
➢ Lecture/discussion
➢ Demonstration/application
➢ Oral presentation
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
➢ Oral questioning
➢ Written examination
➢ Demonstration
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INFORMATION SHEET 1-1
Basic Skill: Arithmetic

Arithmetic is the oldest division of Mathematics which essentially
deals with operation of numbers such as counting, adding and
subtracting. It is one of the most basic skills and is learnt at a
very young age. This article aims to appreciate the value of
acquiring this skill, and also provide you with techniques on how
to learn and develop it.
Importance of Arithmetic
Education plays an important role in the development of

arithmetic skill. During primary level, individuals are taught to
count and perform arithmetic operations from simple to complex,
and later on expanded to other branches of mathematics such as
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry during secondary level.
From a general perspective, arithmetic allows individuals to
think, reflect, and reason out. Plato, who is one of the greatest
philosophers of all time, believed that any person who has good
arithmetic skills will also do very well in other knowledge-based
competencies.
Consider this, if a person depends largely on calculators to
“calculate” instead of using mental math, which refers to the use
of our brain to perform number operations, it will reflect poorly
on him. On the other hand, the person who can quickly give
answers using mental math is bound to amaze colleagues,
friends, and family members with this ability.
Lastly, arithmetic skill is considered a core skill because we apply
it to our lives everyday. To point out an example that is very
applicable to day to day living, imagine receiving your change
from the cashier in the supermarket, the amount is less than
what it is supposed to be. When arithmetic skill is poor, such an
error will be easily overlooked, however, when one is good in
mental math, this can be easily spotted because this skill enables
you to perform calculation quickly. Now such a situation will
probably only involve a few dollars or pennies even, but what
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about checking credit card statements and utility bills, and even
making a household budget? What about analyzing trending
reports and quantitative data?
Bookkeeping and Accounting Basics
Bookkeeping and accounting share two basic goals:
• to keep track of your income and expenses, thereby improving
your chances of making a profit
• to collect the necessary financial information about your
business to file your various tax returns and local tax registration
papers
Sounds pretty simple, doesn't it? And it can be, especially if you
remind yourself of these two goals whenever you feel
overwhelmed by the details of keeping your financial records.
Hopefully you will also be reassured to know that there is no
requirement that your records be kept in any particular way.
(There is a requirement, however, that some businesses use a
certain method of crediting their accounts. See " Cash vs.
Accrual Accounting.") In other words, there's no official "right"
way to organize your books. As long as your records accurately
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reflect your business's income and expenses, the IRS will find
them acceptable.
Two basic types of bookkeeping and accounting practices exist:
the cash method and accrual method. The cash method works
well for very small business owners keeping track of personal
income; in this method transactions are recorded only when cash
flows in and out. The accrual method, however, gives a clearer
financial picture of a business and is more common in larger
companies and corporations. In the accrual method, transactions
are recorded when sales occur and goods are bought regardless
of whether cash is involved. Both of these methods use sales
journals, general ledgers and other important financial
documents to keep track
The actual process of keeping your books is easy to understand
when broken down into three steps.
1. Keep receipts or other acceptable records of every payment
to and every expenditure from your business.
2. Summarize your income and expenditure records on some
periodic basis (generally daily, weekly, or monthly).
3. Use your summaries to create financial reports that will tell
you specific information about your business, such as how
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much monthly profit you're making or how much your
business is worth at a specific point in time.
Whether you do your accounting by hand on ledger sheets or use

accounting software, these principles are exactly the same.
Step 1: Keeping Your Receipts

Comprehensive summaries of your business's income and
expenses are the heart of the accounting process. But they can't
legally be created in a vacuum. Each of your business's sales and
purchases must be backed by some type of record containing the
amount, the date, and other relevant information about that sale.
This is true whether your accounting is done by computer or on
hand-posted ledgers.
From a legal point of view, your method of keeping receipts can
range from slips kept in a cigar box to a sophisticated cash
register hooked into a computer system. Practically, you'll want
to choose a system that fits your business needs. For example, a
small service business that handles only relatively few jobs may
get by with a bare-bones approach. But the more sales and
expenditures your business makes, the better your receipt filing
system needs to be. The bottom line is to choose or adapt one to
suit your needs.
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Step 2: Setting Up and Posting Ledgers
A completed ledger is really nothing more than a summary of
revenues, expenditures, and whatever else you're keeping track of
(entered from your receipts according to category and date).
Later, you'll use these summaries to answer specific financial
questions about your business such as whether you're making a
profit, and if so, how much.
You'll start with a blank ledger page (a sheet with lines) or, more
often these days, a computer file of empty rows and columns. On
some regular basis like every day, once a week, or at least once a
month, you should transfer the amounts from your receipts for
sales and purchases into your ledger. Called "posting," how often
you do this depends on how many sales and expenditures your
business makes and how detailed you want your books to be.
Generally speaking, the more sales you do, the more often you
should post to your ledger. A retail store, for instance, that does
hundreds of sales amounting to thousands or tens of thousands
of dollars every day should probably post daily. With that volume
of sales, it's important to see what's happening every day and not
to fall behind with the paperwork. To do this, the busy retailer
should use a cash register that totals and posts the day's sales to
a computerized bookkeeping system at the push of a button. A
slower business, however, or one with just a few large
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transactions per month, such as a small Web site design shop,
dog-sitting service, or swimming pool repair company, would
probably be fine if it posted weekly or even monthly.
Step 3: Creating Basic Financial Reports

Financial reports are important because they bring together
several key pieces of financial information about your business.
Think of it this way -- while your income ledger may tell you that
your business brought in a lot of money during the year, you may
have no way of knowing whether you turned a profit without
measuring your income against your total expenses. And even
comparing your monthly totals of income and expenses won't tell
you whether your credit customers are paying fast enough to
keep adequate cash flowing through your business to pay your
bills on time. That's why you need financial reports: to combine
data from your ledgers and sculpt it into a shape that shows you
the big picture of your business.
TRAINING METHODS
Training is a set of a systematic processes designed to meet

learning objectives related to trainees' current or future jobs.
There are three categories of learning objectives: knowledge,
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skills, and attitudes (KSAs). Knowledge objectives are of three
types: declarative, procedural, and strategic.
➢ Declarative knowledge is the person's store of factual
information.
➢ Procedural knowledge is the person's understanding about
how and when to apply the facts.
➢ Strategic knowledge is used for planning, monitoring, and
revising goal-directed activity.
Skill reflects one's proficiency at specific tasks such as operating
a piece of equipment, giving a presentation, or making a business
decision. Attitudes are beliefs and/or opinions about objects and
events and the positive or negative affect (feelings) associated
with them. Attitudes affect motivation levels, which in turn
influence a person's behavior. Most training programs have
learning objectives for knowledge, skill, and attitudes; these
programs need to combine several methods into an integrated
whole because no single method can do everything well.
The various training delivery methods can be divided into
cognitive and behavioral approaches. Cognitive methods provide
information orally or in written form, demonstrate relationships
among concepts, or provide the rules for how to do something.
They stimulate learning through their impact on cognitive
processes and are associated most closely with changes in
knowledge and attitudes. The lecture, discussion, e-learning and,
to some extent, case studies are cognitive methods. Though these
types of methods can influence skill development, it is not their
strength.
Conversely, behavioral methods allow the trainee to practice
behavior in a real or simulated fashion. They stimulate learning
through experience and are best at skill development and
attitude change. Equipment simulators, business games, role
plays, the in-basket technique, behavior modeling and, to some
extent, case studies are behavioral methods. Both behavioral and
cognitive methods can be used to change attitudes, though they
do so through different means. On-the-job training is a
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combination of many methods and is effective at developing
knowledge, skills, and attitudes, but is best at the latter two.
LECTURE METHOD
The lecture is best used for creating a general understanding of a
topic. Several variations in the lecture format allow it to be more
or less formal and/or interactive. In the pure lecture,
communication is one way—from trainer to trainees. It is an
extensive oral presentation of material. A good lecture begins with
an introduction that lays out the purpose, the order in which
topics will be covered, and ground rules about interruptions (e.g.,
questions and clarification). This is followed by the main body of
the lecture in which information is given. The topic areas should
be logically sequenced so that the content of preceding topics
prepares trainees for the following topics. The lecture should
conclude with a summary of the main learning points and/or
conclusions.
. Another major benefit of the lecture is that it is interactive, and
that trainees can ask questions or have the presenter change the
pace of the lecture if necessary.
DISCUSSION METHOD
The discussion method uses two-way communication between
the lecturer and the trainees to increase learning opportunities.
This method uses a short lecture (20 minutes or less) to provide
trainees with basic information. This is followed by a discussion
among the trainees and between the trainees and the trainer that
supports, reinforces, and expands upon the information
presented in the short lecture. Verbal and nonverbal feedback
from trainees allows the trainer to determine if the desired
learning has occurred. If not, the trainer may need to spend more
time on this area and/or present the information again, but in a
different manner.
Questioning (by trainees or the trainer) and discussions enhance
learning because they provide clarification and keep trainees
focused on the material. Discussions allow the trainee to be
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actively engaged in the content of the lecture, which improves
recall and use in the future. Trainee questions demonstrate the
level of understanding about the content of the lecture. Trainer
questions stimulate thinking about the key learning points.
E-LEARNING
Many companies have implemented e-learning, which
encompasses several different types of technology assisted
training, such as distance learning, computer-based training
(CBT), or web-based training (WBT). Distance learning occurs
when trainers and trainees are in remote locations; typically,
technology is used to broadcast a trainer's lecture to many
trainees in many separate locations. Distance learning provides
many of the same advantages and disadvantages as the lecture
method. Distance learning can be much less expensive than
paying for trainees in multiple locations to travel for a lecture,
but it may reduce motivation to learn because of the remoteness
of the trainer.
E-learning is an alternative to classroom-based training, and it
can provide a number of advantages. E-learning can:
• reduce trainee learning time, by allowing trainees to

progress at their own pace
• reduce the cost of training, particularly by reducing costs
associated with travel to a training location
• provide instructional consistency, by offering the same
training content to employees worldwide
• allow trainees to learn at their own pace thereby reducing
any boredom or anxiety that may occur
• provide a safe method for learning hazardous tasks with
computer simulations
• increase access to training to learners in locations around
the world
E-learning is effective at developing declarative and, in particular,

procedural knowledge. It can be useful in developing some types
of skills and for modifying attitudes. E-learning develops
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declarative knowledge through repeated presentation of facts,
using a variety of formats and presentation styles. It can do an
excellent job of describing when and how to apply knowledge to
various situations. Procedural knowledge is developed by allowing
trainees to practice applying the knowledge to various situations
simulated by the software. This training delivery method is
valuable because it can automatically document trainee's
responses, interpret them, and provide appropriate practice
modules to improve areas of weakness.
SIMULATIONS
Simulations are designed to mimic the processes, events, and
circumstances of the trainee's job. Equipment simulators,
business games, in-basket exercises, case studies, role playing,
and behavior modeling, are types of simulations.
EQUIPMENT SIMULATORS.
Equipment simulators are mechanical devices that incorporate
the same procedures, movements and/or decision processes that
trainees must use with equipment back on the job. Among those
trained with this method are airline pilots, air traffic controllers,
military personnel, drivers, maintenance workers, telephone
operators, navigators, and engineers. To be effective the
simulator and how it is used must replicate, as closely as
possible, the physical and psychological (time pressures,
conflicting demands, etc.) aspects of the job site. To facilitate this,
the equipment operators and their supervisors should be involved
in the simulation design and pre-testing. This reduces potential
resistance to the training and, more importantly, increases the
degree of fidelity between the simulation and the work setting.
BUSINESS GAMES.
Business games attempt to reflect the way an industry, company,
or functional area operates. They also reflect a set of
relationships, rules, and principles derived from appropriate
theory (e.g., economics, organizational behavior, etc.). Many
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business games represent the total organization, but some focus
on the functional responsibilities of particular positions within an
organization (e.g., marketing director, human resource manager).
These are called functional simulations. Games that simulate
entire companies or industries provide a far better understanding
of the big picture. They allow trainees to see how their decisions
and actions influence not only their immediate target but also
areas that are related to that target.
IN-BASKET TECHNIQUE.
The in-basket technique simulates the type of decisions that
would typically be handled in a particular position such as a
sales manager or operations manager. It affords an opportunity
to assess and/or develop decision-making skills and attitudes. To
begin the exercise, trainees are given a description of their role (a
current or future job) and general information about the
situation. Trainees are then given a packet of materials (such as
requests, complaints, memos, messages, and reports) which
make up the in-basket. They are asked to respond to the
materials within a particular time period (usually 2 to 4 hours).
When the in-basket is completed, the trainer asks the trainee to
identify the processes used in responding to the information and
to discuss their appropriateness. The trainer provides feedback,
reinforcing appropriate decisions and processes or asking the
trainee to develop alternatives. A variation is to have trainees
discuss their processes in a group format moderated by the
trainer. Here the trainer should attempt to get the trainees to
discover what worked well, what didn't and why.
CASE STUDY.
The case method is a non-directed method of study whereby
students are provided with practical case reports to analyze. The
case report includes a thorough description of a simulated or
real-life situation. By analyzing the problems presented in the
case report and developing possible solutions, students can be
encouraged to think independently as opposed to relying upon
the direction of an instructor. Independent case analysis can be
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supplemented with open discussion with a group. The main
benefit of the case method is its use of real-life situations. The
multiplicity of problems and possible solutions provide the
student with a practical learning experience rather than a
collection of abstract knowledge and theories that may be difficult
to apply to practical situations.
ROLE PLAY.
In role playing, students assume a role outside of themselves and

play out that role within a group. A facilitator creates a scenario
that is to be acted out by the participants under the guidance of
the facilitator. While the situation might be contrived,
the interpersonal relations are genuine. Furthermore,
participants receive immediate feedback from the facilitator and
the scenario itself, allowing better understanding of their own
behavior. This training method is cost effective and is often
applied to marketing and management training.
BEHAVIOR MODELING.
Behavior modeling is used primarily for skill building and almost
always in combination with some other technique. Interpersonal
skills, sales techniques, interviewee and interviewer behavior,
and safety procedures are among the many types of skills that
have been successfully learned using this method. While live
models can be used, it is more typical to video tape the desired
behavior for use in training. The steps in behavior modeling can
be summarized as follows:
1. Define the key skill deficiencies

2. Provide a brief overview of relevant theory
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3. Specify key learning points and critical behaviors to watch
for
4. Have an expert model the appropriate behaviors
5. Have trainees practice the appropriate behaviors in a
structured role play
6. Have the trainer and other trainees provide reinforcement
for appropriate imitation of the model's behavior
APPRENTICESHIPS AND INTERNSHIPS

Apprenticeships are a form of on-the-job training in which
the trainee works with a more experienced employee for a period
of time, learning a group of related skills that will eventually
qualify the trainee to perform a new job or function.
Apprenticeships are often used in production-oriented positions.
Internships are a form of apprenticeship which combine on-the-
job training under a more experienced employee with classroom
learning.
COACHING.
Coaching is a process of providing one-on-one guidance and
instruction to improve the work performance of the person being
coached in a specific area. It differs from other OJT methods in
that the trainee already has been working at the job for some
time. Usually, coaching is directed at employees with
performance deficiencies, but it can also serve as a motivational
tool for those performing adequately. Typically the supervisor
acts as the coach. Like the OJT trainer, the coach must be skilled
both in how to perform the task(s) and how to train others to do
them. The amount of time supervisors devote to coaching
activities steadily increased during the 1990s and will likely
represent more than 50 percent of supervisors' time by the new
millennium.
The coaching process, viewed from the coach's perspective,
generally follows the outline below. Note the similarities between
JIT and this process.
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1. Understand the trainee's job, the KSAs and resources
required to meet performance expectations, and the
trainee's current level of performance.
2. Meet with the trainee and mutually agree on the
performance objectives to be achieved.
3. Mutually arrive at a plan/schedule for achieving the
performance objectives.
4. At the work site, show the trainee how to achieve the
objectives, observe the trainee's performance, then provide
feedback.
5. Repeat step 4 until performance improves.
MENTORING.
Mentoring is a form of coaching in which an ongoing
relationship is developed between a senior and junior employee.
This technique focuses on providing the junior employee with
political guidance and a clear understanding of how the
organization goes about its business. Mentoring is more
concerned with improving the employee's fit within the
organization than improving technical aspects of performance,
thus differentiating it from coaching. Generally, though not
always, mentors are only provided for management-level
employees.
Benefit-Cost Analysis and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis in
Program Evaluation
In our current age of accountability, public and private sector
funders are increasingly concerned with the relative costs and
benefits of the programs they fund. Benefit-cost (or cost-benefit)
and cost-effectiveness analyses can be useful quantitative tools to
help address these concerns. However, they differ in their
purposes, and each has strengths and limitations.
Benefit-cost analysis is an applied branch of economics that

attempts to assess service programs by determining whether total
societal welfare has increased because of a given project or
program. It can be used in evaluations of existing programs to
assess their overall success or failure, to help determine whether
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the programs should be continued or modified, and to assess the
probable results of proposed program changes. Benefit- cost
analysis consists of three steps: (1) determine the benefits of a
proposed or existing program and place value on those benefits;
(2) calculate the total costs of the program; (3) compare the
benefits and the costs.
Cost-effectiveness analysis is an alternative to benefit-cost

analysis that relates the cost of a given alternative to specific
measures of program objectives. A cost-effectiveness analysis
helps to compare costs to units of program objectives and may be
the first step in a benefit-cost analysis if the analyst then decides
to attempt to place a dollar value on the benefits. Unlike benefit-
cost analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis does not produce a “net
benefit” number, with benefits exceeding costs or costs exceeding
benefits. However, a cost-effectiveness analysis can determine
that a program which costs $1 million produces ten units of
outcome x, twelve units of outcome y, and twenty units of
outcome z. Or, if the units are alike, it can determine the cost per
unit of outcome.
Identifying and Measuring Costs
Identifying and measuring costs, and in the case of benefit-cost

analysis, quantifying and placing a dollar value on the benefits, is
the biggest challenge to the evaluator trying to conduct these
types of analyses. Direct costs (such as personnel, materials, and
equipment) are often relatively easy to account for. Indirect costs
(such as overhead, costs to other providers supporting the
intervention, and costs to participants) as well as capital costs
(such as buildings and computers) can be more difficult to
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calculate. Finally, intangible costs (such as the value of
wilderness) are those for which the evaluator either cannot assign
an explicit price or chooses not to. Lack of assigned price does
not mean that intangible costs are unimportant; indeed, in
presenting any results of these types of analyses, the evaluator
should point out the intangible costs and benefits, thereby
enabling the decision maker to consider these as he or she
examines those benefits and costs that are quantified. When
identifying any benefit or cost, it is important to state its nature
clearly, to state how it is being measured, and to list any
assumptions made in the calculation of the dollars involved.
Identifying and Measuring Benefits
Identifying benefits can also be tricky. As with costs, there are

direct, indirect, and intangible benefits. In the case of benefit-cost
analysis, placing a dollar value on the benefits is also a challenge.
The evaluator might choose a market value, when one is
available, or a surrogate such as willingness to pay. Because of
the redistribution nature of government programs, public
agencies and those who evaluate them must be concerned with
who benefits as well as the amount of benefits in addition to the
costs.
Where quantifying benefits is difficult, costly, or viewed as

inappropriate, cost-effectiveness analysis can be used. Cost-
effectiveness evaluation does not require that the evaluator place
a dollar value on the benefits. This is particularly useful in cases
where the benefit of a program is “lives saved.” While there are
various ways to place a dollar value on a life saved or lost, each is
controversial. In contrast to a benefit-cost analysis, a cost-
effectiveness evaluation would calculate the cost of the program
per life saved without making a judgment about the dollar value
of that life. The evaluator would then present the results to the
decision maker who must decide whether an outcome is worth
the dollar cost when viewed in light of alternative uses for the
funds.
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A major challenge in cost-effectiveness analysis is the fact that
programs frequently generate more than one type of benefit. For
example, an education system might target more than one
population group in the school system. When conducting a cost-
effectiveness analysis comparing programs with multiple benefits,
the evaluator may need to place weights on the relative benefits
to assist the decision maker in making comparisons. If this is not
done, the comparison becomes quite subjective. Yet assigning
weights often becomes at least as problematic as assigning dollar
values to each benefit: how do the benefits to one population
group outweigh those to another, for example?
Deciding Between Cost-Effectiveness Analysis and Benefit-

Cost Analysis
Those faced with deciding between the two types of analysis may
find it helpful to keep three basic questions in mind:
1. How will you use the results? Benefit-cost analysis enables you
to compare strategies that do not have the same outcomes, or to
compare strategies across different areas of public expenditure
(e.g., health, welfare, justice). Cost-effectiveness analysis is useful
for comparing strategies that are trying to achieve the same
objective (e.g., increased graduation rates).
2. What resources do you have? Benefit-cost analyses typically

require more resources, because they take more time for analysis
and involve significant methodological expertise (often in
economics), such as the capacity for determining the discounted
present value of a stream of benefits and costs.
3. How difficult are costs and benefits to value? While you may
want to have as much information as possible on both benefits
and costs, you must weigh the value of the increased accuracy
gained from the accumulation of new data against the costs
associated with the data collection. Thus, any analysis should
begin by assimilating existing data to determine whether it is
sufficient.
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benefit (for example saved wilderness), the more likely it is that a
cost-effectiveness analysis will be of greater use to decision
makers. This type of analysis can help them assess whether a
cost is justifiable, when compared with other uses of the same
funds.
It is important to note that benefit-cost analysis and cost-

effectiveness analysis could lead to different conclusions about
the same program, depending upon how benefits are valued in
dollar terms. However, if the evaluation is concerned with a
program with a single objective (or closely related objectives),
programs or alternatives achieving the highest cost-effectiveness
should also achieve the highest benefit-cost ratio.
Neither benefit-cost analysis nor cost-effectiveness analysis is a

panacea. Both require judgments on measurement issues that
should be brought to the attention of the decision maker.
However, both techniques are useful to provide a format for
analysis that can lead to better decisions.
Five Stages of Training Evaluation
Our Training Evaluation Model sets the framework for developing

instruments. It accommodates individual training programs
based on the type of training, the appropriate evaluation method,
and the best way to implement the evaluation.
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1. Describe the outputs. Outputs are descriptive data about the
training programs and participants, including demographic data.
2. Pre-training assessment. This step uncovers the
participants’ past experience as well as current
competencies, learning needs, and expected application of
learning.
3. Post-assessment (reactions). This addresses participants’
reactions to the training experience— for example, their
learning environment, format and instructor methods,
general satisfaction.
4. Post-assessment (learning). This piece is a self-
assessment of knowledge or skills gained and the
participants’ expected application of learning.
5. Follow-up. This process may include several methods to
assess the outcomes and effect of training programs over
time.
We can use the evaluation process to determine how effective our

training efforts have been. Unless we periodically take measures
to evaluate what we are doing, we will not be able to know how
well we are achieving our objectives. Being open to evaluating our
own individual performance and that of our peers and trainees
indicates that we are being accountable for our own actions and
the results of our actions on other people. An important quality of
being a professional in the health field is having the desire to
provide the best service we can and the willingness to periodically
look at ourselves to see how we can improve. Evaluation is a
process by which we can observe what we and others are doing
and learn how to improve these activities, where necessary.
EVALUATION OF TRAINING
Evaluation of training compares the post-training results to the

objectives expected by managers, trainers, and trainees. Too
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often, training is done without any thought of measuring and
evaluating it later to see how well it worked. Because training is
both time-consuming and costly, evaluation should be done. The
management axiom that “nothing will improve until it is
measured” may apply to training assessment. In fact, at some
firms, what employees learn is directly related to what they earn,
which puts this principle of measurement into practice.
One way to evaluate training is to examine the costs associated
with the training and the benefits received through cost/benefit
analysis. As mentioned earlier, comparing costs and benefits is
easy until one has to assign an actual dollar value to some of the
benefits. The best way is to measure the value of the output
before and after training. Any increase represents the benefit
resulting from training.
However, careful measurement of both the costs and the benefits
may be difficult in some situations. Therefore, benchmarking
training has grown in usage.
LEVELS OF EVALUATION
It is best to consider how training is to be evaluated before it
begins. Donald L. Kirkpatrick identified four levels at which
training can be evaluated. The ease of evaluating training
becomes increasingly more difficult as training is evaluated using
reaction, learning, behavior, and results measures.
But the value of the training increases as it can be shown to
affect behavior and results instead of reaction and learning-level
evaluations. Later research has examined Kirkpatrick’s
schematic and raised questions about how independent each
level is from the others, but the four levels are widely used to
focus on the importance of evaluating training.
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REACTION
Organizations evaluate the reaction level of trainees by
conducting interviews or by administering questionnaires to the
trainees. Assume that 30 managers attended a two-day workshop
on effective interviewing skills. A reaction- level measure could be
gathered by having the managers complete a survey that asked
them to rate the value of the training, the style of the instructors,
and the usefulness of the training to them. However, the
immediate reaction may
measure only how much the people liked the training rather than
how it benefited them.
LEARNING
Learning levels can be evaluated by measuring how well trainees
have learned facts, ideas, concepts, theories, and attitudes. Tests
on the training material
are commonly used for evaluating learning and can be given both
before and after training to compare scores. To evaluate training
courses at some firms, test results are used to determine how
well the courses have provided employees with the desired
content. If test scores indicate learning problems, instructors get
feedback, and the courses are redesigned so that the content can
be delivered more effectively.
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To continue the example, giving managers attending the
interviewing workshop a test at the end of the session to quiz
them on types of interviews, legal and illegal questions, and
questioning types could indicate that they learned important
material on interviewing. Of course, learning enough to pass a
test does not guarantee that the trainee can do anything with
what was learned or behave differently.
One study of training programs on hazardous waste operations
and emergency response for chemical workers found that the
multiple-choice test given at the end of the course did not
indicate that those trained had actually mastered the relevant
material. Also, as students will attest, what is remembered and
answered on learning content immediately after the training is
different from what may be remembered if the “test” is given
several months later.
BEHAVIOR
Evaluating training at the behavioral level involves (1) measuring
the effect of training on job performance through interviews of
trainees and their coworkers and (2) observing job performance.
For instance, a behavioral evaluation of the managers who
participated in the interviewing workshop might be done by
observing them conducting actual interviews of applicants for
jobs in their departments. If the managers asked questions as
they were trained and they used appropriate follow-up questions,
then a behavioral indication of the interviewing training could be
obtained. However, behavior is more difficult to measure than
reaction and learning. Even if behaviors do change, the results
that management desires may not be obtained.
RESULTS
Employers evaluate results by measuring the effect of training on
the achievement of organizational objectives. Because results
such as productivity, turnover, quality, time, sales, and costs are
relatively concrete, this type of evaluation can be done by
comparing records before and after training. For the interviewing
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training, records of the number of individuals hired to the offers
of employment made prior to and after the training could be
gathered.
The difficulty with measuring results is pinpointing whether it
actually was training that caused the changes in results. Other
factors may have had a major impact as well. For example,
managers who completed the interviewing training program can
be measured on employee turnover before and after the training.
But turnover is also dependent on the current economic
situation, the demand for product, and the quality of employees
being hired. Therefore, when evaluating results, managers should
be aware of all issues involved in determining the exact effect on
the training.
EVALUATION DESIGNS
If evaluation is done internally because benchmarking data are
not available, there are many ways to design the evaluation of
training programs to measure improvements.
The rigor of the three designs discussed next increases with each
level.
POST-MEASURE
The most obvious way to evaluate training effectiveness is to
determine after the training whether the individuals can perform
the way management wants them to perform. Assume that a
manager has 20 typists who need to improve their typing speeds.
They are given a one-day training session and then given a typing
test to measure their speeds. If the typists can all type the
required speed after training, was the training beneficial? It is
difficult to say; perhaps they could have done as well before
training. It is difficult to know whether the typing speed is a
result of the training or could have been achieved without
training.
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PRE-/POST-MEASURE
By designing the typing speed evaluation differently, the issue of
pretest skill levels could have been considered. If the manager
had measured the typing speed before and after training, he
could have known whether the training made any difference.
However, a question remains. If there was a change in typing
speed, was the training responsible for the change, or did these
people simply type faster because they knew they were being
tested? People often perform better when they know they are
being tested on the results.
Effective Training Session and evaluation

All the planning has been done. All the preparation is taken care
of. You know your training needs, you’ve set goals, management
is behind you, you promoted your training schedule, and
prepared materials, space, and people. The time has finally come:
Training day is here. Here are some specific tips and techniques
to help you run an effective training session that accomplishes
your goals in an enjoyable and engaging way for everyone
involved.
Here are 12 proven techniques to conduct a successful training

session:
1. Tell trainees what you're going to cover. Introduce your

session with a brief overview of the training subject’s main
points.
2. Tell them the information. In the main portion of the
session, explain key points, go over policies, demonstrate
procedures, and relate any other information trainees need
to know.
3. Tell them what you told them. Conclude with a summary of
your opening overview. Use repetition to help trainees grasp
and retain information.
4. Always explain what trainees are going to see before you
show a multimedia portion. This practice creates a better
learning environment by guiding trainees to know what to
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look for and what to remember. Explaining the purpose of
the multimedia ensures an effective reception for its
information.
5. Use as much hands-on training as possible. The most
effective training uses all the senses to affect learning.
Demonstrate and apply teaching points to create greater
understanding and knowledge of the subject.
6. Test frequently. Tests are most effective when students
know they will be quizzed, because they’ll pay close
attention to the material. Testing is an objective way to
determine whether training achieved its goals.
7. Involve trainees. For example, ask participants to share
their experiences with the training topic. Many trainees are
experienced personnel who have valuable information to
contribute. All trainees will get more out of sessions by
hearing about their co-workers’ experiences with the
subject—and not just the trainer’s lecture points. Hearing
different voices also keeps sessions varied and interesting.
Structure interaction time into all your sessions.
8. Repeat questions before answering them. This practice

ensures that all participants know what the question is so
they can make sense of the answer.
9. Analyze the session as you go. Always be on the lookout for
what works best. When you discover a new technique or
method that clicks with the group, note it on your training
materials so it can be incorporated into the training outline
to be used in future sessions.
10. Keep your session on track. Start on time and finish
on time. Don't hold up class waiting for late arrivers. Run
the class according to the schedule and don't get too far off
course. Opening up discussion among participants may lead
to some pertinent tangents, but don’t let side issues take
over. Ask if there’s enough interest to pursue a separate
session on that topic, but get this class back to the lesson
plan.
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11. Put yourself in their shoes—or seats. Give frequent
breaks, especially for half-day or all-day sessions.
12. Solicit feedback on the training session. Critiques work
best when they are written and anonymous, unless a
trainee volunteers to discuss his or her thoughts in person.
Trainee input is vital for making the next session—and the
overall training program—more
effective.
These 12 steps are the basic foundation for a solid training

session and evaluation that runs efficiently and that conveys the
necessary information for meeting the session’s goals. They also
incorporate ways to begin improving training on the fly. In other
words, you can’t go wrong by following these steps in every
training session you run.
It is possible, however, to get a little more creative—and

memorable—by using some of the following innovative
techniques.
Make Training Memorable

Here are some softer training methods that are not necessarily
essential to conveying information, but that can make receiving
data or instructions a much more enjoyable experience, which
will keep trainees involved and help them retain more
information.
• Make learning fun. Why? Trainees will not be enthusiastic

if training sessions are dry and dull. Few employees respond
to or remember complicated concepts or theories; they want
to learn practical information about what they can do to get
better results today. If they don’t find the message
entertaining, they won’t retain it. Since variety is the spice
of life, use several different training methods to engage
trainees in a variety of ways. Also work to alternate the pace
of each session to keep trainees’ interest level high.
• Use humor. Humor helps keep enthusiasm at peak levels.
Trainers can make a point more effectively by using humor
than by drowning trainees in statistics or theories. Avoid
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telling jokes, however, because humor is so subjective that
someone in your audience may be offended and lose track of
training for the rest of the session. Personal, self-
deprecating humor is the safest way to go.
• Use attractive packaging. Use materials that are well-
packaged and that communicate value. Professional
packaging is a powerful tool for setting a good first
impression.
• Encourage participation. Make the session lively by
engaging participants in the learning process. In fact, try to
spend close to 80 percent of training time on group
participation. Encourage everyone in the training session to
speak freely and candidly, because learning occurs most
readily when feelings are involved.
• Build self-esteem. Employees understandably want to
know what’s in it for them. They know that most training
programs are designed to make money for the company, but
rarely does training lift employees’ spirits or help them to
become better in their own lives. Create a win-win
environment by using the training program to build the
participants’ self-worth and self-esteem.
Training Day Checklist

Here’s a handy last-minute checklist to make sure everything is
ready for your training session:
□ Dress appropriately. Use your audience analysis to figure out

what to wear. In general, match your manner of dress to that of
your trainees—or go slightly more professional.
□ Arrive early. Give yourself time to check last-minute

arrangements and get yourself mentally geared up for the
session.
□ Check seating arrangements. Make sure the set-up is ideal for

the training style you want to use and have some extra chairs for
any last-minute trainees.
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□ Check room temperature. Adjust it appropriately for the
number of people who will be in the room and the size of the
space you will all be occupying.
□ Check audiovisual hardware. Conduct one last run-through to

make sure everything is still running smoothly.
□ Check electrical outlets. Make sure all your connections are

safe. Don’t trail cords across walkways or overload surge
protector strips.
□ Check light switches. Know which switches work which lights

so you can achieve the ideal lighting for audiovisual materials
and note-taking.
□ Check window-darkening equipment. Make sure blinds or

shades are working properly.
□ Check arrangements. Make sure you have everything you

need—including the training space for the entire time you need it.
□ Lay out classroom supplies. If you will be demonstrating tools

or equipment, make sure you have everything you need.
□ Lay out course materials. Decide whether to put handouts on a

table for trainees to pick up on the way in or to lay them at every
seat.
These are all effective techniques for running a successful

session, but what kind of person does it take to do the training?
The best trainers have several qualities that make them good at
what they do. Check the list below to see which qualities you
already possess—and to determine which areas you could
improve.
INFORMATION SHEET NO 1- 5
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POSITIVE WORK TRAITS AND VALUES
“The first thing to look for when searching for a great worker is
somebody with a personality that fits with your company culture.
Most skills can be learned, but it is difficult to train people on their
personality. If you can find people who are fun, friendly, caring
and love helping others, you are on to a winner. Personality is the
key.”
Richard Branson
Try to focus on the things that you are good at: your talents, the
things you are passionate about,
rather than worrying too much about the things you don't do
well.
Your skills may

determine your chances
of success in a career
and
your interests and value
s will help you decide
where to apply these
skills: but do you need
to also consider
your personality?
Some characteristics are

widely applicable. Resilience can be equally valuable to a police
officer, a television producer, or anybody who commutes to
work! Tact and sensitivity are not just for social workers but
help anybody to get on with their colleagues.
These personal characteristics can have a strong influence on

your career choice. Anybody who feels that terms like ‘‘outgoing'',
and ‘‘independent'' are the complete antithesis of their
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personality is unlikely to be happy, for example, in sales or at
the Bar.
You may think that certain personal styles, such as

being careful have negative connotations, but it is a valuable
attribute in financial jobs and crucial for medical
occupations (imagine the surgeon who isn't careful!). Similarly,
being reserved may be linked to powers of concentration and
attention to detail: important in the science and computing fields.
You need to also make sure that you know what a particular
career demands. If you
are methodical, meticulous and reliable you may do well as
anaccountant: but you also need to
be adaptable and confident to deal with the range of clients you
will encounter.
ATTENTION TO DETAIL
t's really easy to get involved in too many projects at one time and
suddenly start having all the details of those projects falling
through the cracks. This can happen with things at home (like
paying the bills), at school (forgetting assignments, or not doing
assignments as well as you could) or even at work (not being
prepared for that big presentation). Fortunately, attention to
detail is a learned skill and it's one that you can definitely
cultivate!
Get organized. You will need to have an organization in your life

to even have a hope of paying attention to the small things. This
means having organization in your work or school life, keeping
track of appointments and tasks that need to be accomplished so
that you aren't surprised when it's time to turn them in.
Make lists. Lists are one really useful way to be organized and to
make sure that you know when and how everything needs to
come together. You'll be less likely to lose track of the details
when you have them written out and kept somewhere that you
see every day (a lost list is about as useful as a lead balloon).
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• Have a long-term list and a short-term (weekly or daily list) so
that you are able to plan for things in advance. When the items
on the long-term list come up, put them on your short-term list,
but this way you won't be surprised by anything in your
schedule.
• Once you've completed an item on your list, check it off. That way
you'll know that you actually did do it and you won't be in a
dither trying to remember whether you've completed each step of
a certain list item.
Keep to a specific schedule. If you're running around willy nilly

and each day is a different mess of times and items, try to sort it
into a routine that follows that same general rhythm. Your brain
will be quicker to notice when you've dropped the ball on a detail
than when each day is a hodgepodge of different things.
Limit distractions. Distractions come in a variety of forms: your

family, your friends, that annoying coworker who won't stop
talking, everything ever on the internet, even being hungry. When
you're distracted and you're trying to pay attention to the details
of a project or your homework, you're not going to be able to
recall things as easily and you're more likely to forget the details.
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Don't multitask. Multitasking spreads your attention out over a
variety of items instead of focusing it onto one specific item,
which means that you end up unable to give full attention to
each item and you won't be able to get all the details in order.
• Focus all your attention on the most important projects
so that they get your

attention to details, while giving less attention to the less
important projects.
Get exercise. Exercise helps improve your memory and your

concentration abilities while also being good for your whole body.
To help improve your attention to the details and to keep your
memory strong, you'll want to engage in at least 30 minutes of
exercise each day.
Take breaks. A good way to keep your brain sharp and willing to
focus on the smaller details is to allow it to take breaks. Make
sure that you schedule them around the same time each day and
try for 10 to 15 minutes each. This will give your brain a chance
to relax in time for the next project.
• A break can be something as simple as stretching and taking a
short walk around your office, or going for coffee down the street.
• When you find that you are getting really distracted or sleepy,
this is a good time to find a place to do a little exercise, like
jumping jacks, to get the blood flowing.
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PERSISTENCE
Persistence is a traits that allows someone to continue doing

something or trying to do something even though it is difficult or
opposed by other people. Therefore, persistence is definitely not
taking the easy road to a decision or action. It should go without
saying that quality professionals, maybe more so than any other
position, must possess persistence as a key characteristic.
When it comes to making quality as good as it can be, persistence
is just as important as any other quality assurance skill. It may
not be part of the body of knowledge or found on a training skills
matrix, but when applied to quality issues, persistence can give
an organization and its quality professionals a major competitive
advantage.
If struggling to understand how persistence and quality are

related, we might consider a basic definition of quality. One of my
early mentors often said that “quality is the gap between how
good something is and how good it could be.” Simply put, if the
gap is small quality is good, and when the gap is wide, quality is
poor.
Persistence at all levels plays a significant role in optimizing

organizational quality performance. To illustrate this point let’s
consider a seemingly ordinary example: adding new employees.
With every opening, hiring the right person with high-
performance credentials and who possesses the appropriate
interpersonal skills versus hiring an average person with
minimum acceptable credentials will have a dramatic effect on
many success factors.
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Certainly hiring managers who are not persistent when it comes
to employee selection spend less of their day doing interviews;
however, they are highly likely to suffer in the long-run when the
quality of work yields less than desirable outcomes.
When in a rush to fill open positions, hiring managers almost
always hire someone who could just barely perform the job and
will never take the job to a higher level. The high-performing
employee, though, is always striving to achieve optimum
performance. Finding those high-performing employees, however,
takes time, hard work and persistence.
Being persistent applies to other areas in an organization such as
market research, design decisions, vendor selection,
manufacturing process selection, etc. Like most things, though,
doing the right thing by being persistent requires time and effort
which are precious commodities.
There are many examples, however, of people trying to save time
by accepting things that are “good enough.” Some people are
more interested in saving time by checking the task off their to-do
list instead of meeting the intent of the task. For example, to
some managers, hiring someone into an open position completes
the task. Conversely, persistent managers realize that filling an
open position means finding a high-quality person who will excel,
not just fill, a position so everyone wins. The new employee, the
manager’s work group, the organization, and shareholders will all
benefit.
To maintain quality as a foundation principle it is important to
stay persistent in our decisions; taking the time and effort to
ensure that our decisions don’t just address the immediate issue,
but that we also use decision points to optimize quality to make
the organization as good as possible. This will give us a
significant advantage over competitors that take a “good enough
is good enough” approach.
Persistence is the ability to continue to get up no matter how
many times you’ve been knocked down. It requires will power,
flexibility, strength of character, determination and a desire to
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succeed at all costs. Persistence is about having a vision and
working towards that goal.
However, if you study the path most visionaries have taken to
achieve their goals, you’ll discover that persistence lies in holding
on to the vision, not on the path they chose to achieve their
vision.
Persistence without purpose is useless. Dogged determination to

adhere to a plan that is not getting you to where you want to go
IS NOT persistence. Being persistent means having the strength
and flexibility to stop and take stock when you become aware
your efforts are not getting results.
The value of persistence lies in maintaining your goal while re-

positioning yourself to get there without continually hitting your
head against a brick wall.
So, what can you do to maintain persistence today and every

day?
COST CONSCIOUSNESS
The costs of learning may be difficult to decipher without an all-

inclusive cost analysis system. Many trainers perpetually defend
their approach through a comprehensive justification of course
content, methodology, and cost effectiveness. Once all of the
relevant factors have been isolated and supported by data, it is
much easier to decide when and how the training will be
conducted, if at all. Similarly, with the right data the decision to
conduct training in-house or by an outsourcer can be
determined. Some of the questions that must answered to
determine training costs include:
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• Facilities: Where will the training be conducted? Are hotel
rooms and meeting space required? If the training is Web or
computer based, are specific resources dedicated to the
equipment, utilities, software and hardware maintenance?
Are participants reimbursed for lodging when they attend
overnight training?
• Instructors: Are facilitators paid a salary, per diem, or
billed by an outside firm? Are trainer expenses considered?
Does the company have to pay to certify the instructors or
pay any license fees to use the materials?
• Participants: What are the combined salaries and benefits
costs that will be dedicated to the time spent on training?
What is the price for the time spent out of the office, at
seminars, traveling, or preparing for training while still at
work?
• Material format: What type of materials will be used? Is the
media, books, tapes, CD-Rom, Web-based or video? How
will the material be obtained? Any shipping, packaging, or
transmission costs? If the material is developed in-house is
the talent available or must the company recruit the
technical expertise? Will the materials still be timely and
technologically relevant when the training is actually
delivered? If not, what are the redesign costs?
• Communication and marketing: Will materials be
produced to generate interest in the training? Brochures,
pamphlets, direct mail, postage, and Web sites all have
development costs in addition to material cost. Will time be
spent by senior managers selling the training internally?
Will employees be actively solicited through kick-off and
information meetings? How much time will be spent
learning about the training?
• Tuition reimbursement: What is the cost of the actual
benefit as described in the company policy? What is the
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level of utilization by the employee population? What are the
costs of communicating the program and processing the
benefit? Does the company policy exclude reimbursement
for unsuccessful completion of course requirements?
Some of the less apparent issues include:
• The learning curve. How long does it take for the employee
to get "up to speed?" What are the adaptation costs, the
costs of potential mistakes while
• in the learning process? If the employee is in a production
type situation,
• what is the cost of lost production on an incremental basis,
if the employee
• had been fully trained from the start?
• Productivity inhibited. What would the employee be doing if
they were not taking time from their regular tasks to be
trained? Would more income be generated for the company?
How would that time be used more profitably or effectively?
Could the time have resulted in the development of new
accounts or products, faster production, or greater
organizational efficiency?
• Company culture and expectation. Some organizations have
massive expectations from the image and culture they
communicate through their training experience. Training
may dominate company culture and be a catalyst for many
associated programs that are developed to enhance the
training experience. Promotion and reward systems may be
geared towards the training effort. Incentives may be given
when training is completed or goals which training
addresses are attained. All of these expectations result in
higher per-capita costs -- per employee. Additionally,
because training intense companies tend to use the most
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sophisticated methods and expensive materials, the per-
capita cost may be far greater.
All of these intangibles must be isolated to truly determine the
overall cost and associated benefits of the training experience
TIME MANAGEMENT
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It is a set of principles, practices, skills, tools and systems that
help you use your time to accomplish what you want. Time
management is important for your personal life and career
success. It teaches you how to manage your time effectively and
make the most of it.
Here are a few of the reasons why it is so important, and how it
can help you use and manage your time more advantageously:
1. Time is a special resource that you cannot store or save for

later use. Everyone has the exact same amount of time each day.
Time not well used cannot be retrieved.
2. Most people, feel like they have too much to do and not
enough time. They blame lack of time for their poor finances,
stress, bad relationships, and for not exercising their body.
3 .You need time to get what you want out of life. If you wait for
extra time to appear, you might lose the game of life. Through
right time management, you can “create” the time you need, and
not just wait for it to come. By planning your time wisely, you will
have more time to do more things.
4. Time management will help you set up your priorities.
5.Time is limited to 24 hours a day, so plan your life wisely.
6. Time management helps you make conscious choices, so you

can spend more of your time doing things that are important and
valuable to you.
7. You can learn to find the time for the things that are important
to you. Even a small amount of time once a day, or even once a
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week, will take you closer to your goals, and you will be surprised
at the progress you make.
8. You become more productive using improved time

management skills and tools, and can accomplish more with less
effort and time. Time management can help you reduce wasted
time and energy, help you become more creative and productive,
and enable you to do the right thing at the right time. This will of
course lead to more balance and fulfillment in your life.
9. Life today presents so many distractions, and therefore, it is

very easy to lose time on unimportant activities. Ask yourself, is
watching this or that TV program, reading this or that gossip or
participating in a certain activity is going to add anything to your
life. Is the time spent on a particular activity well spent, or is just
a waste of time and energy?
10. Life puts in front of everyone so many choices each day, and
the question is, do you follow what appears on your way, or do
you consciously choose what you want to do? Do you allow
external distractions to deter you from your goal, or do you use
willpower and self discipline to walk toward your goal in a
straight line, without wasting time and energy?
11. A certain degree of detachment and inner peace are useful

in managing your time effectively. They help you avoid spending
too much emotional and mental energy on what people say and
think about you. They help you stay calm, despite distractions or
difficulties, and this saves you a lot of time and energy, which
you can spend on better and more rewarding activities.
There are many things you can do and tools to use to manage
your time effectively. There is a lot of time wasted each day,
which can be put to better uses. There are changes you can
make, which will effectively increase the time you have at your
disposal every day.
Thinking, planning, finding out how others manage their time,

and reading books and articles on time management, will develop
these skills and give you good ideas.
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Among the many changes that you can make to manage your
time, there is one that is important and easily available, and that
is getting up early in the morning. Give up watching TV late at
night and go to sleep a little earlier than usual. It will then be
easier to wake up earlier.
Even waking up only 15 minutes earlier would be great. It is a

time of quietude, before everyone else wakes up, which you can
devote to reading, meditating, exercising, or planning your day.
To get rid of the feeling that you have much to do and not enough
time, try to feel and to think, as if you have all the time in the
world.
This kind of thinking would enable you to focus on what you are
doing, without stress and strain.
Always plan your time well and don’t waste it on useless matters.
Be careful not to procrastinate, and do everything in the best way
you can, with focus and attention.
SAFETY CONSCIOUSNESS
We all know that safety consciousness is the most potent factor

in the prevention of accidents.
Safety consciousness may be defined as awareness of hazards

and alertness to danger. This has a strong influence on the
actions of an individual because of his desire to remain alive and
uninjured. We need to develop safety consciousness and Make
Safety a Value.
Most injuries can be traced to someone’s lack of safety

consciousness. Usually, but not always, the injured person’s
lack of Making Safety a Value may be the cause. The frequency
of injuries is a good indicator of the safety consciousness of the
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workers involved. How many injuries have you had? What is
your Safety Consciousness?
Safety consciousness must be comprehensive. It must reach

every operation, it must be evident at all meetings; and, most of
all, it must be so instilled that all personnel in supervisory
positions will set good examples in safety to the personnel under
them. Setting a good example is a potent factor in reducing
accidents and is proof of the safety consciousness of the
supervisor.
The frequency of accidents has a definite and precise relationship

to the safety consciousness of management as well. This
relationship forms a pattern that affects the well being of all
workers. The factor of luck may seem to distort the pattern at
times, but over a long period of time the pattern remains
unchanged.
How do we develop safety consciousness? By observing the

following eight simple steps, we can establish a strong safety
consciousness toward our way of life.
1. Know the job and be thoroughly familiar with the work plan.
2. Make, revise and utilize Job Safety Analysis for tasks to be
done.
3. Perform our own work in such a way that will not create or
leave hazards which may cause accidents involving other
employees.
4. Obtain training in first aid and become thoroughly familiar
with knowing how to give artificial respiration.
5. Take an active part in safety meetings.
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6. Report all hazards, unsafe practices, and accidents. Correct
all hazards we observe and are capable of correcting safely.
7. Accept responsibility for using safety protective equipment
on the job
8. Teach our own families, co-workers and others about
accident prevention.
QUALITY CONSCIOUSNESS
To answer the question “what does top management expect from
quality control [people and organizations]” he notes that a change
in quality consciousness is expected. Attitudes must shift from an
acceptance of what’s good enough to the constant pursuit of
making things better. People must be able to take pride in their
high-quality work.
QUALITY CONSCIOUSNESS is a term intended to describe a

state of being whereby an individual's consciousness - that is his
or her conscious purpose in being - is focused on producing a
quality result or outcome from his or her actions.
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It also suggests that you must achieve alignment of your
consciousness with the consciousness of the organization, which
will aid in full activity and engagement of the senses. Your
attention must be selectively focused onto what you can
accomplish in the present moment according to that alignment
(which implies that you are able to effectively filter the rapid and
voluminous streams of information coming at you).
• A personal path for developing quality consciousness might

include asking yourself the following questions: What do YOU
need to expand your awareness? To enhance your mood and
affect so that you’re aware of the vast landscape of innovative
potentials available to you? What do YOU need to align yourself
with your organization? What do YOU need to be able to focus
your attention on the most productive thing you can do at any
given moment – resulting in effortless action, optimal flow and
productivity, and positive affect that will cycle back to expanding
your awareness even more?
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In an organizational sense, QUALITY CONSCIOUSNESS means
the same, but on an organizational wide scale - that is the entire
organization will consciously act with one purpose - being to
produce a quality result.
LEARNING OUTCOME Monitor and conduct results of

#2 training
CONTENTS :
➢ Training evaluations methods
➢ Best practices in TVET training
➢ Relevant training data
➢ Methods of collecting data on training investment
➢ Documentation of cost- effective training programs
➢ Simple formative and summative evaluations of training
are done to evaluate achievement of learning outcomes
➢ Quality training programs are monitored and
noted/documented for best practices and results
replication
➢ Benefits and returns on training investments are studied
using relevant data
➢ Cost-effective training programs are identified and
recommended for documentation, replication and further
enhancement.
CONDITIONS: Students/trainees must be provided with

the following:
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➢ Handouts or reference materials/books on the above
stated contents
➢ Bond paper
➢ Training program/curriculum offering
METHODOLOGIES:
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
➢ Demonstration
Learning Experiences
Learning Outcome #2: Monitor conduct and results of

training
Learning Activities Special Instructions
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Types of Evaluations in Instructional Design
Evaluation is the process of examining a program or process to
determine what's working, what's not, and why. It determines the
value of learning and training programs and acts as blueprints
for judgment and improvement. (Rossett, Sheldon, 2001)
Evaluations are normally divided into two categories: formative

and summative.
FORMATIVE
A formative evaluation (sometimes referred to as internal) is a

method for judging the worth of a program while the program
activities are forming (in progress). They can be conducted during
any phase of the ADDIE process. This part of the evaluation
focuses on the process.
SUMMATIVE
A summative evaluation (sometimes referred to as external) is a
method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the
program activities (summation) . the focus is on the outcome.
The various instruments used to collect the data are
questionnaires, surveys, interviews, observations and testing. The
model or methodology used to gather the data should be a
specified step-by –step procedure. It should be carefully designed
and executed to ensure the data is accurate and valid.
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Training evaluation method
There are many methods to assess performance, and none of
them is perfect. Each has its advantages and drawbacks. You can
choose one or a combination of methods to assess trainees. It is
very important to choose assessment methods that are practical
and non-threatening. Written examinations should be avoided
unless trainees can read and write at the appropriate levels.
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1. Formal testing
Formal tests or examinations can be given at certain stages or at

the end of training. These tests should focus on measuring
significant knowledge and practices learned. This can be done
through practical or oral tests.
(a) Practical tests
Have the trainees demonstrate their ability to perform certain

practical tasks. These tasks must be relevant to the learning
objectives. Students should be given enough time to complete the
test. The trainees should have been shown how to do the task
and should have practised it before being tested.
For example, ask a trainee how to demonstrate weighing a child

accurately and how to record the result on a growth chart.
(b) Oral tests
Probe the trainee's knowledge of a subject by verbal questions

and answers. Be aware that the ability of the trainee to give
satisfactory answers may be affected by his or her ability to
communicate, or self-confidence.
2. Informal testing
You can do this inside or outside the class. Inside the class, you
can assess any difficulties trainees are experiencing as a group.
Outside of class, you can ask questions to individual trainees or
small groups of them.
Whenever you ask questions for the purpose of testing keep the
following points in mind:
• questions should be related to the objectives;
• questions should be clear and precise;
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• questions should require fairly short answers;
• everyone should have an equal chance to answer questions;
• students should be encouraged; you should not ask any

question in a way that might embarrass a student.
3. Observe the trainees' activities
Watch them while they demonstrate activities they are learning.

Make checklists on which you can record progress, such as their
participation in class discussions, and their ability to practice
skills.
It is important to discuss your observations and evaluations with

trainees. This feedback helps them to see their progress and how
they can improve. Acknowledge and give support for good results,
and give suggestions for improvement in a positive way.
4. Peer assessment
Peer assessment is a method where students assess each other.

This is not suitable for deciding whether students pass or fail at
the end of a course, but it is a very good technique for helping
students to learn.
Have each student ask a friend to test him or her when studying
for an examination. This practice can be encouraged and guided
by the teacher. For example, give the students instructions for
doing a task or assignment. Then have one of the students
perform the assignment, while the other student watches and
comments. The students can then switch places and the second
student will do the job while being watched by the first one. You
must, of course, provide instructions for the given task.
Peer assessment can help to make field experience more

meaningful and relevant for students. Instead of blindly trying to
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do a job as well as possible, each student can be supervised by a
fellow student who is there to watch and advise.
5. Evaluate how trainees perform when they are in the

community
You can do this during the training as well as when they are on
the job. This will help you to know which parts of the training
were most useful. It will also help you identify things that should
be reviewed during later in-service or on-the-job training.
ADDIE Model
The ADDIE model is a framework that lists generic processes
that instructional designers and training developers use.[1] It
represents a descriptive guideline for building effective training
and performance support tools in five phases.
• Analysis
• Design
• Development
• Implementation
• Evaluation
This model strives to save time and money by catching problems
while they are still easy to fix .Instructional theories also play an
important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories
such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning,
and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of
instructional materials.
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Contents
ADDIE Model
Analysis Phase
The analysis phase clarifies the instructional problems and
objectives, and identifies the learning environment and learner's
existing knowledge and skills. Questions the analysis phase
addresses include:
• Who are the learners and what are their characteristics?

• What is the desired new behavior?
• What types of learning constraints exist?
• What are the delivery options?
• What are the pedagogical considerations?
• What adult learning theory considerations apply?
• What is the timeline for project completion?
Design Phase
The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment
instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson
planning, and media selection. The design phase should be
systematic and specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly
method of identifying, developing and evaluating a set of planned
strategies targeted for attaining the project's
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goals. Specific means each element of the instructional design
plan must be executed with attention to details.
Development phase
In the development phase, instructional designers and developers
create and assemble content assets blueprinted in the design
phase. In this phase, the designers create storyboards and
graphics. If e-learning is involved, programmers develop or
integrate technologies. Testers debug materials and procedures.
The project is reviewed and revised according to feedback.
Implementation phase
The implementation phase develops procedures for training
facilitators and learners. Training facilitators cover the course
curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing
procedures. Preparation for learners includes training them on
new tools (software or hardware) and student registration.
Implementation includes evaluation of the design.
This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that
books, hands-on equipment, tools, CD-ROMs, and software are
in place, and that the learning application or website functions.
Evaluation phase
The evaluation phase consists of two aspects: formative and
summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the
ADDIE process, while summative evaluation is conducted on
finished instructional programs or products.
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BEST PRACTICE in TVET TRAINING
A best practice is a technique, method, process, activity,

incentive or reward that is believed to be more effective at
delivering a particular outcome than any other technique,
method or process. The idea is that with proper processes,
checks and testing, a desired outcome can be delivered with
fewer problems and unforeseen complications. A best practice
can also be the most efficient (least amount of effort) and effective
(best results) way of accomplishing a task, based on repeatable
procedures that have proven themselves over time for large
numbers of people. A best practice in one country may not
necessarily be a best practice in another country, but most
importantly it provides viable lessons and resources to learn
from. In TVET, areas for best practice examples may include, for
example, administration or management issues, national
qualifications frameworks, integration of information and
communication technology (ICT) in learning and teaching,
integration of education for sustainable development (ESD),
HIV/AIDS education, innovations, TVET for poverty reduction,
gender issues, etc. In fact, the list is endless.
Securing quality in TVET - A compendium of “best practices”:

fourteen main principles for the improvement of Technical and
Vocational Education and Training
Beyond this basic design we have attempted to cast the

requirements which can safeguard the development of quality
training programmes into fourteen "main principles". These
principles range from defining a clear mission for each training
institution to emphasizing the importance of the concept of the
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"skilled worker" and from alternating in training between theory
in the classroom and practical training in the workshop to the
establishment of paramount standards as reference for the kind
of training provided as well as for a reliable orientation regarding
the needs of the employers.
This structure renders sufficient orientation marks for the design

of quality training, yet at the same time it allows for maintaining
the flexibility which is needed for responding to different cultural,
individual, economic and historical requirements.
1 Introduction
Worldwide, the drive for quality in education and training is
receiving national priority. The high level of investment in the
development of human resources finds itself confronted by an
unprecedented surge of the expectations of what needs to be
achieved by education and training. Yet, steadily increasing
complexity – at the place of work and a rapid advance of
technologies have generated a scenario which challenges the
boundaries of what can be achieved by education and training.
This basic structure is underlying our “Guidelines for the

Development of Advanced Occupational Profiles and Detailed
Curricula”. We regard it as the foundation for securing effective
training. It is indispensable for the development of state-of-the-
art occupational profiles and curricula for vocational training and
technical education. If skillfully developed and implemented,
these curricula promise to be the launch-pad for “excellence” in
conveying the competences which the graduates from our
programmes need to be in command of.
Certainly, “excellence” cannot be parachuted into our training

institutions. It needs to be build-up from within the institutions
and the participative approach of occupational and curriculum
development which we are advocating here, is a very important
step in this direction. However, securing the quality of the
training is a very complex process and it needs quite some
considerations regarding “best practise” in order to avoid the
pitfalls of curriculum development.
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2. Main principles for securing quality training
In order to target “occupational and curriculum development” in
the way of designing the road-map for securing the quality of
technical and vocational education and training, we intend to
review fourteen main principles which are intended to serve as
the threshold for securing quality training. They are structured in
six main topics.
2.1 Mission and opportunities

First principle: Define a clear „mission” for Vocational Training
Centers and Colleges of Technology
Stating the mission should direct the efforts of the staff and
win the interest of the young learners.
From the outset it should be clear that training is first of all a

service for business and industry to enable them to carry out
whatever mission they have. And as clear as their mission
must be the corresponding mission of the Vocational Training
Centers and Colleges of Technology which serve the
manpower needs of business and industry.
Second principle: Emphasize the training of „skilled workers“

and offer them opportunities for further training respectively
education.
Skilled workers constitute the backbone of the labour force
and they mark the entry level of occupations, which are
attractive for young learners.
A central role has to be allocated to the training and

education of “skilled workers” because performing skilled
work is meaningful for the individual and it should be the
prime target of the programmes offered by the Vocational
Training Centres and the Colleges of Technology
2.2 Concept, design and teacher training

Third principle: introduce a clear concept for the role of private
institutions in training and technical education.
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Private institutions have their strength in the quick and
flexible implementation of short-term programmes, they
should be encouraged to offer these programmes in particular
in the field of further training.
Basic training for skilled workers and beyond should be

offered by public training institutions. Yet, at the age of
lifelong learning further training has become very important.
This should be the domain for the private training
institutions since they have the flexibility to respond fast
enough to new training requirements.
Fourth principle: Design and implement a comprehensive

programme for training vocational/ technical teachers and
instructors.
It is essential to work towards having an indigenous „teach-
force“ also in the technical and vocational field.
The state-of-the-art curriculum and the highly competent

teacher/ instructor are the two core dimensions for
excellence in training. We have so far concentrated on
occupational and curriculum development. Yet, the teaching
dimension is of equal importance. Therefore teacher training
and further training of teachers need to be well supported in
order to secure the excellence the teach-force.
2.3 Network and curriculum development

Fifth principle: Create a network for the cooperation of vocational
training and technical education with business and industry.
Manpower training needs the permanent feedback with its
clients in business and industry, and a comprehensive
network is needed for this cooperation.
A key to successful training is the close cooperation between

training institutions and the private sector. Only if actual on-
site experience can be offered as part of the training
programme can the graduates of the programmes master the
challenges which they meet today at the place of work. This
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calls for a fine-tuned partnership between industry and
training.
Sixth principle: Enforce a common format for curriculum

development.
Colleges of Technology and Vocational Training Centres both
offer manpower training which calls for a precise and explicit
mode of curriculum development.
The format of curriculum development which has to be

adopted for the programmes of the Vocational Training
Centres should also be applied for the programmes of the
Colleges of Technology. The graduates of the Colleges of
Technology will be employed as semi-professionals, a level
which emphasizes practical application. Therefore, the work-
process orientation of advanced occupational standards and
curriculum development should also be followed here.
Seventh principle: Establish a network of vocational guidance

services.
Generating vocational awareness among young learners and
providing them orientation in the world of work is a much-
needed service for matching employment opportunities and
the aspirations of young people.
Acquiring competence at the place of work is the central part

of an individual’s vocational development. This process of
vocational development starts early in a child’s life and
should be carefully guided. A network of vocational guidance
services should support this process. These services should
start with vocational awareness in the kindergarten years
and continue with vocational systematization and vocational
orientation and proceed over vocational exploration to the final
stage of vocational preparation.
2.4 Political support and programmes

Eighth principle: Enhance the political support for vocational
training and technical education.
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Only with strong public support young people can be
motivated to undergo training.
Finally and very importantly, political support should not

only be geared towards education in general it should
specifically be directed at vocational training and technical
education. It is through skilful work that the foundations of a
society are established. And these foundation are the
indispensable core of any society. This is a delicate topic and
it must by all means be avoided to raise the impression that
vocational work is good for somebody else’s boys or girls. It is
important in this context to introduce measures to make
vocational work attractive, including the offering of a
generous pay.
Ninth principle: Design the programmes on the basis of a broad

spectrum of objectives incorporating economic, social and
individual goals.
Any training programme should address a „triad of goals“:
economic, social and individual.
The training programmes need to cater (1) to the needs of the

individual learner, (2) to the needs of the private sector and to
the needs of the society (cf. Euler 2013) as a whole. All three
parties should benefit from training and their respective
benefits should be well balanced. Such a holistic well-
balanced approach is one of the foundations of successful
training.
Tenth principle: The focal point of training programmes should be

to convey the competence for vocational action in the framework of
a flexible qualification for mobile specialists.
Conveying competence at the place of work must be the
central concern of a training programme.
Competence for vocational action today is no longer based on

a fixed set of qualifications. With permanent change at the
place of work a permanent readjustment of qualifications is
required. The learner needs to have the willingness and the
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aptitude to engage in this permanent process of readjusting
one’s qualifications.
2.5 Competence development and occupational standards

Eleventh principle: Learning for vocational competence should
alternate between theory in the classroom and practice in the
workshop.
Theoretical instruction in the classroom is needed for
mastering the complexity of work and practical instruction in
the workshop is indispensable for proceeding with a
„rehearsal“ of what is needed on the job.
The complexity of qualifications today suggests a split

between the necessary theories which are best conveyed in an
institutional setting and the practical mastery of the skills
required at the place of work; and this part should be
conveyed at the workshop. Hence, in order to be effective,
training should alternate between theory in the classroom
and practice in the workshop.
Twelfth principle: The occupational standards which are the

basis for training should be paramount in being binding as
outcomes of the programmes as well as reference points for the
anticipated demand of the employers.
A consistent system of occupational standards has to secure
the quality of the training programmes on the one side and
the compliance regarding the skill-based expectations of the
employers on the other side.
The occupational standards portrait the qualifications

required at the place of work. Consequently, they are on the
one side the benchmark for the competence, which has to be
acquired through training, and on the other side they
represent the qualifications which the employers expect their
trainees to attain.
2.6 Effective training and learning support
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Thirteenth principle: For effective training it is important to
achieve a stable balance between maintaining for all learners at
least minimum standards regarding the quality of training, yet
allowing for flexibility in acquiring these standards due to the
difference in learning requirements for each individual.
We need to maintain universal minimum standards in the
quality of training, but we have to allow for flexibility in
matching these standards.
The private sector, the individual trainee and the society at

large are the main stakeholders involved in training. In case
their interests are balanced in the structural layout of the
training system it will render most stability to the system. A
dialogue between these main stakeholders is essential in
order to achieve a balance of interests.
Fourteenth principle: Training can only be successful, if learning

as well as work have a positive image for the trainee; work in
particular must be regarded as a positive value beyond earning
one’s livelihood.
As a central objective of training programmes we need to
generate in the trainees a supreme sense of identification
with the individual, social and economic values of work in
their particular occupation. Through this positive value
which is attributed to the work in it the particular
“occupation” of the worker becomes his vocation.
In case the individual worker regards work in his/her
occupation with positive individual, social and economic
value, this work is for him/her highly relevant for
his/her vocation. Conveying this sense of a vocation (should
be a prime objective of training programmes.
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What you choose to evaluate and the amount and type of data
you collect will inevitably depend on the reasons you want to
conduct the evaluation. For example, if you want to identify
future learning needs, measure how far learning is being applied
to the workplace, or find out if a programme produces a Return
on Investment (ROI), each of these will require the collection of
different sets of evaluation data .
Your decisions on data collection will also depend on the level of

skills and knowledge in, and commitment to training evaluation
within the organization, and on whether the methods employed
are likely to produce relevant and useable results.
Whichever data collection methods you choose, it is important to

recognize that training evaluation is generally more about
collecting evidence rather than proof. The main reason for this is
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that many of the changes measured are complex in nature and
can be influenced by a number of factors other than the training
programme. For example, changes in organizational performance
may be as equally influenced by the introduction of a new
organizational structure or process as by the learning from a
programme.
Your data collection process will include attention to all the

elements of your logic model: what resources you had available,
what activities you actually provided, how many of each output
you delivered, and to what degree you accomplished your
outcomes. In collecting indicator data, you are likely to use one
or more of these four methods: surveys, interviews or focus
groups, observations, and record or document review. In selecting
the best method for data collection, you will need to consider the
type of information you need; the method’s validity and reliability;
the resources you have available, such as staff, time, and money;
and cultural appropriateness, or how well the method fits the
language, norms, and values of the individuals and groups from
whom you are collecting data.
Surveys are standardized written instruments that can be

administered by mail, email, or in person.
The primary advantage of surveys is their cost in relation to the
amount of data you can collect. Surveying generally is considered
efficient because you can include large numbers of people at a
relatively low cost. There are two key disadvantages: First, if the
survey is conducted by mail, response rates can be very low,
jeopardizing the validity of the data collected. There are
mechanisms to increase response rates, but they will add to the
cost of the survey. We will discuss tips for boosting response
rates later in this lesson. Written surveys also don’t allow
respondents to clarify a confusing question. Thorough survey
pre-testing can reduce the likelihood that problems will arise.
Here are some examples of ways to use surveys:
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• Track grassroots organizations’ use of and satisfaction with
technical assistance services you provide.
• Survey all organizations receiving technical assistance to
learn about changes in their fundraising tactics and the
results of their efforts to raise more money.
Interviews are more in-depth, but can be cost-prohibitive.

Interviews use standardized instruments but are conducted
either in person or over the telephone. In fact, an interview may
use the same instrument created for a written survey, although
interviewing generally offers the chance to explore questions more
deeply. You can ask more complex questions in an interview
since you have the opportunity to clarify any confusion. You also
can ask the respondents to elaborate on their answers, eliciting
more in-depth information than a survey provides. The primary
disadvantage of interviews is their cost. It takes considerably
more time (and therefore costs more money) to conduct telephone
and in-person interviews. Often, this means you collect
information from fewer people. Interview reliability also can be
problematic if interviewers are not well-trained. They may ask
questions in different ways or otherwise bias the responses.
Here are some examples of ways to use interviews:
• Talk to different grassroots organizations to learn about the

way in which they are applying new knowledge of
partnership development.
• Interview individuals within an organization to explore their
perceptions of changes in capacity and ability to deliver
services.
Focus groups are small-group discussions based on a defined

area of interest.
While interviews with individuals are meant to solicit data
without any influence or bias from the interviewer or other
individuals, focus groups are designed to allow participants to
discuss the questions and share their opinions. This means
people can influence one another in the process, stimulating
memory or debate on an issue. The advantage of focus groups
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lies in the richness of the information generated. The
disadvantage is that you can rarely generalize or apply the
findings to your entire population of participants or clients.
Focus groups often are used prior to creating a survey to test
concepts and wording of questions. Following a written survey,
they are used to explore specific questions or issues more
thoroughly.
Here are some examples of ways to use focus groups:
• Hold a structured meeting with staff in a community-based

organization to learn more about their grants management
practices, what worked during the year, and what did not.
• Conduct a discussion with staff from several organizations
to explore their use of computer technology for tracking
financial data.
Observations can capture behaviors, interactions, events, or

physical site conditions.
Observations require well-trained observers who follow detailed
guidelines about whom or what to observe, when and for how
long, and by what method of recording. The primary advantage
of observation is its validity. When done well, observation is
considered a strong data collection method because it generates
firsthand, unbiased information by individuals who have been
trained on what to look for and how to record it. Observation
does require time (for development of the observation tool,
training of the observers, and data collection), making it one of
the costlier methods.
Here are some examples of ways to use observations:
• Observe individuals participating in training to track the

development of their skill in the topic.
• Observe community meetings sponsored by grassroots
organizations to learn about their partnership-building
techniques and collaborative behavior.
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Record or document review involves systematic data
collection from existing records.
Internal records available to a capacity builder might include
financial documents, monthly reports, activity logs, purchase
orders, etc. The advantage of using records from your
organization is the ease of data collection. The data already
exists and no additional effort needs to be made to collect it
(assuming the specific data you need is actually available and up-
to-date).
If the data is available and timely, record review is a very

economical and efficient data collection method. If not, it is likely
well worth the time to make improvements to your data
management system so you can rely on internal record review for
future outcome measurement work. Just a few changes to an
existing form can turn it into a useful data collection tool. A
small amount of staff training can increase the validity and
reliability of internally generated data.
Here are some examples of documents or records from which you

can gather data:
• Sign-in logs from a series of workshops to track attendance

in training, measuring consistency of attendance as an
indicator of organizational commitment to learning.
• Feedback forms completed by workshop participants to
learn about satisfaction with training provided.
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Promote awareness of costs and benefits of
LEARNING OUTCOME # 3
training
CONTENTS :
➢ Benefits and returns on training investment
➢ Economy on the use of training resources
➢ Documentations of best practices in using training resources
➢ Benefits of training as investment rather than cost center are explained
and stressed to trainees, fellow trainers and administrators where
applicable
➢ Economy in use of training supplies and materials and care in use of
training equipment and facilities are stressed continually
➢ Model/best practices in optimum and judicious use of training resources
are documented, practiced and demonstrated
CONDITIONS: Students/trainees must be provided with the following:

➢ Handouts or reference materials/books on the above stated contents
➢ Bond paper
➢ Relevant information benefits and returns of training investment
➢ Workplace or simulated environment
METHODOLOGIES:
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
➢ Demonstration
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INFORMATION 3-1
BENEFITS AND RETURN ON TRAINING INVESTMENTS (ROTI)
Return on training investment is an analysis on good record keeping. Once
you begin collecting data , you may find that this sets the ROTI process in
motion.
Calculating ROTI
Calculating ROTI begins with the selection of one form of training for
analysis. Once you’ve decided on what training to measure, determine how
you want to report your analysis. ROTI can be reported either per person,
per training program or per year. You decide what is most meaningful for
your purpose.
If your purpose for calculating ROTI is to compare one form of training to
another , then calculate per training program. If you want to justify annual
training budgets, you may want to calculate per person , per year. The unit
of time can vary depending on the purpose of analysis. It is important that
you identify the form of training and the method of reporting for an accurate
ROTI analysis.
FIVE STEPS TO ROTI CALCULATION

1. Identify and describe the training under analysis
2. List the reason for training
3. calculate the costs of training
4. calculate the benefits of training
5. calculate the Return on Training Investments
CHECK QUALITY OF YOUR ROTI

ROTI Analysis must be :
Accurate – it is based on actual data or professional estimates
Ethical – it is respectful of legal / business issues and research ?
Effective – is the information what you need and will use ?
Credible – is it verifiable , defensible and objective ?
Well-planned – have you gathered baseline data before the training begins.
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And it should be :
Inclusive – did you use a variety of measures and information sources ?
Efficient - did you use the best evaluation sources ?
Logical – is it clear and understandable to the reader ?
It can be :
Collaborative - are there a variety of stakeholders involved ?
Responsive – have you allowed for unintended outcomes ?
Balanced – have you included both monetary and non-monetary measures
of success ?
FIVE KEY POINTS

1. You do not need to measure every indicator of success. Two or three is
enough. However, the many you use, the better your analysis.
2. Be sure to include all costs to get accurate ROTI data.
3. Focus on tangible benefits or returns that you can measure , but note
those that you can’t.
4. Be honest . if you are estimating , be conservative and give reasons for
your estimate so that the calculations ca be replicated.
5. Talk with the people involved in training-employers , supervisors,
workers and trainers. Number will emerge for a more detailed picture.
Checklist in Identifying the cost and benefits that may apply to the training
under ROTI analysis
Training costs
Cost of needs analysis/ surveys
Course design, development or purchase
Salary of instructor and/or consultant
Offsite travel, lodging and meals
Facilities rented or allocated
Equipment and hardware
Instructional and testing materials
Course / training evaluation
Tangible Benefits
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Increased sales
Improved overall quality
Improved competitiveness
Improved productivity per staff
Improved profitability
Improved customer satisfaction
Improved personnel relations
Improved safety records
Compliance with regulations
Broadening the range of worker’s tasks
Meeting a shortage of qualified labor
Implementation of new ideas
Intangible Benefits
Improved understanding of new technologies
Remediation of workers’ inadequate pre-employment preparation
Improved understanding of markets
Improved staff morale
Greater co-operation amongst staff
Better management staff relation
Greater staff flexibility
Greater staff loyalty
Improved staff work ethic
Improved staff motivation
More problems solved
Conflicts avoided
Increased use by staff of performance measures and standards ,
benchmarking and quality control methods
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INFORMATION 3-3
Waste Prevention
Waste prevention, also known as source reduction, means using

less material to get a job done. Waste prevention methods help
create less waste in the first place—before recycling. If
organizations take a good look at their recycling collection data,
they are likely to see ways to reduce waste first through waste
prevention, thereby decreasing purchasing costs and the amount
of material that must be managed for recycling. For more
information, visit our waste prevention publications and
related links.
Sample Goals
Waste prevention offers the greatest environmental benefits and

provides substantial cost savings to organizations. Waste Wise
partners commit to establishing three waste prevention goals
when they join the program.
Reduce
Businesses can often modify their current practices to reduce the

amounts of waste generated by changing the design,
manufacture, purchase, or use of materials or products. Sample
goals set by Waste Wise partners in this
area include:
• Reducing office paper waste by implementing a formal policy

to duplex all draft reports, and by making training
manuals and personnel information available
electronically.
• Improving product design to use less materials.
• Redesigning packaging to eliminate excess material while
maintaining strength.
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• Working with customers to design and implement a
packaging return program.
• Switching to reusable transport containers.
• Purchasing products in bulk.
Reuse
Reuse of products and packaging prolongs the useful life of these

materials, thus delaying final disposal or recycling. Reuse is the
repair, refurbishing, washing, or just simple recovery of worn or
used products, appliances, furniture, and building materials for
internal reuse. Sample goals set by Waste Wise partners in this
area include:
• Reusing corrugated moving boxes internally.

• Reusing office furniture and supplies, such as interoffice
envelopes and file folders.
• Using durable towels, tablecloths, napkins, dishes, cups,
and glasses.
• Using incoming packaging materials for outgoing
shipments.
Donate and Exchange
Organizations can donate products or materials to charities or

nonprofits, or exchange materials through a commercial
materials exchange. Sample goals set by Waste Wise partners in
this area include:
• Donating unwanted supplies to local schools or nonprofit

organizations.
• Donating cafeteria food scraps for use as animal feed.
• Advertising surplus and reusable items through a
commercial materials exchange.
• Donating excess building materials to local low-income
housing developers.
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Economy of Operations
Trained personnel will be able to make better and economical use
of the materials and the equipment and reduce waste.
Also the trained employees reduce the rate of accidents and
damage to machinery and equipment.
Such reductions can contribute to increased cost savings and
overall economy of operations
Guiding principles checklist
Need
• Why do you need the supplies or item of equipment? Will it
address an important or new health problem or improve existing
services? Is it vital, essential or not so essential for your services?
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• Is it new or replacing existing equipment?
• Has your existing equipment reached the end of its useful life?
Is it no longer economical to repair?
• Is it technically obsolete? Is the manufacturer no longer
producing spare parts, consumables and Accessories?
• Is it clinically obsolete? Is a more clinically-effective or cost-
effective model available?
Quality
• What level of quality best meets your requirements?
• How often will the item be used and how long is it
expected to last?
• Do the supplies or equipment meet safety standards?
• Is the labeling and packaging of acceptable
quality?
• Is the equipment supplied with necessary
operations and service manuals?
Source
• Are you planning to procure from a local supplier or
to import?
• If importing, do you have access to foreign exchange? Will the
supplier help with arrangements
for import?
• Is the manufacturer or supplier reputable, licensed
and reliable?
• Are you planning to buy used, refurbished or
reconditioned equipment? How long will it last?
What technical support will be available? Will you
be able to obtain spare parts, consumables and
accessories?
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Material
• What material is the item made from?
• Is it made from good quality, hard wearing material?
• Will it be easy to clean, disinfect and/or sterilize?
• Will it break or spoil easily?
Appropriateness
• Are the supplies or equipment appropriate for the
type of services your facility provides?
• Are they technically suitable for local conditions?
• Will the item be efficient, reliable and durable in dry,
hot, dusty or humid conditions?
• Are special storage conditions required?
• Will the supplies or equipment be compatible with
your existing equipment?
• Will the item be familiar and acceptable to staff and
patients?
• Is the item simple, robust and capable of local
maintenance?
Costs
• Are you buying the cheapest supplies and
equipment available? Are they of adequate quality?
• Would it be more cost-effective to spend more on a
higher quality item?
• Have you taken into account the costs of import tax
and duty, freight, transport and insurance,
installation and staff training in addition to the
capital cost?
• Have you budgeted for maintenance, fuel, spare
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parts, consumables and accessories?
Use and maintenance
• Do your staff have the skills to use, clean and
maintain the supplies or equipment? Will training be provided?
• Does the item come with a guarantee or warranty?
What support services are provided by the
manufacturer or supplier? Is the technical expertise
required for maintenance available nationally or locally?
• Does your facility have the utilities required to use
the item? Does it need a reliable power supply,
adequate quantity and quality of water, effective waste disposal?
Disposable or reusable
• Are you planning to procure disposable or reusable
items? What is national policy?
• Can your facility afford to buy disposables? Are
supplies regular and reliable?
• Does your facility have the capacity for proper
sterilization of reusables?
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COMPETENCY – BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

QUALIFICATION : TRAINERS METHODOLOGYLEVEL I

COMPETENCY : DEVELOP AND PROMOTE APPRECIATION FOR COSTS

Technical Education & Skills Development Authority

TRAINERS METHODOLOGY LEVEL I

List of Core Competencies

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

6 Apply Work Ethics, Values and Applying Work Ethics, 500232104

7 Work effectively in Vocational Working effectively in 500232105

8 Foster and Promote a Learning Fostering and 500232106

10 Maintain and Enhance Maintaining and 500232108

11 Develop and Promote Developing and 500232109

12 Develop and Promote Global Developing and 500232110

UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Develop and Promote Appreciation for Costs

MODULE TITLE : Developing and Promoting Appreciation for

This module covers the outcomes required in estimating and

NOMINAL DURATION : 16 hrs.

CONDITIONS: Students/trainees must be provided with the following:

Basic Skill: Arithmetic

Education plays an important role in the development of

INFORMATION SHEET 2-1

Bookkeeping and Accounting Basics

Bookkeeping and accounting share two basic goals:

• to keep track of your income and expenses, thereby improving

your chances of making a profit

• to collect the necessary financial information about your

1. Keep receipts or other acceptable records of every payment

to and every expenditure from your business.

2. Summarize your income and expenditure records on some

periodic basis (generally daily, weekly, or monthly).

3. Use your summaries to create financial reports that will tell

you specific information about your business, such as how

business is worth at a specific point in time.

Whether you do your accounting by hand on ledger sheets or use

Step 1: Keeping Your Receipts

Step 3: Creating Basic Financial Reports

INFORMATION SHEET 3-1

Training is a set of a systematic processes designed to meet

• reduce trainee learning time, by allowing trainees to

E-learning is effective at developing declarative and, in particular,

In role playing, students assume a role outside of themselves and

1. Define the key skill deficiencies

APPRENTICESHIPS AND INTERNSHIPS

Benefit-cost analysis is an applied branch of economics that

Cost-effectiveness analysis is an alternative to benefit-cost

Identifying and Measuring Costs

Identifying and measuring costs, and in the case of benefit-cost

Identifying and Measuring Benefits

Identifying benefits can also be tricky. As with costs, there are

Where quantifying benefits is difficult, costly, or viewed as

Deciding Between Cost-Effectiveness Analysis and Benefit-

2. What resources do you have? Benefit-cost analyses typically

It is important to note that benefit-cost analysis and cost-

Neither benefit-cost analysis nor cost-effectiveness analysis is a

INFORMATION SHEET 1-4

Five Stages of Training Evaluation

Our Training Evaluation Model sets the framework for developing

We can use the evaluation process to determine how effective our

Evaluation of training compares the post-training results to the