AIRCRAFT ICE AND RAIN CONTROL SYSTEM

Rain, snow, and ice are transportation's longtime enemies. Flying has added a new dimension,
particularly with respect to ice. Under certain atmospheric conditions, ice can build rapidly on
airfoils and air inlets. On days when there is visible moisture in the air, ice can form on aircraft
leading edge surfaces at altitudes where freezing temperatures start.

Ice is a flight hazard because it destroys the smooth air flow across the aircraft's lifting and
control surfaces. Ice on wings and other surfaces decreases their ability to produce lift,
increases the weight of the aircraft, and increases induced drag. Removal or prevention of ice is
necessary for an aircraft to be safe to fly. Rain is a hazard because it affects the pilot's ability to
see clearly.

Although the nominal freezing point of water is OºC, water in the atmosphere does not always
freeze at that temperature and often exists as a "supercooled" liquid. If the surface temperature
of an aircraft structure is below zero, then moisture within the atmosphere may turn to ice as an
immediate or secondary consequence of contact.

Considerable quantities of atmospheric water continue to exist in liquid form well below OºC.
The proportion of such supercooled water decreases as the static air temperature drops until by
about -40ºC (except in Cumulonimbus (Cb) Cloud where SLD(supercooled large droplets) may
exist at even lower temperatures), almost all of it is in solid form.

The size of supercooled water droplets and the nature of the airflow around the aircraft surface
determine the extent to which these droplets will strike the surface. The size of a droplet will
also affect what happens after such an impact - for example larger droplets will often be broken
up into smaller ones.

Finally, since the size of a water droplet is broadly proportional to the mass of water it contains
and this mass determines the time required for the physical change of state from liquid (water)
to solid (ice) to occur, larger droplets which do not break up into smaller ones will take longer to
freeze because of the greater release of latent heat and may form a surface layer of liquid water
before this change of state occurs.

TYPES OF ICE

RIME ICE
Rime ice is formed when small supercooled water droplets freeze rapidly on contact with a
sub-zero surface. The rapidity of the transition to a frozen state is because the droplets are
small and the almost instant transition leads to the creation of a mixture of tiny ice particles and
trapped air. The resultant ice deposit formed is rough and crystalline and opaque and because
of its crystalline structure, it is brittle. lt appears white in colour when viewed from a distance -
for example from the flight deck when on a wing leading edge.
Since rime ice forms on leading edges, it can affect the aerodynamic characteristics of both
wings and horizontal stabilisers as well as restricting engine air inlets. Rime may begin to form
as a rough coating of a leading edge but if accretion continues, irregular protrusions may
develop forward into the airstream, although there are structural limits to how much "horn"
development can occur.

CLEAR ICE
Clear or Glaze ice is formed by larger supercooled water droplets, of which only a small portion
freezes immediately. This results in runback and progressive freezing of the remaining liquid
and since the resultant frozen deposit contains relatively few air' bubbles as a result, the
accreted ice is transparent or translucent. If the freezing process is sufficiently slow to allow the
water to spread more evenly before freezing, the resultant transparent sheet of ice may be
difficult to detect. The larger the droplets and, the slower the freezing process, the more
transparent the ice.

Occasionally, certain temperature and droplet size combinations can lead to the formation of a
"double ram's horn" shape forward of the leading edge with protrusions from both the upper and
lower leading edge surfaces.

These horns have been observed to occur in a variety of forms in a wide range of_locations
along a leading edge and, because clear ice has a more robust structure than l rime ice, they
can reach larger sizes.

CLOUDY OR MIXED ICE

This blend of the two accreted ice forms in the wide range of conditions between those which
lead to mostly Rime or mostly Clear /Glaze Ice and is the most commonly encountered. Its
appearance will be determined by the extent to which it has been formed from supercooled
water droplets of various sizes.

SUPERCOOLED LARGE DROPLETS (SLD)

"Supercooled large droplets (SLD) are defined as those with a diameter greater than 50
microns" - The World Meteorological Organisation.

"Supercooled Large Droplet (SLD)....[has] a diameter greater than 50 micrometers (0.05 mm).
SLD conditions include freezing drizzle drops and freezing raindrops.2 - FAA AC 91 -74A, Pilot's
Guide to Flight in lcing Conditions.

If a SLD is large enough, its mass will prevent the pressure wave travelling ahead of an airfoil
from deflecting it. When this occurs,the droplet will impinge further aft than a typical cloud-sized
droplet, possibly beyond the protected area and form clear ice.

Droplets of this size are typically found in areas of freezing rain and freezing drizzle. Weather
radar is designed to detect large droplets since they are not only an indication of potential
in-flight icing but also updrafts and wind shear.
RUNBACK ICE
Runback ice forms when supercooled liquid water moves aft on the upper surface of the wing or
tailplane beyond the protected area and then freezes as clear ice. Forms of ice accretion which
are likely to be hazardous to continued safe flight can rapidly build up. Runback is usually
attributable to the relatively large size of the SLD encountered but may also occur when a
thermal ice protection system has insufficient heat to evaporate the quantity of supercooled
water impinging on the surface.

INTERCYCLE ICE
lntercycle ice is that which forms between cyclic activation of a mechanical or thermal de-ice
system. Accumulation of some ice when these systems are not 'on' is an essential part of their
functional design. The time interval between 'on' periods is usually selectable between at least
two settings. Any ice remaining after a de-icing system of this type has been selected off is
sometimes referred to as residual ice.

Lesson 2: Icing Effects and Ice Detection

The Difference Between Anti-Ice & De-ice

Anti-ice = Prevention
De-ice = Removal

Only aircraft that meet the requirements of 14 CFR Part 23.1419 can continue flight into known
icing conditions. Aircraft certified for flying into known icing conditions have been proven
capable of operating safely in continuous maximum and intermittent maximum icing conditions
as described in FAR 25.

ICING EFFECTS

Decrease of lift, increase of weight and increase of drag. You have seen that the effect of ice on
the aircraft is always negative and can even become dangerous. lt must therefore be prevented
by either not flying in icing conditions or by the use of an anti-ice system or de-icing system. In
jet aircraft, the anti ice system heats the wing leading edge where the ice-build-up begins. lt
uses warm air from the engines and is therefore named wing thermal anti-ice system.
In addition to the negative effect on aerodynamics and a higher weight, the engines can also get
problems when there is an ice build-up. Ice has 2 important negative effects on the engine inlet.
These are:
*A Disturbed Air Flow That Reduces The Performance Of The Engine And Can Lead To A
Compressor Stall.
*If The Engine Sucks ln Pieces Of Ice, These Pieces Can Damage Fan Blades Or Inlet Vanes

Another dangerous type of icing is one that can occur in the carburetors on reciprocating
engines. Float-type carburetors break down liquid fuel into tiny droplets and mix them with air.
When fuel changes from a liquid into a vapor, heat is absorbed from the air, causing the
surrounding air temperature to drop. Moisture in the form of an invisible water vapor will
condense into liquid water. When the temperature is low enough, it will freeze and stick to the
walls of the carburetor throat. The flow of air is restricted and the engine will run rough or
completely stop.

ICE DETECTOR SYSTEM

Ice protection systems should be operated only when necessary so that operational expenses,
and unnecessary wear can be minimized. By having some form of ice detection, the prevention
or removal system operates only when needed.
● Visual Detection
● Method Electronic
● Detectors Optical Ice Detectors
● CONTAMINANT /FLUID INTEGRITY MEASURING SYSTEM (C/FIMS)

VISUAL DETECTION METHOD

When conditions are favorable for ice formation, flight crews routinely observe the aircraft
structure during flight for ice buildup. For example, it is easy to look at the wing leading edge or
check the windshield for early signs of ice accumulation. When flying at night, lights are
necessary to illuminate aircraft structures. FAR 23 requires some form of lighting that is
adequate for the crew to detect ice at night as well as monitor the operation of the de-icing
equipment.

ELECTRONIC DETECTION
lt is installed near the air data probes and therefore is not visible to the pilots. When this
component detects ice, it generates a message in the cockpit and can automatically activate the
thermal anti-ice systems. Some propeller driven aircraft also use this type of ice detector to help
the pilot to activate the de-icing system at the correct time.

Ice detectors consist of a microprocessor circuit with an aerodynamic strut and probe extending
into the slipstream. The probe vibrates at a predetermined frequency and when ice attaches to
the probe, its frequency decreases. A microprocessor turns on an annunciator light when the
probe reaches a preset minimum frequency value.
After detecting ice, a heating element within the probe melts it away and continues to recheck
for icing conditions. If the probe continues to sense icing at each check, the ICE annunciator
remains on. The light will go out when ice is no longer detected

OPTICAL ICE DETECTOR

You find it between the front windscreens where it is in sight of both pilots. When the pilots see
ice on this detector, then there is probably ice on other parts of the aircraft. Therefore, the pilots
must switch on the thermal anti-ice systems. This is performed manually by pressing the
corresponding push buttons on the overhead panel.

CONTAMINANT/FLUID INTEGRITY MEASURING SYSTEM (C/FIMS)

C/FIMS lM is an aircraft-mounted sensor system developed by Allied Signal Aerospace of
Canada for detecting the buildup of ice, frost, and snow on the flight surfaces of airplanes.
Strategically located sensors on critical aircraft surfaces interact with processors and a central
control unit to provide warning information via a flight deck display. Flush mounted sensors are
installed 011 the aircraft skin and detect the electromagnetic properties of the contaminants. The
system can also be used to 1neasure the effectiveness of de/anti-icing fluids and the aircraft's
skin temperature.

DIFFERENT ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS

Different aircraft typically use different combinations of equipment to meet the certification
standards of FAR 23.

One example of a combined anti-icing and de-icing system is installed on the Learjet 35/36
series.

Learjet 35
This series uses three different methods of ice protection
1. Turbine Engine Bleed Air
2. Electric Heating Elements
3. Methyl Alcohol

ANTI-ICING SYSTEM
Onboard anti-icing systems are designed to prevent ice formation on certain portions of the
aircraft. These are areas most affected by ice build-up, or where damage would occur if
accumulated ice were to break free. Typically, anti-ice systems serve the components are
around the engine intakes, on locations upstream from the engines, or on components that
would not operate properly if allowed to ice over.

Thermal Anti-icing System

Thermal anti-icing systems for aircraft and methods for fabricating such systems. The anti-icing
systems have an integrated one-piece skin with passageways formed therein to supply a heated
fluid to that portion of an aircraft structure where anti-icing is desired. The anti-icing system also
has an integrated or separately supplied manifold for routing heating fluid to the anti-icing
system flow passages. The anti-icing system can be used in the leading edges o such aircraft
structures as wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers, inboard and outboard slats, engine struts,
and engine cowls

Sources of Heated Air on the Aircraft

Heating System
● Exhaust and Shroud Heaters
● Electric Heater
● Combustion Heater
● Compressor Bleed Air/ Engine Bleed Air

EXHAUST SHROUD HEATERS

The most common type of heater for small single-engine aircraft is the exhaust-shroud heater. A
sheet-metal shroud is installed around the muffler in the engine exhaust system. Cold air is
taken into this shroud and heat that would otherwise be expelled out the exhaust is transferred
to the ambient air. This air is then routed into the cabin through a heater valve in the firewall.
When the heater is not on, this air is directed overboard. This type of heater is quite economical
for small aircraft, as it utilizes heat energy that would otherwise be wasted.

ELECTRIC HEATING SYSTEMS

Electric heating on aircraft is generally a supplemental heating source. The heaters use heating
elements that create heat through electrical resistance. Some aircraft use this type of heat when
the aircraft is on the ground and the engines are not running. A fan blows air over the heating
coils to heat and circulate the air back into the cabin. Safety devices are installed in these
systems to prevent them from overheating if the ventilating fan should become inoperative.

COMBUSTION HEATERS
Exhaust shroud heaters are used for small single-engine aircraft, and compressor bleed air
heating is primarily used on large turbine-powered aircraft. Light and medium twin-engine
aircraft are often heated with combustion heaters.

Combustion heaters consist of two stainless steel cylinders, one inside the other. Air from
outside the aircraft is directed into the inner cylinder, and aviation gasoline drawn from the fuel
tank is sprayed over a continually sparking igniter plug. The combustion gases are exhausted
overboard. Ventilating air flows through the outer cylinder around the combustion chamber picks
up the heat and is distributed throughout the cabin.

COMBUSTION HEATERS
● Combustion Air System
○ A scoop on the outside of the aircraft picks up the air tha1 used in the
combustion process. The combustion air blower forces this air into the
combustion chamber when there is insufficient ram air. A combustion-air-relief
valve or a differential pressure regulator prevents too much air from entering the
heaters as air pressure increases. The exhaust gases are then vented overboard
at a location where they cannot recirculate into the ventilation system.'
● Combustion Heater Fuel System
○ Fuel is taken from the aircraft fuel system and pressurized with a constant
pressure pump, and passed through a fuel filter. Fuel flow is controlled by a
solenoid valve that may be turned off by the overheat switch, the limit switch, or
by the pressure switch. There is a second solenoid valve in the fuel line that is
controlled by the cabin thermostat. lt shuts off the fuel at a point just before it
enters the combustion chamber.·
● Combustion Heater Ventilation System
○ - Ram air enters the heater from outside the aircraft, and flows over the outside of
the combustion chamber, where it picks up heat and carries i1 inside the aircraft.
There is a ventilating fan in the heater that operates when the aircraft is on the
ground. When the aircraft becomes airborne, a switch on the landing gear shuts
off the ventilating fan and all airflow is provided by ram air. The ventilating air
pressure is slightly higher than the1 pressure of the combustion air, so in the
event of a crack in the1 combustion chamber, ventilating air will flow into the
combustion chamber' rather than allowing the combustion air that contains
carbon monoxide to mix with the ventilating air.

COMBUSTION HEATER CONTROLS

The only action required to start the combustion heaters ís to turn the cabin heater switch ON
and adjust the cabin thermostat to the desired temperature. When the cabin heater switch is
turned on, the fuel pump starts, as well as the blowers for ventilation air and combustion air. As
soon as the combustion air blower moves the required amount of air, it trips a pressure switch
that starts the ignition coil supplying current to the igniter plug. The fuel supply solenoid valve is
opened and fuel can get to the heater. When the thermostat calls for heat, the second fuel
solenoid valve opens and fuel sprays into the combustion chamber and burns. As soon as the
temperature reaches the value for which the thermostat is set, the contacts inside the
thermostat open and de-energize the fuel solenoid valve, shutting off the fuel to the heater, and
the fire goes out. The ventilating air cools the combustion chamber, and the cool air¡ causes the
thermostat to call for more heat. The cycle then repeats itself
Compressor Bleed Air
Turbine engines have a large amount of hot air in their compressors that is available for heating
the cabin. The ho1 bleed air is mixed with cold ambient air to provide air of the proper
temperature to the cabin. This form of heating is usually combined with an air-cycle
air-conditioning system. The air-conditioning system of a large jet transport aircraft provides a
means to cool or heat the pressurizing air as required.

Most aircraft that use thermal anti-icing systems today are turbine powered, in which case, a
portion of the engine's heated compressor bleed air is routed to the leading edges to prevent ice
formation. Mixing cold air with the hot bleed air sometimes controls anti-ice air temperature. The
Boeing 727 bleeds air from the two outboard engines, directs it through the wing anti-icing;
control valves to a common manifold and then out into the wing leading edge ducts.

two inboard leading edge flaps and eight leading edge slats are protected with hot air. Overheat
sensor switches protect portions of the wing from overheating, which is usually caused by a
break in the bleed air duct. If a surface overheats, an overheat warning light illuminates and the
anti-icing valves close, shutting off the flow of hot air. When the duct temperature drops to a
allowable range, the overheat light will go out and hot air will flow into the duct again.

Two thermal anti-ice systems are installed in jet aircraft:

● The wing
● The engine anti-ice systems

THE WING ANTI-ICING

The wing anti-ice system uses hot air from the pneumatic system. One or two valves in each
wing, named the wing anti-ice valves, connect the wing anti-ice ducts to the pneumatic system.

THE ENGINE ANTI-ICING

The engine anti-ice system also uses hot air. The air comes directly from the engine. An engine
anti-ice valve provides the connection. When an anti-ice valve opens, the hot air enters the
anti-ice duct. The hot air sprays through small holes in the anti-ice duct into the wing leading
edge or engine cowling. The hot air heats up the area of the leading edge and prevents ice
build-up. Later, the air leaves this area through openings in the lower part of the structure.
Extreme caution is necessary during ground tests of thermal anti-ice systems because the air is
still hot.

SYSTEM CONTROLS
We will now see what it looks like with the two thermal anti-ice systems added. The left and right
wing anti-ice system use hot air which is already regulated by the bleed valve. The engine
anti-ice system uses bleed air from the corresponding engine. This air comes from a separate
port on the engine compressor. You can control the thermal anti-ice systems with switches on
the overhead panel. Here you see the push buttons in an Airbus aircraft. The wing anti-ice
system always has only one switch. This switch controls the two sides at the same time
because the system must always operate symmetrically. On engine anti-ice systems you find a
switch for each engine installed on the aircraft.

ELECTRIC ANTI-ICING
A very important anti-ice system for flight safety is the air data probe heating. You can find 4
different types of probes on the aircraft:
● The temperature probe, also named Rosemount probe, measures air temperature for
various calculations.
● The pitot tubes measure the dynamic air pressure to calculate for example, The airspeed
● The static ports measure the static air-pressure to calculate, for example, The altitude
● The angle of attack or alpha sensors which are mainly needed for the Stall warning and
flight control systems.

Aircraft that may possibly encounter icing usually have electrically heated pitot tubes. Pitot
heaters are so powerful that they should not be operated on the ground because they may burn
out without an adequate flow of air over them. Their in-flight operation is monitored by indicator
lights or through the ammeter. Current flow is high enough that the ammeter will deflect
noticeably when the heater is on. A heated pitot tube prevents ice from plugging the entry portal.

Static ports and stall warning vanes on many aircraft are also electrically heated. The static
ports on some of the smaller aircraft are not heated. If there is no provision for melting the ice
around static ports, the aircraft should be equipped with an alternate static source valve.

Windscreens and flight deck windows of many aircraft use electrically heated systems to
prevent ice from obscuring the vision of the flightcrew. There are two methods of electrically
heating laminated windscreens.
One method uses tiny resistance wires embedded inside the windscreen, and the other uses a
conductive coating on the inside of the outer layer of glass.

Thermistor-type temperature sensors and an elaborate electronic control system prevent these
windshields from becoming overheated.

Large transport aircraft with flush toilets and lavatories often have electric-powered heating
elements to prevent the drains and water lines from freezing.

CHEMICAL ANTI-ICING
Some aircraft surfaces and components may be coated with either isopropyl alcohol, methyl
alcohol, or a mixture of ethylene glycol and alcohol. Chemicals lower the freezing point of water
on the surface of the aircraft, and at the same time make the surface too slick for ice to collect
upon it. Chemical anti-icing is normally used on carburetors, propellers, and windshields and is
stored in a tank on the aircraft.

Propeller anti-icing uses isopropyl alcohol sprayed onto the leading edges of its blades. Alcohol
is stored in a tank and pumped to the propeller when needed. A rheostat-controlled electric
motor drives the pump. A pilot can control the amount of alcohol flowing to the propeller by
controlling pump speed through the rheostat. Each propeller has a slinger ring that uses
centrifugal force to distribute alcohol to the blade nozzles. The amount of alcohol the tank can
carry limits the system operation.

Windscreen anti-ice on some aircraft utilizes chemicals to prevent the formation of ice.
Chemicals are delivered through a fluid spray bar located just ahead ofthe pilot's windscreen. A
pump provides just enough flow to coat the windshield and prevent ice formation. Radome
anti-icing is often done with chemicals as well, helping minimize inaccurate readings due to ice
accumulation.
WEEPING WING
A weeping wing is an anti-icing system that pumps fluid from a reservoir through a mesh screen
embedded in the leading edges of the wings and tail. In this system, fluid coats the wing to
prevent ice from accumulating. A switch in the cockpit activates the system and liquid flows all
over the wing and tail surfaces, de-icing as it flows. This type of system is also used on
propellers and windscreens

The system is designed for prevention in known icing conditions, but it is also capable of
de-icing an aircraft. When ice accumulates on the leading edges, the antifreeze solution
chemically breaks down the bond between the ice and airframe, allowing the aerodynamic
forces on the ice to cany it away. This capability allows the system to clear the airframe of
accumulated ice before transitioning to its prevention.

Runback icing is a problem with many "leading edge de-ice systems as the water from the
melted ice refreezes as it flows rearward. Large water droplets that strike the wings behind the
heated section also sometimes freeze to the surface. Once fluid departs the porous panel on
the leading edge, it flows aft over the upper and lower surfaces and departs the aircraft at the
trailing edge. This effect precludes ice accumulation aft of the panels due to runback or from
impact of larger water droplets. There is some increased weight due to the amount of fluid
required. As with most chemical systems, if the fluid reservoir runs dry during operation, there is
usually no other method to prevent ice from accumulating.
INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE, AND TROUBLESHOOTING OF RUBBER DE-ICER BOOT
SYSTEMS
The most important part of de-icer boot maintenance is keeping the boots clean. Wash the
boots with a mild soap and water solution. Remove any cleaning compounds used on the
aircraft from the boots using clean water. Remove oil or grease by scrubbing the surface of the
boot lightly with a rag that is damp with benzoil or lead-free gasoline. Wipe dry before the
solvent has a chance to soak into the rubber. Boots are often sprayed with silicon to give the
rubber an extremely smooth surface that the ice cannot adhere to.

During inspection, check the surface of the boots for condition and security. Also, inspect the
condition of plumbing fittings and lines. Conclude the inspection with a thorough operational
check of the system.

A deicer boot repair referred to as a ''cold patch repair'' includes refurbishing scuff damage,
repairing damage to the tube area, and tears in the fillet area. Scuff damage is the most
common type of damage that A&P technicians encounter when maintaining deicer boots. For
any type of deicer boot damage, refer to the manufacturer's maintenance manual for guidance
in making appropriate repairs and follow the approved repair procedures explicitly.

COLD PATCH REPAIR

REFURBISHING SCUFF DAMAGE

ELECTROTHERMAL DE-ICING
Many modern propellers installed on both reciprocating and turboprop engines are de-iced with
an electrothe al de-icer system. Rubber boots with heater wires embedded in them are bonded
to the leading edges of the propeller blades. Electrical current passes through the wires to heat
the rubber and melt any ice that has formed, while centrifugal force and wind carry the ice away.

In some installations, boots are made in two sections on each blade. Current flows for about a
half minute through the outboard section of all blades and then for the same time through the
heaters on the inboard section of all blades. Flight tests have determined the amount of time
that current flows in each section. The time is sufficient to allow ice to form over the inactive
section while loosening it from the heated section. Alternating the de-icing current between the
blade sections is the most efficient method for ro eller ice removal.

The propeller de-icer system consists of the following components:

● Electrically heated de-icers bonded to the propeller blades.
● Slip-ring and brush block assemblies that carry the current to the rotating propeller.
● A timer to control the heating time and sequence of the de-icing cycle.
● An ammeter to indicate the operation of the System.
● Wiring, switches, and circuit breakers necessary to conduct electrical power from the
aircraft electrical system into the de-icers stem.
PROPELLER DE-ICER SYSTEM
The slip-ring assembly is attached to the propeller either through a specially adapted starter
gear, the spinner bulkhead, or to the crankshaft flange. The brush block is mounted on the
engine so that the three brushes ride squarely on the slip rings. The timer controls the sequence
of current to each of the de-icers. The heating sequence optimally loosens the ice so that
centrifugal force can carry it away. The same portion of each blade is heated at the same time to
prevent an out-of-balance condition.

The ammeter is used to monitor the system's operation. When each heater element is taking an
equal amount of current, the pilot knows that the propellers are de-icing evenly. The advantage
of the electric heat system is its minimal weight, but in some cases, it can place a high electrical
load on the generator or alternator.

ELECTRO-EXPULSIVE SEPARATION SYSTEM

The Electro-Expulsive Separation System was developed by NASA and licensed to Ice
Management Systems, Inc. This relatively lightweight system provides ice protection at power
levels far below those required by bleed air and electro-thermal systems. It also offers a reliable
alternative to pneumatic or electrical de-icing boots on wing leading edges, thus reducing airfoil
drag and surface erosion. In a typical installation, the electro-expulsive de-icing system employs
a de-icing control unit linked to two energy storage banks, one for each wing. Actuators are
mounted directly beneath a metal leading edge.
Energy storage banks deliver high-current electrical pulses to the actuators in timed sequences.
This generates opposing electro-magnetic fields, which cause the actuators to change shape
rapidly. An erosion shield on the wing's leading edge flexes and vibrates at a high frequency.
Rapid motion results in acceleration-based debonding of accumulated ice on the erosion shield.
The system essentially pulverizes ice into small particles and removes layers as thin as frost or
as thick as an inch of glaze ice. Though the system is not yet used on many aircraft, it promises
to be useful as the particles of ice are small enough not to damage the airframe or engines.

GROUND DE-ICING OF AIRCRAFT

Aircraft ground de-icing/anti-icing plays a vital role in cold weather procedures to ensure that an
aircraft is free of ice, frost, and snow contamination before takeoff. Procedures range from a
low-tech broom to sophisticated chemicals. Airlines most commonly use a truck-mounted mobile
de-icer/anti-icer. These units generally consist of one or more fluid tanks, a heater to bring the
fluid to the desired application temperature, an aerial device (boom and basket) to reach remote
areas, and a fluid-dispensing system (including pumps, piping, and a spray nozzle). The
dispensing system is capable of supplying fluid at various pressures and flow rates with an
adjustable spray pattern at the nozzle.

ICE AND SNOW REMOVAL

There are several different types of freezing point depressants (FPDs), but some common
aircraft FPDs are Type I (unthickened) fluids and Type II and IV (thickened) fluids. Type I fluids
have a relatively low viscosity except at very cold temperatures. Viscosity is a measure of a
fluid's ability to flow freely. For example, water has low viscosity, and honey has relatively high
viscosity. Because the rate at which fluid flows off the wing depends on the fluid viscosity, a high
viscosity fluid is likely to have larger aerodynamic effects than a low viscosity fluid. The viscosity
of Type I fluids depends only on temperature. For the fluids to be effective, handle them properly
at every step in the de-icing/anti-icing process, including transportation and storage. Follow FPD
fluid manufacturer's guidelines for the entire process.

Holdover time, which is the length of time that the surface will be protected from ice, frost, and
snow, is relatively short for Type I fluids. Because taxi times are often much longer than the
holdover times that Type I fluids provide, fluid manufacturers developed Type II or IV (thickened)
de-icing/anti-icing fluids in cooperation with the airlines. Type II and IV fluids have significantly
longer holdover times than Type I fluids. Systems that mix various FPDs with compressed air
are now being used in the aviation industry as well. These systems use fewer chemicals, thus
reducing recovery systems costs in preventing chemicals from reaching water supplies.

The International Standards Organization (ISO), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and
Association of European Airlines (AEA) publish holdover times for each fluid. They are based on
temperature, fluid mixture and general weather conditions.

Holdover times are only guidelines and other variables that reduce fluid effectiveness must be
taken into account.
Each airplane has a specific configuration for de-icing/anti-icing. For example, the stabilizer
setting varies with airplane models. Check the operations manual for model-specific procedures.
Specific de-icing/anti-icing procedures are determined by a combination of common sense and
airplane considerations. Maintenance manuals for each type of airplane provide specific
procedures.

General precautions for Ice and Snow removal:

● Do not spray de-icing/anti-icing fluid directly at or into pitot inlets, TAT probes, or static
ports.
● Do not spray heated de-icing/anti-icing fluid or water directly onto cold windows.
● Do not spray de-icing/anti-icing fluid directly into engine, APU inlets, air scoops, vents or
drains. If an engine compressor will not turn because of ice, direct hot air into the engine.
● Be sure that ice and/or snow is not forced into areas around flight controls during ice and
snow removal.
● Remove all ice and snow from doors and door operating mechanisms before closing any
door.
● Do not use hard or sharp tools to scrape or chip ice from an airplane's surface.

FROST REMOVAL
When possible, remove frost from the wing and tail surfaces by brushing it off with a long
handled T-broom. Better yet, prevent ice from forming on the surfaces by covering them with
nylon or canvas when the airplane is secured for the night. Spray the surfaces with a de-icing
solution of ethylene glycol and isopropyl alcohol just before flight to effectively remove all traces
of frost.

SNOW REMOVAL
Remove wet snow with a brush or squeegee. Be careful not to push the snow into the gaps
around control surfaces and doors. If the snow is sticking to the aircraft, removal by chemical
means is necessary.

DE-ICING SYSTEMS
De-icing systems remove the ice after it has formed, typically by using pneumatic de-icer boots
on the leading edges of the wings and tail. Propeller de-icing normally uses heating elements to
melt the accumulated ice and the propeller's centrifugal force to remove it.

RUBBER DE-ICER BOOT SYSTEM

Airline flying was hindered in the early days of aviation because of aircraft ice accumulation.
With improved instruments and radios, and the introduction of higher performance aircraft, flight
into icing conditions could no Ionger be avoided.

To remove the ice, B.F. Goodrich developed a rubber de-icer boot that was installed on the
leading edges of the wings and empennage. This allowed aircraft to fully utilize their improved
capabilities. De-icer boots are used on many aircraft to this day.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A rubber boot contains several tubes fastened to the leading edge of the surface to be
protected. Low-pressure air passes through a timer-operated distributor valve into the tubes. On
a sequentially operated system, the center tube inflates first and any ice formed over it will
crack. The center tube deflates and the outer tubes inflate, pushing up the cracked ice. Air
flowing over the wing gets under it and blows it off the surface. All tubes then deflate and suction
holds them tight against the boot until the ice reforms, and the cycle is repeated.

Sequential inflation of the boot's tubes breaks up the ice so the airflow can sweep it away

A deicing boot consists of a thick rubber membrane that is installed over the surface to be
deiced. As atmospheric icing occurs and ice builds up, a pneumatic system inflates the boot
with compressed air. This expansion in size cracks any ice that has accumulated, and this ice is
blown away into the airflow. The boots are then deflated to return the wing or surface to its
optimal shape.
Boots require proper care. Holes in the boot may create air leaks that will decrease the
effectiveness of the boots. As such, boots must be carefully inspected before each flight and
any holes or cuts must be patched.

LEADING EDGES OF WINGS

EMPENNAGES

Larger aircraft using this type of de-icing system have an electric motor-driven timer to operating
solenoid valves to continually cycle the system through all of the tubes. The timer then provides
the proper duration of rest time, allowing ice to form over the boots before repeating the cycle.
Any time the tubes are not inflated, suction is applied to hold them tight against the aircraft
surface.

Smaller aircraft do not use an elaborate timer. The pilot turns on the system after observing an
accumulation of ice on the leading edges. When the de-icing switch is turned on, the boots will
cycle through one, two, or three operating cycles, depending upon the system's design. Similar
to more elaborate systems, tubes connected to the vacuum side of the air pump hold the boots
tight against the leading edge.

SOURCES OF OPERATING AIR

Low-pressure air is required to operate the boots in the boot de-ice system. Depending on the
type of aircraft, several different sources can be utilized for inflation.

A. On most turbine aircraft, pneumatic air is taken from turbine engine bleed air.Air from the
turbine engine is at a much higher pressure than required for inflating the boots. A
step-down regulator is used to reduce the pressure suitable for de-icing boot operation.
B. Air for inflating boots can also come from the exhaust of an engine-driven air pump
(instrument system vacuum pump). Some pumps are the "wet type," which use engine
oil taken into the pump through holes in the mounting flange to lubricate and seal the
steel vanes. Since oil would damage the boots, an oil separator removes all of it and
sends it back into the engine crankcase before the air is used.
 C. Newer ''dry-type'' pumps are used for many installations, and do not require an oil
separator since carbon vanes make the pump self-lubricating.
D. Other less common de-icing systems inflate the boots from a cylinder of compressed air
that is carried just for this purpose.

DE-ICING SYSTEM COMPONENTS (TYPICAL)

Some of the main components in a pneumatic de-icer system are the air pump (vacuum pump),
vacuum regulator, pressure control valve, timer ,module, and de-icer boots.

A vacuum pump is normally used to create a vacuum for operating the flight instruments. The
output side of a pump provides air pressure that is used to inflate the de-icer boots. The vacuum
regulator controls the amount of vacuum applied to the de-ice boots and the instruments.

The pressure control valve controls the amount of pressure allowed in the system. Under normal
operations, a pressure gauge fluctuates as the boots are alternately inflated while the vacuum
gauge remains relatively steady.

A switch in the cockpit activates a timer module, which sequences the de-icer boots through one
complete de-ice cycle. Normally, the system shuts off after one complete cycle, and applies a
vacuum to the cells or tubes until the pilot calls for another cycle. Other components include
filters, valves, and miscellaneous tubing and lines.

CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION OF DE-ICER BOOTS

There are several configurations of de-icer boots, but all accomplish their work in the same way.
Ice fo s then breaks off as the tubes inflate. Sorne boots use span-wise tubes that inflate
alternately, and others inflate simultaneously.

Certain configurations of boots have chord-wise tubes that may inflate either alternately or
simultaneously. Flight-testing determines the tube configuration and only the specific boot that is
approved for the aircraft should be used.

There are several configurations of de-icer boots;

● SPANWISE TUBE WITH ALTERNATE INFLATION
● SPANWISE TUBE WITH SIMULTANEOUSLY INFLATION
● CHORDWISE TUBE WITH ALTERNATE INFLATION
● CHORDWISE TUBE WITH SIMULTANEOUSLY INFLATION

When rubber de-icer boots were first developed, adhesives had not been developed to the
extent that they are today. Boots were installed with machine screws driven into Rivnuts
installed in the skin. A narrow metal fairing strip that covers the screw heads at the boot edge
can identify this type of installation. Almost all of the newer boot installations fasten the boot to
the surface with adhesives, eliminating the need for Rivnuts and screws. When removing or
installing a de-icer boot, follow the instructions in the aircraft service manual or the
manufacturer's approved information. Do not substitute methods or materials.

METAL RIVNUT
RUBBER RIVNUTS

To begin installation, remove all of the paint and primer from the area where the boot is to be
installed. Clean both the surface and the back of the boot thoroughly. Apply adhesive to the
back of the boot and leading edge. Secure the hoses to the boot and place the boot in the
proper position. Press tightly to the surface with a roller. Obviously, the actual process is
considerably more complicated than this, but in all maintenance activities, follow the
manufacturer's recommendations carefully .

To remove de-icer boots, soften the adhesive with the recommended solvent and carefully apply
tension to peel back the edges of the boot . Keep the separation area wet with solvent and
carefully pull the boot away from the surface.