Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111 (2007) 625–629

The perception and practice of traditional medicine in the

treatment of cancers and inflammations by the Hausa and
Fulani tribes of Northern Nigeria
M.S. Abubakar a,∗ , A.M. Musa b , A. Ahmed a , I.M. Hussaini c
a
Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria
b
Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
c Department of Pathology (Neuropathology), University of Virginia, 415 Lane Road, MR5 Bldg,Charlottesville, Virginia, 80090

Received 7 October 2006; received in revised form 2 January 2007; accepted 10 January 2007
Available online 26 January 2007

Abstract
A survey was conducted among Hausa and Fulani, two major tribes of Northern Nigeria to identify plants and methods used traditionally in the
treatment of cancers and inflammatory diseases. The ecological zones that were considered include Zaria, Kaduna and Kano in the Northern part
of Nigeria. The survey involves traditional healers, hunters, farmers and Fulani nomads. This survey has identified plants useful in the treatment
of cancers. The plants were identified via taxonomic means and classified according to their habitats, families, genera. Evidently the plants span
families and genera, the knowledge and values of the plants was evaluated with the aim of understanding the scientific basis for the use of the
plants. The inventory provides the unique opportunity of capturing plants of common uses across the communities.
© 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Traditional medicine; Medicinal plants; Cancer; Inflammation

1. Introduction the body (De Smet, 1991). Medicinal plant research is directed
at verifying ethno-medical claims by herbalists with the ulti-
Nigeria consists of various distinct cultural entities includ- mate aim of isolating active compounds and standardizing the
ing over 250 ethnic groups, some numbering fewer than 10,000 crude extracts used in traditional medicines (Sofowora, 1986;
people. Most are concentrated in specific geographic areas, the Sofowora, 1993). There is a great diversity in the plants used in
Hausa and Fulani in the north, the Yoruba in the southwest, and traditional medicine; the diversity varies with local cultures and
the Igbo in the southeast. Other sizable groups include the Kanuri tradition (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Farnsworth and
in the north, the Edo, Efik, and Urhobo in the south and the Tiv Morris, 1976).
in the center. In the North, Kano is the most densely populated The Hausa and Fulani are culturally related and distinguished
area (CIHI, 1996). tribes of Northern Nigeria, with an organized political, social
The oldest component of the Nigerian health sector consists and cultural life (Etkin and Ross, 1982; Etkin, 2002). The
of traditional healers and birth attendants, who are the de facto Hausa/Fulani traditional medical practitioners (TMP) across
providers of primary health care. Healers provide client-centered Northern Nigeria claim that their remedies offer the potentials to
and personalized health care that is culturally appropriate, holis- cure diseases, but the perception of diseases and their treatment
tic and tailored to meet the needs and expectations of the patients in Hausa/Fulani traditional medicine (THFM), varies from mod-
(Iwu, 1994). There is also a general belief that the remedies used ern medicine. Several plants have reputed applications and are
in traditional medicine are safe and more readily acceptable by deliberately used in the treatment of cancer and inflammatory
diseases (Spjut and Perdue, 1976).
This communication is focused on the studying the Percep-
Abbreviations: CIHI, Center for International Health Information; TMP,
traditional medical practitioners; THFM, traditional Hausa/Fulani medicine
tion, identification and classification of folkloric herbs used in
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +234 8054480491. the treatment of cancers by the Hausa/Fulani tribes in THFM;
E-mail address: msabubakar@abu.edu.ng (M.S. Abubakar). this is with the aim of providing an inventory of medicinal plant

0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.01.011
626 M.S. Abubakar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111 (2007) 625–629

used for cancer and inflammation by these traditional commu- interviewee’s personal information and specific use of medicinal
nities. plants. The interviewees are people who had been living in the
community for at least 25 years. Generally, the interview was
2. Methodology conducted in Hausa which is commonly understood and spo-
ken by the two tribes. In order to establish sound information,
2.1. Study Site technical terms and jargons were avoided when asking ques-
tions. As a rule some of the responses to questions were probed
The survey was conducted in distinct areas of Zaria (Kaduna further for more details taking precautions to avoid leading ques-
State), Kaduna (Kaduna State) and Kano (Kano State). Sample tions and things that could be misinterpreted by the respondents.
of the plants were collected and transported to the Faculty of All questions were geared towards using plants for treat-
Pharmaceutical Sciences for identification. ment of cancer and inflammatory conditions in Hausa/Fulani
ethno-medicine.
The participants were assured that their responses would be
2.2. Respondents/informants used only for research purposes and the information given would
be treated with utmost care and confidentiality.
The survey was conducted among Hausa and Fulani tribes
found in the study site. The information is based on interviews
and interaction with herbalists, healers, spiritualists, hunters, 3. Results
farmers, nomadic pastoralists and patients according to standard
methods (Martin, 1995). Respondents were in the age range of This survey has identified plants useful in the treatment
50–85 years and are a total of 100 (78 men and 22 women among of cancers and related disorders representing a collection of
which 65 are TMP). This includes herbalists (35), spiritualists information from 100 respondents within the age range 50–85
(5), hunters (10), nomadic pastoralists (15) and Farmers (30) years (it was assumed that practitioners at this age had reached
patients (5). Samples of all the plants were collected from the a professional level in their career). The respondents speak
participants and transported to the Department of Pharmacog- Hausa language freely and some of the disease conditions have
nosy and Drug Development, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, common nomenclature (Table 1). There is a rich variety of
Nigeria and identified via taxonomic means at the Herbarium of approaches employed in the treatment of cancers and inflam-
Department of Biological Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, mation in THFM. A large number of plants are used; most of
Zaria, Nigeria. Voucher specimens were deposited for reference. the prescriptions by the practitioners contained multiple plants
components. Plant remedies are used as decoctions, infusions,
2.3. Interviews powders, with food or drinks etc. The plants span genera and
species of plant families (Table 2 ). In this study a total of 72
Interviews and interaction with participants were carried out plants species were identified as useful in treatment of cancers
in their homes and/or clinics. The Information on the use of and inflammations, however, the most commonly used plants
medicinal plants was collected for 1 year (commencing from belongs to the caesalpiniaceae (7), Euphorbiaceae (5), Fabaceae
January 2005) with the help of some community dwellers. The (5) and Rubiaceae (4). Table 2 also shows the various indications
interviews were recorded in specially designed forms containing of the useful plants, however, it should be noted that this is only

Table 1
Some nomenclature of cancers and inflammations in Hausa traditional medicine (THFM)
English/scientific name Hausa namesa Comment

Cancer Daji This is the most common term used to describe cancer
Cancer Sankara General term used for cancer, this is a phrase derived from potato mosaic disease
use for describing various forms of cancers, e.g., Sankaran-nono means breast
cancer
Cellulites Daji This term is also used to describe cellulites
Skin cancer Danya/Tusan Jaki
Wound Gyambo This is a term used for describing purulent wound of long standing
Furuncles/carbuncles Kumburi Term for describing furuncles and carbuncles
Hydrocoele Gwaiwa In Hausa/Fulani folk medicines certain prescriptions are used for these ailment
Hernia Kaabaa Hernias are well recognized in Hausa/Fulani traditional medicine
Severe allergic reactions Borin-Jini Allergies are well recognized and special treatments are recommended in
Hausa/Fulani folk medicine
Hemorrhoids Baasir
Rheumatism Kasala/Sanyin Kashi
Arthritis Sanyin Kashi/ciwon-jiki
Appendicitis Ciwon Hanji
Fibrosis Kwantacce
a There may be variations in the nomenclatures because of the differences in Hausa dialects.
 M.S. Abubakar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111 (2007) 625–629 627

Table 2
List of plants used for treatment of chronic inflammation/cancers in Hausa and Fulani folk medicine
Plant names Family Local names Plant part used Use Voucher no.

Dyschoriste perrottetii Nees Acanthaceae Fidda hakukuwa Aerial parts Anti-inflammatory/allergic 1186
conjunctivitis
Cissus ibuensis Hook Ampelidaceae Daddori Leaves Anti-inflammatory/skin cancer 2708
Cissus quadrangularis Linn Ampelidaceae Duwawun Biri Roots Carbuncles/anti-inflammatory 900303
Heeria insignis O. Ktze Anacardiaceae Hawayen Zaki Leaves Anti-inflammatory 014
Lannea microcarpa Engl & K. Anacardiaceae Babban baraa Leaves Furuncles/carbuncles 995
Krause
Annona senegalensis Pers. Annonaceae Gwandar daji Stem bark/leaves Skin cancer/leukemia 382
Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich. Annonaceae Kimba Leaves Waist and chest pains 2501
Voacanga zenkeri Stapf. Apocynaceae Kookiyar biri Fruits Lumbago/arthritis 900296
Cussonia barteri Seemann Araliaceae Gwabsa Stem bark Anti-inflammatory/rheumatism 193
Aristolochia albida Dulchartre Aristolochiaceae Duman dutse Rhizomes Inflammation/many form of 2499
cancers
Calotropis procera Ait. Asclepiadaceae Tumfafiya Roots Anti-inflammatory/anti-asthmatic 369
Leptadenia hastata Pers. Asclepiadaceae Yaadiya Aerial parts Cancer 578
Newbouldia laevis Seemann Ex Bignoniaceae Aduruku Leaves Anti-inflammatory/post-partum 2881
Bureau pains
Ceiba pentandra Linn. Bombacaceae Rimii Stem bark Fibrosis 7059
Heliotropium indicum Linn Boraginaceae Karkashin koorama Leaves Septic wounds 1654
Boswellia dalzielii Hutch. Burseraceae Arrarabi Stem bark Many form of cancers/fibrosis 2448
Commiphora dalzielii Hutch. Burseraceae Baazana Stem bark Anti-inflammatory/pains in the 6816
elderly
Bauhinia rufescens Lam. Caesalpiniaceae Tsatsagii Leaves Fibrosis 427
Cassia sieberiana Benth. Caesalpiniaceae Marga Leaves Inflammation/carbuncles 1387
Cassia tora Linn. Caesalpiniaceae Tafasa Leaves Anti-inflammatory 1370
Daniellia oliveri Hutch. & Dalz. Caesalpiniaceae Kadaura Stem bark/leaves Anti-inflammatory/fibrosis 1186
Detarium senegalense J.F. Gmel. Caesalpiniaceae Taura Fruits Anti-rheumatic 900676
Erythrophleum guineense G. Don Caesalpiniaceae Gwaska Leaves Skin cancer 242
Isoberlinia doka Craib & Staff Caesalpiniaceae Doka Stem bark/leaves Anti-inflammatory/boils/ 3114
furuncles/carbuncles
Maerua angolensis DC Capparidaceae Ciciwa Aerial parts Severe pains in the elderly 2247
Maytenus senegalensis Lam. Celastraceae Mangaladi Leaves Cancer/arthritis 900199
Cochlospermum tinctorium A. Rich. Cochlospermaceae Rawaya Roots Anti-inflammatory/anti-cancer 2759
Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel Combretaceae Sabara Leaves Anti-inflammatory/post-partum 900141
pains
Terminalia mollis Laws. Combretaceae Baushen giwa Leaves Anti-inflammatory 3086
Aspilia africana Pers. Compositae Tozalin yanmata Leaves Hernia/appendicitis 308
Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. Convolvulaceae kaafi maalam Leaves Anti-inflammatory/relieve pains, 1134
bites and stings
Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. Cucurbitaceae Soosoo Leaves Leukemia 1597
Momordica balsamina Linn. Cucurbitaceae Garahunii Fruits/leaves Anti-inflammatory/stomach ache 1857
Diospyros mespilliformis Hochst. Ex Ebenaceae Kanyaa Fruits/leaves Anti-inflammatory 339
A. DC.
Bridelia ferrugineae Benth Euphorbiaceae Kirnii Stem bark Skin cancers 937
Chrozophora senegalensis Lam. Euphorbiaceae Damaagii Stem bark Hernia/hydrocoele 579
Croton lobatus Linn. Euphorbiaceae Nammijin Gaasaya Leaves Skin cancer 1803
Euphorbia lateriflora Schum. & Euphorbiaceae Fidda Sartse Stems Cancer/reduce bleeding and relieve 697
Thonn. of pains after circumcisions
Hymenocardia acida Tul. Euphorbiaceae Jan yaaro Stem bark Anti-inflammatory 900719
Desmodium velutinum Willd Fabaceae Dangeree Leaves Many cancers 166
Indigofera bracteolata DC Fabaceae Karkashin zomoo Aerial parts Anti-inflammatory 776
Indigofera prieuriana Guill & Perr Fabaceae Baaban rafii Aerial parts Anti-inflammatory 1097
Indigofera pulchra Willd Fabaceae Bakiin bunuu Aerial parts Cellulites/relief of pains in bites 410
and stings
Tephrosia vogelii Hook. Fabaceae Jimfaa Leaves Anti-inflammatory 1233
Psorospermum senegalense Spach. Hypericaceae Huda tukunya Stem bark Skin cancer 90026
Vismia guineensis Linn. Hypericaceae Kiska wali Leaves Cancer 1872
Cassytha filiformis Linn. Lauraceae Runfar gada Aerial parts Hydrocoele 2841
Albuca nigritana Bak. Liliaceae Gadaali Bulbs Anti-rheumatic 722
Anthocleista vogelii Planch. Loganiaceae Kwarii Leaves Hernia 1123
Tapinanthus preusii Engl. Loranthaceae Kwauchi Leaves Many types of cancer 1052
Hibiscus asper Hook. Malvaceae Dangiraa Calyx Arthritic pains 1385
Sida cordifolia Linn. Malvaceae Kashe Daafii Leaves Hernia 7180
Parkia biglobosa Benth. Mimosaceae Maakuba Leaves Anti-inflammatory 7064
628 M.S. Abubakar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111 (2007) 625–629

Table 2 (Continued )
Plant names Family Local names Plant part used Use Voucher no.

Ficus glumosa Del. Moraceae Kawwurii Stem bark Anti-rheumatic 900308

Syzygium guineense Willd. Myrtaceae Malmo Fruits Anti-inflammatory 900295
Olax mannii Oliv. Olacaceae Tsadar birii Leaves Anti-inflammatory/many form of 901534
cancers
Ximenia Americana Linn. Olacaceae Tsaada Fruits Anti-inflammatory/many forms of 099
cancers
Ceratotheca sesamoides Endl. Pedaliaceae Gwingi Seeds Relieve pains after circumcisions 2087
Tacazzea apiculata Oliv. Periplocaceae Yadiyar kadaa Aerial parts Anti-inflammatory 083
Piper guineense Schum. & Thonn. Piperaceae Masooroo Fruits Anti-inflammatory 1253
Rhizophora harrisonii Leechmann Rhizophoraceae Gaude Leaves Hernia/hydrocoele 2877
Parinari polyandra Benth. Rosaceae Gwanja kusaa Leaves Anti-inflammatory 3197
Gardenia erubescens Stapf. & Hutch. Rubiaceae Gaudee Fruits Hernia/anti-rheumatic 1191
Mitragyna inermis Willd. Rubiaceae Giyyayaa Stem bark Anti-inflammatory 259
Pavetta crassipes K. Schum. Rubiaceae Gadu Leaves Pains 3115
Rothmannia longiflora Salisb. Rubiaceae Katanbiri Fruits Anti-inflammatory 2710
Physalis angulata Linn. Solanaceae Matsarmamaa Aerial parts Many form of cancer 900042
Solanum incanum Linn. Solanaceae Gautaa Fruit Stomach cancer 692
Sterculia setigera Del. Sterculiaceae Kukkukii Stem bark Hernia 900252
Waltheria indica Linn. Sterculiaceae Farar hankuffa Leaves/aerial parts Allergic reactions 2718
Grewia mollis Juss. Tiliaceae Gurmusii Leaves/stem bark Pain in bites and stings 900197
Balanites aegyptiaca Linn Zygophyllaceae Aduwaa Seeds Cancers/hydrocoele 2064

a representative of Hausa/Fulani folk medicine for treatment of male and female gonads, etc. It is also believed that deposition of
cancer and inflammations; there may be a number of variations phlegm which causes diseases can be produced by eating certain
depending on study area. foods, lack of exercise after meals, over-eating (Adeola, 1992;
Etkin, 1998; Etkin, 2002). Some locality also believes that the
4. Discussion entry of some poisonous materials before birth is a contributory
factor in the etiology of cancers. A bizarre belief about cancers
The TMP usually includes the herbalist, the Fulani traditional is that they occur as a result of contact by victims with evil spirits
pastoralists and hunters, these categories of people are generally in the forest or bush and thus the general term “daji”, this term
believed to have knowledge of treatment of diseases using plants. is also usually used to describe the propensity of the cancers and
It was observed that the traditional healers/herbalist (35 in num- inflammatory conditions (Table 1). Interestingly some of TMP
ber), nomadic pastoralists (15 in number) and hunters (10 in have some basic knowledge of specific cancers, for example they
number), have a more pragmatic approach to treatment of dis- were able to describe leukemia and they believe that it is inher-
eases as compared to the spiritualists (5 in number). However, ited, however, they believe that the disease is more frequent in
our observations showed that in most situations the Farmers (30 families with histories of sickle cell anemia.
in number) and patients (5 in numbers) are patrons to traditional It is common for more people to ignore traditional ideas,
healers, with consistent knowledge of disease for which they are but traditional treatments of diseases may be devoid of social
being treated. It should be noted that the Hausa people are pre- and cultural barriers that affect patient’s compliance (Holmstedt
dominantly a farming populations while the Fulani are pastoral and Bruhn, 1983) which is an important component in the treat-
nomads. It is also important to note that these tribes are predomi- ment of chronic diseases (like cancer). It was observed that there
nantly of Islamic faith and this may contribute to the similarity in exists a strong doctor–patient relationship, the communication
their medical practices with inclination towards Arab medicine skills utilized are understood and accepted by both parties. The
(Ullmann, 1978). patient and the practitioners have an intelligible understanding
The concepts and etiology of cancers and inflammations of the medical beliefs, treatments, curative and preventive mea-
in THFM is complex (Table 1) and does not tally with sures. In modern medicine it is mostly the doctor that has an
Modern/Western medical practice. Although some of these understanding of the pathophysiology and treatment of disease
beliefs may have some scientific basis, others are bizarre and conditions.
unfounded. The classical theory for aethiology of inflammations Treatment of cancers and inflammations in THFM are
(including cancer) in THFM is that these diseases are resulting directed at using medicinal plants (Table 2), there is diversity in
from excessive production and deposition of fluids and Phlegm the type and methods of treatment which depends on the disease
(locally known as Majina), this seems to be the reason of refer- type. The plant remedies are always multi-components, prescrip-
ring to some plants used in cancer as “fasa Kumburi” which tions contain two or more of the plants mentioned in Table 2.
literary means “splitting swellings”. Most of the traditional med- There are diverse use and method of preparation for the herbal
ical practitioners are of the opinion that production of excess prescriptions in the different study areas (result not reported
phlegm and other body fluids are responsible for rheumatism, in the current study), in most situations remedies are prepared
arthritis, abnormalities of the gastrointestinal tract, cancers of the and used as concoctions, decoctions, infusions and powders
 M.S. Abubakar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111 (2007) 625–629 629

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