Composites Part C: Open Access: Chiara Zarna, Mihaela Tanase Opedal, Andreas T. Echtermeyer, Gary Chinga-Carrasco

Composites Part C: Open Access 6 (2021) 100171
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Composites Part C: Open Access

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/composites-part-c-open-access
Reinforcement ability of lignocellulosic components in biocomposites and

their 3D printed applications – A review
Chiara Zarna a, Mihaela Tanase Opedal b, Andreas T. Echtermeyer a, Gary Chinga-Carrasco b, *
a
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, NTNU, Richard Birkelandsvei 2B, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
b
RISE PFI, Høgskoleringen 6b, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Biocomposites based on lignocellulosic components (e.g. pulp fibers, nanocellulose and lignin) are of interest as
Cellulose sustainable replacements for thermoplastic fossil-based materials, which find their application in household
Nano-cellulose items, construction, automotive, 3D-printing, etc. Nanocellulose, a nano-structural component of pulp fibers, is
3D Printing
considered having potential as a high-performance reinforcement for bioplastics, due to its high aspect ratio and
Bio-composites
Lignin
potentially strong mechanical properties. Lignin, a biodegradable polymer isolated from pulp fibers, can be
Biocomposites considered as an essential bioresource for the production of biocomposites, due to the aromatic structure and
Nanocellulose functional groups. In this review the reinforcing ability of selected lignocellulosic components and their appli
cability in 3D printing is presented, considering their mechanical properties. At this point, there are challenges in
processing nanocellulose that may reduce its attractiveness as a reinforcement in thermoplastic biocomposites.
The objective of the review is to identify current challenges and opportunities for the application of 3D printed
lignocellulosic biocomposites. Optimization of 3D printing process parameters are considered to be a key to
further improve the mechanical properties of the end-product. Importantly, this review revealed that greater
efforts in mechanical fatigue research may contribute to assess and improve the potential of lignocellulosic re
inforcements for structural applications.
1. Introduction mechanical properties of a given polymer, which strongly depend on the

type and fraction of nanocellulose and the dispersion and adhesion be
The utilization of lignocellulosic fibers and their nanomaterials has tween the matrix and the nanocellulose. In this respect, CNFs and cel
gained major interest during the last years. Lignocellulosic fibers and lulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have been proposed as most adequate
nanocelluloses have been proposed as reinforcement in bioplastics materials, with excellent mechanical properties [7–9]. However, nano
[1–5]. Particularly, nanocelluloses have been considered as promising cellulose reinforcements have mostly shown modest improvement of
candidates for bionanocomposites, based on several characteristics such strength in physical tensile tests of biocomposites [8,10–13]. Major
as mechanical properties (tensile strength and stiffness), low weight and challenges are inhomogeneous dispersion, poor interfacial adhesion,
biodegradability [6]. In this review, bioplastics are considered as ther low thermal stability, kinking and curling under processing [8,11,13,
moplastic materials derived from biomass, e.g. poly-lactic acid (PLA), 14]. To overcome these issues, surface modifications and adjustments of
bio-based polyethylene (BioPE), bio-based polypropylene (BioPP), and melting and mixing processes have been proposed and will be briefly
poly-hydroxyalkanoates (PHA). For a detailed overview of bioplastic presented in the following sections [11,15,16]. There seems to be a
production see e.g. Brodin et al. [5]. knowledge gap concerning the challenges and benefits of using nano
A composite can be defined as a material composed of two or more cellulose as reinforcement, compared to lignocellulosic fibers.
components having distinct morphology and chemistry, and giving Long-term investigations regarding mechanical fatigue of biocomposites
synergetic effects. Additionally, the term biocomposite also refers to are also of major importance, if materials are considered for structural
materials having at least one bio-component (e.g. bioplastic, lignocel applications. However, to the best of our knowledge, such studies are
lulosic pulp fibers, lignin or cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs)). One of the currently lacking in literature about biocomposites reinforced with
reasons for combining nanocellulose and polymers is to improve the nanocellulose.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gary.chinga.carrasco@rise-pfi.no (G. Chinga-Carrasco).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2021.100171
Received 22 January 2021; Received in revised form 6 July 2021; Accepted 8 July 2021
Available online 12 July 2021
2666-6820/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
C. Zarna et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 6 (2021) 100171
Three-dimensional (3D) printing as an application for biocomposites ratio (aspect ratio). Since lignocellulosic fibers have a higher aspect ratio
has been in focus for some years. Reviews have been written about than lignocellulosic particles, these fibers have been extensively studied
several techniques for 3D printing, including fused deposition model for their utility as biocomposite components [1,3,31]. They are well
ling, selective laser sintering, stereo-lithography and bio-plotting implemented as a reinforcement for bioplastics and contribute some
[17–20]. Some of the commercially available technologies that seem beneficial properties, e.g. higher stiffness, strength increment, weight
adequate for biocomposites containing short fibers, nanocelluloses and reduction and cost reduction [32–34]. Lignocellulosic fibers can be of
lignin are briefly described in Table 1. This includes the technology various origins including flax, hemp, jute, sisal, bamboo, wood, etc
Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), which will be focused on in the [35–38]. In this review the focus is placed on lignocellulosic wood fi
present review. In addition to Table 1, direct ink writing (DIW), inkjet bers, as these have been widely used as reinforcement in biocomposite
printing, digital light processing (DLP) and laminated object materials for several years. Wood is also the main source of lignin and
manufacturing (LOM) can also be used to 3D print bio-derived materials nanocellulose [39,40].
[21]. These methods are not considered in this review, since the focus is There are various lignocellulosic pulp fibers that can be used to
placed on thermoplastic biocomposites for structural applications. reinforce thermoplastics, e.g. Thermo-Mechanical Pulp (TMP), Chemi-
However, further information on several 3D printing techniques, suit thermo-mechanical pulp and chemical pulp fibers [1,3,41]. Depending
able for biocomposites, can be found in [11,20,21]. on the pulping process, the pulp fibers differ greatly with respect to the
The present work reviews the latest advances in research and fiber morphology and chemistry (Fig. 1).
development of biocomposites containing lignocellulosic fibers, lignin TMP fibers are shorter, stiffer, have a lower aspect ratio and contain
and nanocelluloses with a special focus on 3D printing of the corre more lignin compared to chemical pulp fibers [41]. Peltola et al. [41]
sponding biocomposites. Firstly, a general overview of lignocellulosic demonstrated that TMP fibers can offer a greater reinforcing potential
pulp fibers, nanocelluloses and lignin will be given. Secondly, the po for PLA than chemical pulp, due to lignin on the TMP fibers surface that
tential of analytical modelling for predicting the mechanical tensile might act as a compatibilizer. For PP and PE matrixes, the addition of
properties of biocomposites will be discussed. Thirdly, the applicability TMP or chemi-thermo-mechanical pulp fibers together with maleic an
of lignocellulosic materials for reinforcing bioplastics will be explored, hydride compatibilizers showed promising results regarding the rein
with a critical focus on the potential of nanocellulose as reinforcement forcement of polyolefins [1,43]. The polymeric matrix of biocomposites
for bioplastics, compared to lignocellulosic pulp fibers. Finally, me typically contains about 0–8 wt.% of coupling agent and 10–50 wt.% of
chanical fatigue characteristics of biocomposites will be discussed, fibers [43-45].
considering its importance on structural applications.
2.2. Nanocelluloses
2. Lignocellulosic components in biocomposites
Cellulose is a structural component in plants, embedded in a poly
Exploitation of the full potential of lignocellulosic fibers as rein meric matrix of lignin and complex sugars. Cellulose appears as a hier
forcement of bioplastics depends on uniform fiber distribution and suf archical structure of cellulose molecules which are linked to form
ficient stress transfer between fibers and matrix. These aspects are elementary fibrils (Fig. 2). Fibrils in nanofiber size are named as cellu
addressed by modification of the fiber surface, modification of the ma lose nanofibrils (CNF, Fig. 3A and B). CNF are a composition of highly
trix and development of adequate processing methods. The strength of a ordered cellulose nanocrystals (CNC, Fig. 3C) and amorphous parts [46].
biocomposite will always be limited by its weakest point. Hence, care Chemical pulping includes several processes to extract cellulose fi
has to be taken not to weaken or damage the reinforcing fibers during bers by dissolving the lignocellulosic matrix [48]. Chemical pulp fibers
modification and processing, as may be the case during thermoplastic have been one of the most used raw materials for production of nano
processing, such as e.g. melt blending, extruding, pelleting [30]. cellulose, mainly based on two types of chemical pulping, i.e. sulphite
and kraft pulping. For details on the chemical pulping see [49]. For more
2.1. Lignocellulosic fibers information about various methods applied to obtain different nano
celluloses see [50].
The interest for lignocellulosic-based biocomposites has increased To obtain CNFs, a cellulose suspension can be treated mechanically
over the last years due to environmental concerns. In addition, bio through high-pressure homogenization, microfluidizers [51], grinding
composites could potentially obtain better mechanical strength and [52], ball milling, ultra-sonication [53] and cryocrushing [54, 55].
stiffness properties if the reinforcement has a greater length-to-diameter Producing mechanical CNFs (Fig. 3A) requires high amounts of energy
Table 1
3D printing techniques for biocomposites
3D printing Materials Principle Advantages Disadvantages
technique
Fused deposition Lignocellulosic fibers and fillers in Melted filament is extruded through a - Affordable - Poor quality/ warping and shrinking
modelling (FDM) thermoplastic filaments (10–40 wt.%) nozzle and deposited layer-wise on a - Accessible/ simple - Relatively slow
[22] heated table [22] - Rapid prototyping - Limited for large unsupported
- Multi material capability sections or sharp external corners
[23,24] [20,24,25]
Selective laser Lignocellulosic fillers blended with Laser fuses powder particles to impose a - Complex geometries - Expensive (high machine costs and
sintering (SLS) thermoplastic powder (5–10 wt.%) [26, selective fused pattern on a powdered possible (no support requires special knowledge)
27] surface [26] required) - Requires large amount of material
- Ability to process - Slow (long cooling time and
multiple materials in one cleaning process) [20,24,25]
bed
- High accuracy [20,24]
Stereolitho- UV-resin filled with nanoclay, - Resin is cured layer by layer via UV-light - Smooth surface finish - Supports are required
graphy nanocellulose crystals [28] [28] - High accuracy - Post-processing to remove supports
(SLA) - Wide range of materials - Eventually post curing required
[24,29] - Poor mechanical properties
[24,25,28]
2
Fig. 1. Transversal (upper panel) and longitudinal (lower panel) SEM images of lignocellulosic pulp fibers. A) and D) thermo-mechanical pulp fibers. B) and E)
chemi-thermomechanical pulp fibers. C) and F) chemical pulp fibers. Reproduced with permission from Jhon Wiley and Sons [[42], P.212], license number:
5006530754958. Copyright (2009) John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Fig. 2. Hierarchical structure from lignocellulose to crystalline nanocellulose. Reproduced and modified from Springer-Verlag ([47], P.450), no permission required.
Copyright (2013) The Japan Wood Research Society.
Fig. 3. Transmission electron microscopy images of some typical nanocelluloses. (A) Mechanical grade CNF. (B) TEMPO mediated oxidized CNF. (C) CNC.
Reproduced and modified with permission from American Chemical Society [65]. Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society.
(over 25 000 kWh per ton of CNFs obtained from high-pressure ho hydrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis or ion liquid methods to remove the
mogenization) [56,57]. Therefore, enzymatic [51] and chemical [58] amorphous zones and obtain highly crystalline nano-objects (Fig. 3C)
pre-treatments (e.g. TEMPO mediated oxidation, (Fig. 3B)) have been [55–57].
implemented to reduce energy consumption. However, the TEMPO CNFs have typical diameters in the nanometre scale (<100 nm) and
process involves chemicals which may be harmful to the environment, if lengths in the micrometre scale [58–61]. CNFs produced without
not treated adequately [56,57]. The result after TEMPO mediated chemical pre-treatment are relatively coarse (Fig. 3A). Chemical
oxidation is highly homogeneous CNF (widths of 3.5 nm), which is pre-treatments facilitate the production of structurally homogeneous
composed of crystalline and amorphous zones [58]. Alternatively, cel nanofibrils (Fig. 3B). The morphology and surface chemistry can be
lulose fibers can directly be the source of CNC by applying acid widely tailored with chemical and enzymatic pre-treatments, as well as
3
with processing variables (Fig. 3) [58–64].

As an example, for the mechanical properties of lignocellulosic fibers
and nanocellulose, measured and theoretically estimated strength and
stiffness values, collected from literature, are presented in Table 2.
Additional tensile strength and stiffness values of natural fibers can be
found in [31,66].
However, caution has to be taken when interpreting mechanical
tensile properties obtained from theoretical estimations and numerical
simulations, since these are based on individual nanofibrils with opti
mum physical characteristics [67,69,70], which seems to be difficult to
obtain and use in current processing conditions. In theory, nanofibrils
offer a much better reinforcing ability than lignocellulosic fibers
(Table 2). This is due to the high aspect ratio of nanofibrils [74]. To
make use of these properties in a biocomposite, coupling agents must be
added to ensure sufficient interaction between fibrils or fibers and the
matrix. Uniform dispersion is equally important for obtaining an entire Fig. 4. Lignin particles precipitated on lignocellulosic fibers. The lignin parti
wetting of each individual fiber with matrix material. cles appear bright compared to the grey-colored lignocellulosic pulp fiber sur
It has been expected, that nanocellulose with a suitable morphology face. Image: Per Olav Johnsen, RISE PFI AS.
and nanofibrillation degree and an adequate surface chemistry would be
beneficial for improving the mechanical properties of a given bio applications [82]. Attempts to use lignin in thermoplastics have resulted
composite material. However, the full utilization of nanocellulose me in applying lignin as a filler (up to 40 wt.%), however without providing
chanical properties as reinforcing component in biocomposites has been mechanical improvement [39,78,79]. The adequate and sustainable
demanding and is still challenging and uncertain, mainly due to chal modification of lignin to be used as thermoplastic matrix seems to
lenges such as dewatering without causing agglomeration of the nano remain as an interesting challenge. This could make it possible to pro
materials and the implied production costs [67,74]. The agglomeration duce thermoplastic wood-based biocomposites, i.e. fiber- or
of nanofibers due to dewatering/drying may impair the dispersion of the nanocellulose-reinforced lignin materials.
material in the polymer matrix and most probably limit the reinforcing The raw material and the fractionation method determine the reac
potential. tivity of lignin, which is represented by the occurrence of hydroxyl and
aromatic functional groups. Lignin tends to depolymerize and re-
polymerize with itself, leading to formation of additional C-C linkages.
2.3. Lignin As a result, the number of hydroxyl groups is reduced and the molecular
weight is increased. The formation of C-C linkages can also reduce the
In the last years, research on biomass valorisation has focused on pre- possibilities for further functionalization, which is important to make
treatment processes that yield fermentable sugars for bioethanol pro lignin compatible with other thermoplastics or fibers. Therefore, con
duction, while lignin (Fig. 4) has been collected as a low value by- trolling the condensation and re-polymerization reactions is important
product and used for cogeneration of heat and electricity [75–78]. in lignin valorisation, e.g. application of lignin in biocomposite prod
Each year, over 50 million tons of lignin are produced worldwide as a ucts. Moreover, chemical functionalization of lignin is often a necessity
biorefinery side-product, of which 98% are burned to generate energy. to introduce new functional groups compatible with the final material.
Only 2% is currently used for other purposes, mainly in applications Different (chemical) reactants have been described in the literature to
such as dispersants, adhesives, and fillers [75–78]. functionalize lignin towards different properties [76,83]. Modification
Recent studies have demonstrated that lignin, a currently underu of the aliphatic and aromatic hydroxyl groups of lignin via esterification
tilized renewable aromatic polymer can be incorporated into bio is a typical approach [84].
composite products, both as a filler or as a polymer matrix [79–81].
However, there are some challenges that require attention in order to 3. Dispersion of lignocellulosic components in thermoplastic
facilitate the utilization of lignin in high-value products, e.g. lignin polymers
extraction and isolation method and complex lignin structure for given
Uniform dispersion of fibers, nanofibers and lignin in thermoplastic
Table 2 biopolymers (e.g. PLA, BioPE, Poly-Butylene Succinate (PBS),
Theoretically estimated or measured values of tensile strength and stiffness for acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)) is required to ensure sufficient
nanocellulose films, nanofibrils and other lignocellulosic fiber, collected from component interaction and desired biocomposite properties. One major
literature challenge in dispersion processes is to avoid agglomeration, caused by e.
Tensile strength Tensile g. fiber-fiber interaction, fiber entanglement and the non-compatibility
[MPa] stiffness [GPa] between hydrophilic fibers and hydrophobic matrixes [85].
Nanocellulose films obtained through high- > 200 [67,68] > 10 [67,68] To disperse lignocellulosic fibers in a bioplastic matrix, one common
pressure homogenization (measured) procedure is to mix dry polymer and compatibilizer powder first and
Nanofibrils obtained through high-pressure 300–22000 [67] 60 – 300 [2, then add fibers. Fibers may be pretreated by chemical and/or mechan
homogenization and acid hydrolysis 67,69,70]
(estimated)
ical procedures to functionalize them. Since lignocellulosic fibers are
Spruce lignocellulosic fiber obtained through 500–1700 [71, 40 [32] water absorbents, it can be necessary to dry them before processing. The
kraft pulping (measured/estimated) 72] dried and mixed biocomposite powder can either be fed directly into a
Birch lignocellulosic fiber obtained through 300–1500 30–80 [35] melt extruder, or processed into pellets beforehand by melt com
sulphite pulping
pounding, pressing and chopping. Through melting and mechanical
Cotton 287–800 6–13 [35, 36]
Flax 344–1500 26–80 [35, shearing inside the extruder, the mixture will be further compounded.
36] The steps of pelleting and melt extrusion can be repeated several times,
Hemp 389–690 35 [35] but it should be considered that fiber damage occurs during this pro
Sisal 287–913 9–28 [35, 36] cedure [86–88].
Bamboo 450–800 11–35 [73]
The extrusion temperature, speed, mixing elements, repetitions of
4
compounding and the pretreatment of the raw materials can be varied in additional reinforcement (e.g. lignocellulosic fibers) may be adequate
order to achieve a given biocomposite quality. Different mixing ele for tailoring the mechanical performance [102–104].
ments e.g. kneading blocks, conveying elements or tooth mixing ele
ments are connected in series to accomplish certain objectives [89]. 4. Compatibilizers and fiber surface treatments
Lignocellulosic fibers start degrading above 200◦ C, whereas lignin has a
broader degradation temperature range (200–500◦ C) [90]. Therefore, it The well-known poor interaction between lignocellulosic fibers and
is recommended to maintain a melting temperature that does not exceed e.g. polyolefins, is related to the highly different polarities of the matrix
this temperature range [88]. In general, the fibers orient according to (hydrophobic) and the lignocellulosic fibers (hydrophilic). Therefore, it
the flow direction when extruding the biocomposite into a mold. The is important to include coupling agents and/or fiber sizing, which
mold flow can be influenced by temperature, speed and mold geometry compensates the polarity difference between fiber and matrix to
[91]. improve the adhesive strength between the two phases and contribute to
In [86] the authors investigated different dispersion processes for an even distribution of the fibers in the matrix.
lignocellulosic fibers and polyethylene (PE). Drying the lignocellulosic Fibers can be modified physically to change their surface properties
fibers makes them brittle and fragile. That leads to fiber damage and and enhance mechanical adhesion, or chemically to improve adhesion
shortening during the extrusion process. Wet lignocellulosic fibers are through chemical reactions. Physical treatments include corona, plasma
not that susceptible to damage development during extrusion, but they and ultraviolet (UV). Chemical modifications include alkaline, silane
agglomerate and cannot be compounded properly. As shown in [86], the [105–109], acetylation, oxidation, maleated coupling agents [110,111],
agglomeration of wet fibers provides the least increase of the flexural grafting and others. More detailed information on fiber treatments can
strength and modulus compared to neat PE. The greatest improvement be found in [15].
of flexural strength was gained with dried and pelleted fibers. Thus, Widely used coupling agents for lignocellulosic fibers and thermo
agglomeration of the fibers affects the mechanical properties of the plastic polymers are maleated coupling agents, for example maleated
biocomposite more negatively than fiber shortening. polypropylene (MAPP) or maleated polyethylene (MAPE) [112,113]. It
Boran et al. [92] investigated the effect of different mixing strategies is worth to mention that in most cases MAPE and MAPP are based on
on the mechanical properties of cellulose and high-density polyethylene polyolefins derived from petroleum. However, recent developments
(HDPE). The authors concluded that the master batch method and have also introduced maleated polyolefins where the PE fraction was
extensional flow mixing provided reasonable dispersion [92]. derived from biomass resources [114]. In addition, maleic anhydride
Blending and dispersion of nanocelluloses in a bioplastic matrix is can also be obtained from carbohydrates, e.g. from 5-hydroxymethylfur
more demanding than for lignocellulosic pulp fibers. That is because the fural [115], which makes it possible to produce 100% bio-based
resulting product after deconstructing lignocellulose fibers to nano compatibilizers.
cellulose is usually a translucent and highly viscous dispersion of more As an alternative to chemical modifications, Filgueira et al. [116]
than 95% water and nanocellulose fibrils [42,54]. The nanocellulose focused on the enzymatic modification of thermo-mechanical pulp
fibrils must be separated from water before mixing them with bioplastic (TMP) fibers by grafting phenolic compounds, which rendered the TMP
polymer, which causes the nanocellulose fibrils to agglomerate, thus fibers hydrophobic and with better compatibility with the used PLA
forming strong structures that are difficult to disperse in a bioplastic matrix. The authors demonstrated that the compatibilization with octyl
matrix. Dried lignocellulosic pulp fibers on the other side are relatively gallate by enzymatic grafting improved the tensile strength and simul
easy to disperse during melt-compounding in e.g. twin-screw extruders. taneously reduced the water uptake of the biocomposite. Although a
Water affects a given biocomposite by i) causing fiber swelling, ii) clear, positive fiber-reinforcing effect was demonstrated, the tensile
affecting the dimensional stability, iii) disabling the strength of the 3D printed specimens with reinforcement was low. This
fiber-matrix-interaction and iv) causing voids in the matrix [93–95]. In was most probably due to the processing parameters selected for 3D
addition, some polymers (e.g. PLA) degrade in the presence of water printing.
[96–98]. Approaches to reduce hydrophilicity of lignocellulosic fiber and
Igarashi et al. [99] reported about a process the authors termed the CNFs surfaces include the use of relatively simple methods that are
“Pulp Direct-Kneading Method”. The process simultaneously fibrillates usually applied to paper sizing, e.g. hydro-phobization with ASA or alkyl
dried pulp into nanoscale fibers with a diameter of 10–100 nm and ketene dimers (AKD). Sato et al. (2016) [117] applied ASA to modify the
uniformly disperses the resulting CNFs in HDPE. The pulp fibers were surface of mechanically produced CNFs in order to improve the rein
previously modified by alkenyl succinic anhydride (ASA), which sup forcement potential of HDPE. The use of unmodified CNFs increased the
presses the hydrogen bonding between dried CNFs and afterwards tensile strength and modulus and the hydrophobized CNFs (18.8 wt.%)
kneaded in a melt extruder to fibrillate the fibers and disperse them in potentiated this effect, achieving strength and modulus levels of 43.4
HDPE. The authors aim was to increase the attractiveness of CNFs for MPa and 1.97 GPa, respectively. Lepetit et al. (2017) [118] confirmed
commercialization by the “Pulp Direct-Kneading Method” [99]. this approach by modifying mechanically produced CNFs with ASA and
However, Wang et al. [100] pointed out that screw designs still need testing the modified CNFs as reinforcement of low-density PE. The effect
to be optimized to generate higher shear forces to obtain CNFs that are of the surface modification led to a significant increase of the tensile
homogeneously dispersed in thermoplastic matrix and suitable for strength and modulus. Three main aspects can be drawn from this
large-scale production. In addition, better understanding of the relations approach, i) the CNFs grade was a relatively coarse quality which avoid
between extrusion parameters, such as e.g. temperature settings, screw chemical pre-treatment and reduces production costs, ii) the modifica
speed, residence time, and dispersion of CNFs is required [100]. Bour tion can be performed in the wet state of the CNFs which may ease part
maud et al. [101] investigated the property changes of plant fibers of the processing and iii) mechanically produced CNFs (Fig.3A) seem to
(including lignocellulosic fibers) during processing of biocomposites provide an acceptable level of mechanical improvement. However, it
and presented the importance of selecting suitable processing parame remains an open question whether the additional processing steps and
ters to take full advantage of lignocellulosic fiber reinforcements. energy, to produce the CNFs and compound with PE, are necessary
Tanase et al. (2019) [79] demonstrated that PLA can be compounded considering that the reported levels of mechanical improvement can be
with lignin and the biocomposites performed well in 3D printing oper achieved with more reasonable and abundant lignocellulosic pulp fibers,
ations. No sign of phase separation was observed and X-ray analysis such as thermo-mechanical pulp fibers (see e.g. [119]).
revealed that lignin increased the crystallization, indicating that lignin Surface modification through acetylation of CNCs contributed to
acted as nucleating agent. However, lignin did not improve the me better dispersion of CNCs in PLA for low fiber loadings up to 0.5 wt.% - 5
chanical properties of the biocomposite which suggests that an wt.% [120]. However, no increment in tensile strength or modulus could
5
be achieved [121]. For decylamine-modified CNCs in PLA, similar out Table 3

comes were reported [122]. Comparison of lignocellulosic fiber types and comparison of a critical-fiber-
According to Olonisakin et al. [109] the currently most used surface length for one specific case.
modification techniques are silane treatments. Prior maceration of fiber Fiber type Fiber Fiber length Fiber length Theoretically
by NaOH causes a rough surface, so that both chemical and mechanical diameter before after calculated
adhesion is promoted. It was stated that a combination of adding com compounding compounding critical-fiber-
length
patibilizers to the matrix and treating the fiber with NaOH is an efficient
way to compatibilize lignocellulosic fibers and bioplastics. Lignocellulosic 15–30 1–5 mm [47] ~ 500 µm 400–1500 µm
fibers µm [33] [30, 119, (referred to the
Lignin has also been proposed as coupling agent in biocomposite
141] fiber length
filaments [123]. The effect of esterified lignin was comparable to the after
commercial coupling agent used in these experiments. According to the compounding)
authors, the lignin esterified with maleic anhydride provided the best Mechanically/ 20–100 > 10 µm - 0.6–18 µm
specific tensile strength of biocomposite filaments (7.71 MPa), which enzymatically nm [142]
treated CNF [142]
was comparable to a commercial coupling agent (7.68 MPa). However, TEMPO treated 3–5 nm 200–1100 nm - 282–882 nm
the effect of lignin, based on the provided data, has to be taken with care CNF [143] [61]
as the significance of the strength effect is small with regard to the CNC 3–35 nm 200–500 nm 100 nm [144] 529–45300 nm
scattering of the measurements. In addition, the reported tensile [143] [143]
strength values are considerably lower than the expected, considering
the commercial PLA used in the study (~4 MPa – value reported in the
theoretically calculated critical-fiber-length is given, to compare it to the
study vs. 48 MPa – value provided by NatureWorks® Ingeo™ 3051D).
actual fiber lengths. Equation (5.1) was used to estimate the critical-
fiber-length. For each fiber type the maximum fiber strength was
5. Analytical modelling for tailoring the mechanical
taken from literature according to Table 2 [67,71,72]. BioPE was chosen
performance of biocomposites
as an exemplary matrix with a tensile strength of 18 MPa according to
[119]. The shear strength at yield for BioPE can then be calculated by
This section shall provide a brief overview about micromechanics of √̅̅̅
τ = ( 2/3)⋅σ and results in τ = 8.5 MPa.
biocomposites, to offer the reader a well-founded background on the
The calculated load-transfer-length of all fiber types is, in this
mechanical interaction between the previously mentioned components.
assumption, equal to or much longer than their actual fiber length. These
Analytical methods can be used to estimate and determine the required
biocomposites are thus regarded as short-fiber biocomposites. Note that
raw material properties that are necessary for targeted biocomposite
the calculated critical-fiber-length depends on the fiber strength and
tensile properties or to verify the interfacial interaction between fiber
assumes a perfect bond between fiber and matrix. With weak fiber-
and matrix [119]. For predicting tensile strength and modulus of com
matrix bonding, the reinforcement would thus be regarded in the form
posite materials in general, the rule of mixture is a common assumption
of particles rather than fibers.
[124,125].
Moreover, it is important to note that the lignocellulosic fiber lengths
Lignocellulosic fibers are not available as endless, continues fila
reported in Table 3 correspond to the lengths of the fibers after com
ments. The length of lignocellulosic plant fibers usually ranges between
pounding. Compounding reduces the fiber length as demonstrated by
1–35 mm and their diameter between 15–30 µm [33]. However, the
[30,119,141]. In addition, one may expect that similar damage may
length also depends on the origin [60] and might be reduced during
apply for CNFs, meaning that they may be structurally modified after
processing, e.g. compounding [30,126,127]. Furthermore, they can be
compounding [144]. This could be the case in particular with mechan
classified, according to their length, as short fibers (1–5 mm) or long
ically produced CNFs due to the coarse structure of the material.
fibers (5–50 mm) [30,33,128].
Equation (5.1) further indicates, that the critical-fiber-length is
Lignocellulosic-short-fiber biocomposites can be considered as
proportional to the fiber diameter. Assuming the fiber has a circular
isotropic, if the fiber orientation is completely random [91]. In com
profile, its dimensions can be described by the corresponding aspect
posites, external loads are applied to the matrix and transferred to the
ratio (fiber length divided by fiber diameter) [41]. According to equa
fibers through the fiber ends and the cylindric surface close to the ends.
tion (5.1), a higher fiber aspect ratio leads to more effective strength
The critical-fiber-length of a fiber in a matrix can be regarded as the
ening of the biocomposite until a critical value lc/d is reached (see
minimum length in which the maximum fiber strength σf,max can be
equations 5.1 and 5.3). For higher aspect ratios the strength remains
achieved. The critical-fiber-length lc is given by the following equation
approximately constant. However, this assumption does not cover ef
[91]:
fects of fiber orientation, homogeneous dispersion, fiber shape and
lc σ f ,max interfacial interactions between fiber and matrix.
= (5.1)
d 2τy There are several micromechanical models for short-fiber bio
composites which extend laminate theory [124] by including interfacial
In equation (5.1) d describes the fiber diameter and τy is the matrix
adhesion (Hirsch’s model), shape fitting factors (Halpin-Tsai model) or
yield strength in shear, which can be set as equal to the interface shear
the shear-lag parameter (Cox) [145]. Narin [146] modified Cox’s shear
strength along the fiber length, assuming perfect bonding between fiber
lag parameter by including the shear modulus of the fibers and an
and matrix. Through single-fiber pull-out tests the actual interfacial
adhesion parameter to create better agreement with experimental values
shear strength (IFSS value) can be determined by dividing the load at de-
.
bonding of fiber and matrix by the shell surface of the fiber [129–131].
Another widely used model to predict the unidirectional tensile
Lignocellulosic fibers embedded in a thermoplastic matrix usually result
modulus E1 and strength σ 1 of biocomposites is the modified rule of
in IFSS values between 3 MPa and 25 MPa [132–136]. Other test
mixture (Equation (5.2)). An orientation factor x1 and a length and
methods to determine the interfacial shear strength between fiber and
interface factor of the fibers x2 is added to the rule of mixture to cover
matrix are the single-fiber push-out [137], micro-bonding [133,138] or
effects caused by un-oriented short-fiber reinforcements [112, 145]:
micro-debonding [139,140] tests. If the fiber length of the lignocellu
( )
losic short-fibers is much longer than the load-transfer-length, the bio E1 = x1 x2 Ef Vf + Em 1 − Vf (5.2)
composite can be regarded as a continues-fiber biocomposite [91].
( )
Typical fiber lengths and diameters of lignocellulosic fibers, σ 1 = x1 x2 σ f Vf + σ m 1 − Vf (5.3)
considered in this review, are presented in Table 3. In addition, a
6
In equation (5.2) and (5.3) the longitudinal fiber tensile modulus and consumption during production of nanofibers and the potential nano
strength are described by Ef and σf. The matrix tensile modulus and fiber agglomeration during compounding are taken into account.
strength are described by Em and σ m. Vf describes the fiber volume Since lignocellulosic fibers exhibit high variations of properties
fraction in the biocomposite. The length-and-interface factor x2 is given related to disturbances during plant growth, climatic conditions, soil
by x2 = l/(2 • lc) for fiber lengths l less than the critical fiber length lc. If l types, etc., the idea is to eliminate the fiber defects by deconstruction
is equal or greater than lc, x2 = 1 − lc/(2 • l) [147]. The orientation factor [69]. Various grinding and homogenization methods from sectors such
x1 is assumed to be 0.167 for randomly aligned fibers in three di as food processing, cosmetics or the pharmaceutical industry were used
mensions, 0.334 for a random alignment in plane and 1.0 for unidirec for the preparation of nanocellulose. The main issues with these
tional aligned fibers [148]. However, Sanadi [147] reported difficulties methods are still that the fibers tend to entangle which can cause fiber
in determining an orientation factor due to the difference between the damage, plugging of the processing equipment and a high energy con
core- and skin-fiber-orientation, according to the melt flow. Further sumption during production [47,69].
more, the topography of lignocellulosic fibers is quite uneven (Fig. 1) As described in Section 2.2, chemical pretreatments are necessary to
and also the fiber length and strength vary greatly. facilitate the deconstruction of the fibers into homogeneous CNFs
Furthermore, equation (5.3) is only valid if the fiber strain is similar (Fig. 3B). When considering lignocellulosic pulp fibers in their largest
to the matrix strain. The biocomposites, considered in this review, scale as reinforcement for bioplastics, the previous mentioned chemical
consist of brittle reinforcing fibers and ductile matrixes. In that case the pretreatments are omitted. Obviously, this saves time, energy, equip
biocomposite strength σf should be lower than the strength of the neat ment capacity and human resources.
biopolymer, if the fiber volume fraction is below a critical fiber volume Lignocellulosic pulp fibers also have a lower outer surface area per
fraction Vf ,crit = σf +(σm − σm ) [31,149]:
σm − σm
unit mass compared to nanocellulose. It thus seems more reasonable to
{ ( ) consider surface modification on lignocellulosic pulp fibers than on
( )
σ 1 Vf =
σ m 1 − V(f for )0 < Vf < Vf , min
(5.4) nanocellulose. Less surface area requires less compatibilizer [13,155].
σf Vf + σm 1 − Vf for Vf < Vf ,min An extensive overview on how the size of cellulose-based reinforcements
In Equation (5.4), σ’m is the matrix strength at the fiber failure strain affects the mechanical properties of a given biocomposite has been
and Vf,min = (σσmf −− σσmm) is the fiber volume fraction, at which the bio provided by Hubbe and Grigsby [13]. The authors compared multiple
recent studies dealing with the mechanical performance of cellulose
composite should result in its minimum strength. At a volume fraction
reinforced HDPE to analyze the effect of fiber size on tensile stiffness and
below Vf,crit the biocomposite can be regarded as a porous matrix, cor
strength. They could not find a statistically significant relation between
responding to the fiber fraction [149]. According to the Kelly-Tyson
mechanical strength and fiber size, when considering all their collected
equation [150] the fiber strength σ f is given by σf = (l • τ)/d for fibers
data. In contrast they found a statistically significant increase of tensile
shorter than lc and σf′ = σuf(1 − (σuf • d)/(4 • l • τ)) for fibers equal or
modulus with increasing fiber length from 0.1 to 10 000 µm. It was also
longer than lc, with σuf is the ultimate tensile strength of the reinforcing
shown that the compatibility between fiber and matrix tend to be a
fiber [150].
much more important factor, regarding tensile strength, than fiber size.
Since σuf and the orientation factor x1 are unknown, Bowyer and
The use of CNFs in thermoplastic bionanocomposites requires to
Bader proposed to assume that σuf equals the elastic modulus of the fi
overcome various limitations. One specific challenge is to dry a CNF
bers times the strain of the composite [148]. They further assume that
dispersion (commonly 1-5% in water) without causing agglomeration of
the orientation factor x1 is not strain-dependent and equal for all fibers
the nanofibrils. Although, the relatively high temperatures applied in
[148]:
compounding and injection molding processes are adequate for ligno
[∑ ]
li ⋅τ ∑ ( Ef ⋅εc ⋅d) ( ) cellulosic fibers (< 210◦ C), some CNF grades (e.g. TEMPO CNF) may be
σ 1 = x1 ⋅ ⋅Vfi + Ef ⋅εc 1 − Vfj + Em ⋅εc 1 − Vf (5.5) more exposed to thermal degradation [64], which may potentially limit
d 4⋅lj ⋅τ
the mechanical properties of biocomposites containing CNFs. These
In equation (5.5) the indices i are used for fiber fractions with a conditions lead to significant decrease of tensile strength and stiffness in
length less than lc and j for fiber fractions with a length equal or greater the resulting bionanocomposite [47]. Such limitations should be a main
than lc. The values required to solve equation (5.4) must be obtained driver in the development of new compounding processes which may
from a tensile test and by determining the fiber lengths experimentally. facilitate the potential utilization of nanocellulose in relevant
The detailed procedure is described in [148]. bionanocomposites.
Several studies [112,151–153] show good agreements between One approach to improve the fiber alignment of CNFs is the so called
analytical and experimental results by using the Bowyer-Bader wet-stretching method [14,156]. The wet-stretching method was
assumption [148]. However, one must be aware of the effect of fiber developed for wet-spun CNFs for biomedical applications. After spinning
agglomeration, which is still not considered and can increase the error of a specific wet stretching device is used to increase the fiber alignment
the equation (5.4), especially for higher fiber loadings. [156]. The stretching method was also successfully applied on melt spun
Applying analytical models to CNF- or CNC-reinforced thermoplastic poly(butylene succinate) and microfibrillated cellulose [157]. Stretch
polymers turns out to be insufficient for predicting tensile strength and ing is generally adopted from classic polymer filament spinning
modulus due to inadequate dispersion, poor fiber matrix bonding and methods, such as wet-, dry- or melt spinning. The filament is stretched
fiber agglomeration [4,154]. Further research on how to adjust the by down-drawing to enable orientation of the polymer chains along the
known micromechanical models to be applicable for CNF/CNC bio fiber axis [158].
composites is required. An advantage for nanocellulose-based reinforcement may be offered
by the use of relatively hydrophilic matrixes like epoxy resin or starch,
6. Bionanocomposites – challenges and opportunities since there is no need of any coupling agents or surface treatments to
gain solid adhesion [13]. Hervy et al. [159] performed a
Biocomposites containing nanocellulose are commonly referred to as life-cycle-analysis (LCA) for nanocellulose reinforced epoxy resin, neat
bionanocomposites. There are several articles and reports about the PLA and 30 wt.% glass fiber reinforced polypropylene (GF/PP). The
potential of nanocellulose as a reinforcement for bionanocomposites [4, authors concluded that the production and biocomposite manufacturing
12,47,155], stating their potentially high tensile stiffness and strength of CNFs has a higher global warming potential (GWP) and a higher
[57,67]. However, there are also some growing concerns as to whether abiotic depletion potential of fossil fuels (ADf) than producing PLA or
nanocellulose is adequate as thermoplastic reinforcement in large GF/PP composites. In terms of use phase and end-of-life it was found
quantities [13], which is understandable when aspects such as energy that only with a fiber loading of > 60 vol.% the GWP and ADf of
7
CNF/epoxy can be lower than that of neat PLA [159]. However, it is choosing a relatively high nozzle temperature (220◦ C) and printing
particular that Hervy et al. [159] compared thermoplastics (PLA, speed (15 mm/s) [167]. It was further observed, that it is beneficial to
GF/PP) and thermosets (CNF-reinforced epoxy), which are expected to choose a smoother corner geometry over sharp corners [168], a lower
cover different application areas. A relevant study would be to compare length to width ratio of the overall 3D printed part [169] and a greater
e.g. PLA, fiber-reinforced PLA and CNF-reinforced PLA and thus reveal layer thickness [170,171]. Warpage is also correlated with the thermal
the LCA performance of timely biocomposite materials. Additionally, expansion coefficient, the difference between glass transition and heat
studies that only take into account the production of CNFs and CNCs chamber temperature [169]. Lignocellulosic fillers have also been re
have shown that the use of chemicals during the pre-treatment process is ported to reduce warping [172]. This was attributed to an increase in
the main contributing factor to the environmental impact [160,161]. viscosity [22,66,173,174]. In Fig. 5 an example of lignocellulosic-filled
FDM-filament, tensile test specimens and printed structures are shown.
7. 3D printing of lignocellulosic short-fiber reinforced An FDM-part is generally a layup of melted filament strands, which is
bioplastics comparable to a composite made of lamina ply stocks. Due to imperfect
bonding between the strands, the material strength is reduced in both
Biocomposites can be produced with several methods, depending on building planes, in contrast to an injection or compression molded part
quantity, size, design, application and the material to be processed. In [119]. For simple modelling purpose, the filament-material itself can be
addition to the material composition, the production process also affects roughly described as isotropic, assuming fiber lengths less than the
the biocomposite properties. Biocomposite products are mainly manu critical fiber length. The fibers are mainly oriented according to the
factured through injection molding, compression molding, extrusion or extrusion direction [177]. However, the effect of porosity has a greater
3D printing. The latter is the main focus of this review and will be impact on tensile properties than fiber orientation [178]. The actual
explored further in the following. FDM-part can then be regarded as orthotropic [179].
7.1. Fused deposition modelling

7.2. Micromechanics of FDM-printed parts
For prototyping and/or implementation of challenging designs, 3D
printing, such as FDM, is a time and resource saving production method The classical laminate theory [124] considers perfect bonding be
for biocomposite products. FDM applies a heated nozzle to deposit thin tween each lamina, but FDM specimens are composites of imperfect
threads (approx. diameter <400 µm) to construct 3D structures, layer by bonded strands and voids. Therefore, the equations to calculate the
layer [162]. The dimensions of the layer height and width depend elastic constants of a lamina [124] need to be adjusted. Based on the rule
entirely on parameter selection based on nozzle size, printer and 3D of mixture the elastic modulus of a unidirectional FDM-part, printed in
slicer capability. This technique is the most affordable and widespread flat build orientation [180] can be calculated by the following ap
method within additive manufacturing [18]. proaches listed in Table 4 [181]:
The characteristics of FDM printed products depend on processing The elastic modulus of the filament material and the void densities
parameters, layer construction and filament properties. Adjustable must be measured experimentally. To calculate the void densities ρ1 and
processing parameters are the extrusion temperature (nozzle tempera ρ2, microscopic images of the x-y cross section of the unidirectional
ture), heating plate temperature, possibly heated enclosure (chamber) specimen need to be analyzed. The calculations assume pure geometric
temperature, extrusion speed and layer height. The temperature settings shapes (Fig. 6) [181]. The void density ρvoids can be modelled based on a
are mainly referred to the matrix material, but the degradation tem
perature of lignocellulosic components (which starts at approx. 200◦ C)
is important to consider. The layer construction, including raster width,
layer height orientation and gap size between the filament strands, are
the main characteristics that affect the mechanical properties of printed
parts [18]. The strand shape and gap size are adjustable through
extrusion temperature, layer height and speed [163].
Fiber reinforcements in filaments can strengthen a 3D printed part
but can in cases promote void formation due to inadequate fiber-matrix
interphase and rough fiber surface [18]. A high-quality bio
composite-filament needs to be well compounded, can only contain a
limited amount of fibers and a limited fiber size. Otherwise the melt
viscosity will increase significantly which can lead to nozzle blockage. In
addition, the filament may become relatively brittle, the quality of the
surface finish gets worse and the dimensional accuracy can be reduced
[22]. Commercial biocomposite filaments contain up to 40 wt.% fiber
loading [163]. Increasing the fiber loading in FDM-filaments roughens
the surface and increases the probability of void formation [164,165]
and shape deviation, caused by irregular swelling or shrinking of
lignocellulosic fibers [11,166]. Although, a recent study on nano
cellulose reinforced PLA [12] revealed a great reduction of voids for CNF
reinforced PLA (1 wt.%) compared to neat PLA. The authors attributed
this realization to reduced filament swelling at the nozzle outlet.
Shrinkage and warping of FDM-printed parts are especially critical
Fig. 5. Example of a lignocellulosic-filled FDM-filament. Image: Chiara Zarna,
for highly crystalline polymers, such as PP. However, amorphous poly
NTNU. (a), FDM-tensile-test-specimens. Image: Chiara Zarna, NTNU. (b), FDM-
mers, such as amorphous PLA and ABS are affected by warping. Warping printed structure from lignocellulosic-filled/PLA-filament Reprinted from MDPI
is the dimensional change of a solidified 3D printed part, due to residual [[175], P. 3]. Copyright (2017) by the autors. (c), building structures printed
stresses induced through rapid cooling. In order to reduce warping in from poplar/PLA composite. Reprinted with permission from American
FDM 3D printing, process parameter optimization is essential. It has Chemical Society [[176], P. 4560]. Copyright (2019) American Chemical So
been found that warping of PLA-parts can be reduced significantly by ciety. (d).
8
Table 4
Modelling approaches for analytical estimation of the elastic modulus of FDM printed parts
Elastic modulus Nomenclature Deviation to Filament
experiment material
Longitudinal printing direction, E1,P = (1 − ρ1)EF [181] - EF: Elastic modulus of filament 4%–16% ABS
applicable for unidirectional printing - ρ1: area void density, depended on gap size g, calculated
[0] form experimental measurements (Fig. 6)
CE ⋅Z
Elong = E01 (e[(1− ρvoids ) ] − ρvoids ) + - E01,02: Elastic modulus of filament material in < 14% ABS
E02 ⋅(1 − ρvoids ); longitudinal and transverse direction
for an infinite number of layers: - ρvoids: area void density
ρvoids )CE ⋅Z ] - CE: Sensitivity parameter, needs to be calibrated from
e[(1− = 1 [182]
experimental results
- Z: Number of layers
Transverse printing direction, applicable E2,P = ξ(1 − ρ2)EF - ξ: Empirical factor between 0 and 1 which takes into ~ 5% ABS
for unidirectional printing [90] [181] account the bonding strength between the filaments
- ρ2: Linear void fraction, ρ2=1-((2y)/(2b-δ)), compare
Fig. 6
Etrans = ξElong [182] - ξ: Empirical factor between 0 and 1 < 14 % ABS
Applicable for multiple printing lay-ups: A11 ⋅A22 − A212 - Aji: Stiffness coefficient of extensional stiffens matrix [0]: 9%–15% PLA, PLA +
EEffective = [183]
[0], [0/90], [±45] A22 [183], material parameter obtained from tensile tests [0/90]: 6% - carbon black
on 3D printed parts 11%
[±45]: 1%–20%
Applicable for multiple printing lay-ups: 1 - A: Extensional stiffness matrix [124] ~ 3–7 %, ABS
E1,θ = [181]
[0], [0/90], [15/-75], [30/-60] and [A− 1 ]11 ⋅h - h: Thickness of FDM printed part compare Fig. 7
[45/-45] - θ: printing angle (considered by stiffness matrix)
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of an FDM-printed biocomposite part. Reprinted and modified from MDPI [163], P.3], no permission required. Copyright (2020) by
the authors.
thermal model to predict the temperature evolution of the filament and

a sintering model based on geometrical considerations. The
temperature-dependent viscosity and surface tension of the filament
material must be measured experimentally. More detailed information
can be found in [182].
According to [182], the tensile strength of an FDM-part can be
estimated in the same way as for the elastic modulus, using experi
mentally obtained material strength data and calibrated sensitivity
parameters.
In [181] experiments and theoretical calculations where accom
plished with FDM-parts printed in a [0], [0/90], [15/-75], [30/-60] and
[45/-45] layup. Laminate theory was used to calculate the tensile
modulus in longitudinal loading direction as a function of the printing
angle θ. In Fig. 7 the dependency of print direction on elastic modulus of
3D printed parts is shown. Laminate theory was also used in [183] to
calculate the elastic modulus for different printing layups. In this study
the lowest deviation, of ~1 % between model and experiment was found
for a [45/-45] layup, using a PLA- or PLA + carbon black-filament. The
Fig. 7. : Comparison between theoretical and experimental values of the elastic
highest deviation of ~11 % resulted from the unidirectional [0] layup.
modulus at different angled FDM-specimens. Reprinted with permission from
Additionally, a bi-material part, printed out of PLA and PLA+carbon Elsevier [[181], p. 139], license number: 4965541406639. Copyright (2002),
black, showed an even higher deviation (< 20 %) between analytical Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
model and experiment in a [45/-45] layup. This was attributed to
9
improper adhesion between PLA and PLA + carbon black. Table 5

No studies about analytical modeling of 3D printed lignocellulosic Examples of tensile properties of 3D printed biocomposites
fiber reinforced biocomposites could be found, indicating a lack of Thermoplastic Biocomposite Strength Stiffness Elong. at
research in this area. The models presented in Table 4, showed polymer [MPa] [GPa] break
reasonable agreement with experimental results for pure polymer and [%]
PLA/carbon black composite FDM-filaments. Since void formation and PLA [189] Neat PLA 60 2.9 6.3
irregular surface appearance is even more present in filaments con PLA/poplar wood 50 3.6 1.6
taining lignocellulosic reinforcements [11,164,165], the error of the powder (80/20) wt.
%
models might be comparatively greater. PLA/fibrillated 32 2.6 1.5
poplar fiber (85/15)
7.3. Influence of printing parameters on tensile strength and modulus of wt. %
lignocellulosic short-fiber biocomposites printed via FDM PLA [190] Neat PLA ~46 - ~3
PLA/PEG/CNF (91/ ~57 - ~4.5
4/5) wt.%
Le Duigou et al. [162] presented the influence of gap size between PLA [10] Neat PLA ~55 ~3 ~3
the printing strands and set it in relation to the raster width. The authors PLA/CNF (70/30) ~80 ~7 ~1.5
showed that printing with less horizontal space between the strands, wt.%
PLA [79] Neat PLA 58.5 2.9 2.5
leads to a greater overlapping area and thus to higher tensile strength
PLA/Lignin (60/40) 45.7 2.7 1.9
and modulus for both, a 0◦ and 90◦ printing layup. wt.%
Yang and Yeh [163] investigated the effect of extrusion speed on BioPE [119] Neat BioPE 10 0.7 10
mechanical properties of FDM-printed wood fiber reinforced PLA. Lower BioPE/ 30 1.5 5.5
extrusion speed with same layer height results in wider layer width. The lignocellulosic fiber
(80/20) wt. %
smoothest surface and greatest overlapping between strands could be
produced with the lowest investigated speed of 30 mm/s compared to
50 mm/s and 70 mm/s. The samples were all printed with a 0◦ layup important effects can be overlaid due to insufficient parameter
which means the filament strands were aligned longitudinal to the test configurations.
direction. This setup did not result in any significant change of tensile
strength or modulus for different extrusion speed parameters. Showing, 7.4. Stereolithography
that in a 0◦ layup the porosity or void formation between the strands has
almost no effect on tensile properties longitudinal to the printing di Stereo-lithography (SLA) is a 3D printing technology based on photo-
rection. In contrast, compressive strength was significantly reduced polymerization. A stereo-lithography resin was reinforced with CNC
(~34%) for samples printed with an extrusion speed of 70 mm/s, (0.5–10% w/w) for the prototyping of 3D objects [191]. The mechanical
compared to 30 mm/s. This indicated the improved interaction between properties (e.g. tensile strength, young´s modulus and flexural modulus)
the printing strands at lower extrusion speed [163]. of the biocomposites increased modestly as the CNC content increased
Several studies have shown that the overlapping or porosity of from 0.5 to 2%. Increasing the CNC content to 5% reduced the tensile
printing strands is the main influence parameter with respect to me strength and flexural modulus, potentially due to the formation of CNC
chanical properties, apart from the layup construction. The porosity can aggregates that act as stress concentrators. Photo-polymerization is an
be minimized through optimized extrusion temperature adapted to attractive 3D printing technology that may be adequate for nanofibers
matrix and filler material [10,184,185], low extrusion speed [163], low and lignin. Potentially these components may be valuable reinforcement
raster width [162] and low layer height, resulting in greater layer width and filler candidates provided that the materials can be mixed with the
[66,185,186] (Fig. 6). Garzon-Hernandez et al. [182] identified the photo-curable ink components.
layer height as the main influencing factor on tensile properties.
Through adjusting the layer height from 0.3 to 0.1 mm the void density 7.5. Selective laser sintering
decreased by more than 97 %.
Selected tensile properties of FDM-printed specimens made of In Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) polymer powder is spread in a bead
different types of lignocellulosic biocomposites are presented in Table 5. and a selected cross-sectional area is sintered or melted through a laser
Extensive overviews of filament types and tensile properties, including and forms a solid layer.
lignocellulosic fiber types for 3D printing have been presented in [21, Lignocellulosic fiber – thermoplastic SLS parts have low mechanical
165,187,188]. strength, up to 5 MPa in tensile strength without post-processing and
Comparing the mechanical properties of 3D printed specimens for 6–11 MPa with wax-, or epoxy-infiltration [192-194]. To address this
neat and reinforced PLA (presented in Table 5) it appears that neither issue, a prosopis chilensis wood powder/poly-ethersulfone bio
tensile strength nor modulus have been improved when using fibrillated composite formulation was proposed by [194]. An addition of 10%
poplar [189] or lignin [79], as fillers. Using CNF to reinforce PLA wood powder to poly-ethersulfone powder was found to be the opti
increased the strength by ~24% [190] or even ~45% [10]. TMP fibers mum, regarding bending and tensile strength. In addition, the dimen
(20 wt.%) more than doubled the tensile strength and modulus of BioPE sional accuracy was improved through the filler material.
[119]. This seems to confirm the ability of wood fibers to reinforce Lignin has also been introduced as a filler material in SLS to safe costs
bioplastics for 3D printing applications, compared to wood powder and while maintaining or improving processability [195]. Including lignin in
lignin. Similar conclusions have been drawn by [165]. a polyamide (PA) matrix resulted in higher porosity and accordingly a
It can also be observed, that the improvement of almost 45% in higher elastic modulus and lower tensile strength compared to neat PA.
tensile strength after adding 30 wt.% freeze-dried CNF to a PLA matrix, The effect of lignin on the tensile strength and modulus was related to
is strongly related to adjustments of the FDM-printing parameters. With differences in surface roughness and surface energy. However, lignin
the first printing setup, almost no tensile strength increment could be also enhanced the thermal stability and wettability (for 90◦ print
gained by increasing the CNF loading. After lowering the extrusion orientation) of the structure. The wettability was attributed to higher
temperature from 215◦ C to 180◦ C, increasing the bed temperature from surface roughness, caused by the addition of lignin.
93◦ C to 120◦ C and lowering the speed from 15 mm/s to 7.5 mm/s, a
clear strength increment was achieved [10]. The influence of an opti
mized printing setup becomes obvious and leads to the assumption that
10
7.6. Applications for 3D printed lignocellulosic biocomposites

σ max = β + α⋅logNf (8.2)
Biocomposites are widely applied for structural and nonstructural In equation (8.2) σ max describes the maximum applied stress, β and α
products, for example in building industry, automotive industry and are curve fitting parameters and Nf is the number of cycles to failure. The
household items [34,196–198]. As applications for CNF-based bio S-N curve is only valid below the yield strength.
nanocomposites the paper industry, packaging industry and medical This model was used by Haque et al. [208] to analyze the fatigue
applications are often mentioned in literature [46,47,155,199]. behavior of PP reinforced with 50 wt.% lignocellulosic flour, 2.5 wt.%
Presently, there are no known structural applications for bio CNF and 2.5 wt.% maleic anhydride and peroxide (MAPO). The authors
nanocomposites in which CNFs have proven major advantages over presented a S-N curve for a 95% survivability of neat PP and PP/ligno
lignocellulosic fibers. However, there are some interesting approaches cellulosic flour composites, as seen in Fig. 8.
for potential future applications like wind turbine blades [200] or car In general, fiber-reinforced bio-composites offer higher fatigue
components [99]. An overview of recent studies on FDM and SLA strength than unreinforced plastics, because the reinforcement hinders
polymeric input materials containing lignocellulosic components and the crack propagation in the matrix [208,209]. However, in Fig. 8 the
their applications is provided in [187]. As mentioned above, processing slope of PP/lignocellulosic flour is steeper compared to neat PP. The
of a given CNF reinforced bionanocomposite is limited by the high po graphs A-G refer to different temperatures ((120, 140, 160, 180)◦ C) and
larity and water content of the CNF dispersion. Therefore, water-soluble mixing time ((5, 10, 20) min.) during twin-screw extrusion of the
polymers are the most favorable systems for CNF-based bio PP/lignocellulosic flour/CNF/MAPP biocomposite. Furthermore, sam
nanocomposites, so far [199]. ple A was composed without MAPP. However, neither mixing temper
However, the use of biocomposites, primarily composed of PLA as ature nor time variation showed a significant influence on the fatigue
the bioplastic matrix, has gained attention as a filament for FDM, properties of the composites. It was also concluded that the effect of
because of its degradability and ease of printing [165]. Advances on the molecular degradation of PP, due to the addition of MAPP, had a higher
manufacturing of PLA- biocomposite filaments for FDM have been re influence on the fatigue properties of the composites compared with the
ported, focusing on the appropriate fiber modification for increasing the compatibilizing effect of MAPP [208].
adhesion to the PLA matrix [116]. Gauss et al. [21] stated in a recent Due to the hygroscopic nature of lignocellulosic pulp fibers, the
review, that continues efforts have been taken to improve the mechan environmental conditions affect its dimensional stability and thus the
ical and physical performance of PLA as matrix material for bio fatigue behavior [210]. Several recent studies on fatigue behavior of
composite FDM-filaments, since it is widely applicable and the best lignocellulosic fiber-reinforced thermoplastic biocomposites can be
tensile performance of cellulose-reinforced biocomposites has been found in the literature, comparing neat thermoplastics to biocomposites
achieved by using PLA as a matrix. and studying the influence of coupling agents on the corresponding fa
As mentioned above, lignocellulosic material covers lignocellulosic tigue properties [208,211,212]. Fotouh [212] observed that after water
powders, fibers, nanofibrils and lignin. These materials have varying absorption the S-N curve was shifted down on the fatigue-strength-axis
properties, enabling a wide range of different type of 3D printed appli about 4–7% compared to the dry composite.
cations. There exist several published studies about the mechanical In a recent study from Travieso-Rodriguez, et al. [213] the fatigue
properties of 3D printed lignocellulosic biocomposites [11,22,79,116, behavior of 3D printed lignocellulosic fiber reinforced PLA was inves
119,189,201], but there are only a few about CNF [10,11,190,202] or tigated. The authors showed an experimental investigation of the in
CNC reinforced filaments for FDM [9,11,203]. Suggesting that structural fluences of different manufacturing parameters. They concluded that the
applications for these nanomaterials are still uncertain. In addition, addition of lignocellulosic fibers increases voids between the filament
research on long-term behaviour, is currently missing. To assess the layers and thus decreases their fatigue behavior. The mechanical fatigue
suitability of 3D printed lignocellulosic biocomposites for structural properties of 3D printed parts are influenced by the same factors like
applications, studies on durability, fatigue and reproducibility could under static loading: Printing parameters, material and reinforcement
play a major role. and layer construction [214].
Shanmugam et al. [214] presented a review about fatigue behavior
8. Fatigue of lignocellulosic biocomposites
When studying mechanical properties, the short-term quasi static

strength and elastic properties tend to get most attention. However, for
many applications the long-term performance is no less important and
may be the critical design parameter. Many parameters can influence
long-term performance, such as cyclic loading (fatigue), long-term static
loads (stress rupture), swelling due to the absorption of fluids and
chemical degradation. This paper will just describe one of these aspects,
mechanical fatigue.
Fatigue of thermoplastics generally depends on loading rate and
temperature as well as on the concentration of absorbed liquids such as
water [204,205].
S-N curves (stress – number of fatigue cycle curves) are used to
characterize fatigue test results and to predict the remaining fatigue life
of a material. Originally S-N curves were presented as Woehler curves in
the log-log scale as [206]:
logΔσ = logΔσ 0 + α⋅logNf (8.1)
Δσ is the stress amplitude and Δσ0 and α are fit parameters. This Fig. 8. S-N curve of 95% confidence band of experimental data of neat PP and
presentation of fatigue data is used also today in many design codes. PP/lignocellulosic flour composites (A-G), prepared under different mixing
However, polymer and composite fatigue material data are often pub conditions. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier [[208], P.140], under
lished as in the linear-log scale. A widely used model in composite fa creative commons license: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc
tigue is the following fatigue-life-relation [207]: -nd/4.0/. Copyright (2019), Kingfa SCI. & TECH. CO., LTD.
11
of FDM-3D printed polymeric composites. The authors aim was to attention to the deviation between theoretical estimations and physical
evaluate 3D printed polymeric materials’ fatigue properties and they test results, mainly caused by the poor consideration of fiber-matrix-
emphasize that mechanical fatigue investigations play a major role for interaction and strong impact through biocomposite processing on the
enabling the use of FDM-printed products in various structural and resulting mechanical properties of the end-product.
load-bearing applications. They further concluded that a +45◦ /-45◦ Concluding, this review indicates that presently lignocellulosic pulp
print layup yields to longer fatigue life for PLA-based materials and that fibers may be more adequate as component of thermoplastic bio
process parameter optimizations (regarding void reduction and ink composites than the corresponding cellulose nanofibers. In addition to
material characteristics) are of high importance for fatigue properties. their reinforcing properties, they require less production efforts and may
When it comes to fiber reinforcements the authors indicated the fiber perform better in LCA analysis compared to the corresponding nano
wettability, fiber fraction in the matrix, fiber dimension and properties fibers. This is expected to extend their applicability in a wide variety of
as crucial factors for determining fatigue life. But also mentioned the industries such as construction, household items, interior design, and
lack of such investigations in literature [214]. This seems to apply to automotive. Further, investigations on durability and fatigue of ligno
biocomposites in general [215]. cellulosic biocomposites are required. Understanding of production
Studies on the fatigue properties of CNF bionanocomposite materials processes and their influence on the mechanical properties of bio
also lack in literature, so far. Nonetheless, analyzing the fatigue prop composites, appear to be of high importance to apply biocomposites in
erties are important to evaluate if there are feasible applications for conversion processes such as extrusion, injection molding and 3D
thermoplastic CNF-based bionanocomposites. Since the fatigue proper printing. In addition, a stronger focus on the development of energy-
ties of biocomposite are strongly dependent on the water absorbing saving production processes could support the attractiveness of bio
ability of the lignocellulosic reinforcements [210,212] and the interfa composites for large-scale productions.
cial coupling between fiber and matrix, these dependencies might apply
for CNF-based bionanocomposites as well. Declaration of Competing Interests
An investigation of lignocellulosic fiber/PP biocomposites with
different aspect ratios of fibers [216] showed, that a higher aspect ratio The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
can lead to a slight improvement of the fatigue performance of the interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
biocomposite. But the effect of aspect ratio on fatigue strength appeared the work reported in this paper.
to be quite low (< 5% increased strength with ~ 44% increased aspect
ratio) [216]. However, water absorption of lignocellulosic fibers is a
Acknowledgments
known issue regarding to their fatigue performance due to swelling and
fiber-matrix de-bonding [212,217].
The Research Council of Norway and the companies supporting the
A deeper understanding of failure mechanism behind the static and
ALLOC project (Grant no. 282310) are thanked for financial support.
dynamic loading condition of 3D printed lignocellulosic biocomposites
can help to improve the durability and reliability of such products [214,
Supplementary materials
215]. Greater research effort is required in this field to drive forward the
implementation of (3D printed) lignocellulosic biocomposites in struc
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
tural applications. Liber-Kneć et al. [218] found accelerated fatigue
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.jcomc.2021.100171.
testing to be a useful tool to recognize basics of fatigue behavior of
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