WEEK 8: SEXUAL SELF 4.

Psychological
● Rosenthal (2013) also explained that sexuality
SEXUAL SELFHOOD is not a mere physical response. Rather, it also
is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself involves emotions, thoughts and beliefs.
as a sexual individual. Human sexuality is a topic that
 Sigmund Freud was one of the most
just like beauty is culturally diverse. This should be
prominent people to explain sexuality,
understood in varied ways.  through his theories. According to him,
1. Historical.  human beings are faces with two forces
● In Ancient Greece, it is the male that – sex instinct and libido (pleasure) and
assumes the dominant role. The male symbol, death or aggressive instinct (harm
the penis, was viewed as the symbol of fertility toward oneself or towards others).
and how the male body was structured and  Freud also regarded personality as
was greatly admired. composed of three structures: the id, the
- In the Middle Ages (476-1450), bore witness to Ego and the Superego. The id is the part
the strong influence of church particularly in which always seeks for pleasure and
matters of sexuality. The church decreed that all aggression. It follows the pleasure
sexual acts that do not lead to procreation were principle because it wants the person to
considered evil. Women were labelled as either attain gratification immediately. It is
temptress (like Eve) or a woman of virtue (like unconsciously saying ―I want it now!‖.
Virgin Mary).  The Superego is the person‘s sense of
- In the protestant reformation of the 16 century
th morality; it follows the moral principle
(1483-1546) Martin Luther, John Calvin and whose role is to restrict demands of the
other Protestant leadersinitiated a movement id. It is developed when children are
against the Roman Catholic Church. taught the difference between right and
- By the 17th and 18th century, the Puritans, a wrong. The ego follows the analytical
group of people who were discontented with the principle. It analyses the need of the id
Church of England rallied for religious, moral and and its consequences as dictated by the
societal reformation. superego and thinks of ways to satisfy
- In the Victorian Era (1837-1901), homosexuality the need in an acceptable manner.
and prostitution were rampant and considered to
be threats to social order. People in this era were 5. Religious
not comfortable in discussing breast or buttocks, ● Judaism holds a positive and natural outlook
they used other terms instead. toward marital sex which they consider as
blessed by God and pleasurable for both
2. Biological.  men and women. Sexual connection
● Knowing the structures and functions of the provides an opportunity for spirituality and
reproductive system is essential to the transcendence.
understanding of sexuality. In the nervous ● In Islam, family is considered of utmost
system, it is the brain that initiates and importance, and celibacy within marriage is
organizes sexual behavior. prohibited
● According to Taoism, which originated in
3. Sociobiological/Evolutionary.  China, sex is not only natural and healthy,
but a sacred union necessary to people‘s
● this perspective studies how evolutionary physical, mental, and spiritual being. The
forces affect sexual behavior. According to sexual union is a way to balance male and
sociobiological theory, natural selection is a female energy.
process by which organisms that are best suited ● In Hinduism, sexuality is seen as spiritual
to their environment are most likely to survive. force, and the act of ritual lovemaking is a
 Beauty is more than just cultural means of both celebrating and transcending
standard. the physical
 ● For the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is 1. Vulva – encompasses all female external
purely for intercourse and procreation. genital structures – the hairs, fold of skin, and the
urinary and vaginal openings.
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and
Reproductive System a. Mons Veneris – a triangular mound over the
● This part is understanding the sexual self in pubic bone above the vulva. b. Labia majora –
Biological manner. the outer lips of the vulva.
● There are two kinds of reproduction: asexual and
sexual. Many biochemical events must occur
c. Labia minora – the inner lips of the vulva, one
before an organism can reproduce either way. on each side of the vaginal opening. d. Prepuce
– the foreskin or fold of skin over the clitoris.
1. Asexual reproduction
 The simplest form of reproduction that e. Clitoris – a highly sensitive structure of the
literally means without sex. A single celled female external genitals, the only function of
animal grows to a certain stage or size and which is sexual pleasure.
divides into two identical organisms.
 Multi-celled asexual organisms have f. Shaft – the length of the clitoris between the
developed several unique reproductive glans and the body.
strategies.
g. Glans – the head of the clitoris; richly endowed
2. Sexual reproduction
with nerve endings.
 This also involves reproductive cells,
including a female ovum (egg) and a
h. Cruca – the innermost tips of the cavernous
male‘s sperm.
bodies that connect to the pubic bones. i.
Vestibule – the area of the vulva inside the labia
● The male reproductive system essential parts
minora.
are as follows:
1. Penis – a male sexual organ consisting of the
j. Urethra – the tube through which urine passes
internal root and external shaft and glans.
from the bladder to outside the body.
2. Root – the portion of the penis that extends
internally into the pelvic cavity. 3. Shaft – the
length of the penis between the glans and the 2. Internal Structure
body.
a. Vagina – a stretchable canal in the female that
4. Glans – the head of the penis; richly endowed opens at the vulva and extends about four inches
into the pelvis.
with nerve endings.

5. Cavernous bodies – the structures in the shaft b. Rugae – the folds of tissue in the vagina.
of the penis that engorge with blood during
sexual arousal. c. Cervix – the small end of the uterus, located at
the back of the vagina.
6. Foreskin – a covering of skin over the penile
glans. d. Uterus – a pear shaped organ inside the
female pelvis, within which the fetus develops. e.
Fallopian tubes – two tubes in which the egg and
7. Corona – the rim of the penile glans.
sperm travel, extending from the sides of the
uterus.
8. Frenulum – a highly sensitive, thin strip ofskin
f. Ovaries – female gonads that produce ova and
that connects the glansto the shaft on the
sex hormones.
underside of the penis.
 The primary and secondary
● The female reproductive system essential
characteristics refer to specific physical
parts are as follows:
 differentiate males and females in 5. Genital stage, where the erogenous zone is
sexually dimorphic species. again the genitals. At this time, the sexual
attraction is directed towards others, usually one
Primary characteristics - are there from birth (for of opposite sex.
example, penises and vaginas)
Secondary sexual characteristics - emerge at
puberty (such as low voices and beards in men, According to Freud, a fetish is an inappropriate
and high voices and no facial hair in women). object (a shoe for example) that is substituted for
a woman and used for sexual gratification.
 can also be known as some of the first
changes in a boy are the growth of his An erogenous zone is a body part (a foot, for
and growth of pubic hair. instance) that arouses sexual curiosity and draws
a man's attention to the whole female body.
Puberty is the stage of physical maturation in
which an individual becomes physiologically Fetishism is an individual personality disorder,
capable of sexual reproduction. while erogenous zones are sexual preferences
The prepubertal uterus - is tear-drop shaped, shared by most men at a given time or place.
with the neck and isthmus accounting for up to
two thirds of the uterine volume. Understanding Human Sexual Response

Estradiol is responsible for the development of Learning and conditioning

secondary sexual characteristics.
 One of the great qualities of a human
EREGENOUS ZONE being is its ability to be modified by
 can be understood in a certain way we experiences.
understand our body.
 These are areas of the human body that Human Sexual Response Cycle (HSRC);
have heightened sensitivity.
Excitement
● In psychology, the five stages of Freud‘s
psychosexual theory of development:  This is the body‘s initial response to
sexual arousal.

1. Oral stage, the child erogenous zone is the  It is characterized by an increase in heart
mouth which receives gratification through eating rate and blood pressure as well as
and sucking. heightened muscle tone.

2. Anal stage, the erogenous zone is the anus in Plateau

which sexual gratification is derived from
defecation  This is the period of sexual excitement
prior to orgasm
3. Phallic stage, erogenous zone is the genitals.
Here the child experiences sexual attraction  It is characterized by intensification of
towards the opposite sex parent. Oedipus the changes begun during the
complex (sexual attraction of the body child excitement phase.
toward the mother) and Electra complex (sexual
attraction of the girl child towards the father) Orgasm

4. Latency stage, sexual impulses lie dormant as  This is characterized by waves of intense
the child is occupied by social activities such as pleasure (climax), often associated with
going to school and playing.
 vaginal contractions in females and
ejaculation in males.

Resolution

 In this phase the body returns to its non-

excited stage.

Module 2 GLOBALIZATION, DIVERSITY AND ETHICS

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN A GLOBAL

CONTEXT
Today, globalization is one of the major  They do not engage in multitasking and
environmental aspects that creates a huge do not divert attention from a planned
impact on organizations. This paradigm shift has task to minimize interruptions.
also challenged the organizations to respond Polychronic time orientation
both in internal and external environments. In the  work well even with multiple tasks at a
context of OB, we understand that individuals given time.
think, behave and act differently around the  They have more flexible plans and are
world. We may have similarities but have not distressed by interruptions.
differences as well. This is actually related to the
next topic in this chapter, i.e. diversity. Multidomestic Firms - these are organizations
GLOBALIZATION that utilize multidomestic strategy.
 This refers to the internationalization of
business organizations leading to a Global Firms - these firms are characterized by
global economy. It is a trend whereby high integration and low responsiveness.
the national boundaries become less
relevant.  The strategy of the organization is to
 Multinational firms assign employees to
offer standards and common products
operate the businesses across countries.
across different countries and regions in
Individuals who are tasked to work
the world.
outside their home countries are known
as expatriates or “expats”.
CULTURE SHOCK or the stress brought about  They seek to maintain centralization in
by the individual’s difficulties and challenges in the mother country while maximizing
coping with the requirements of life outside their efficiency through reduced costs. Global
home country. firms oppose multidomestic firms.
CULTURE
Transnational Firms use transnational strategy in
 as defined, is a way of life, varies from becoming highly responsive to specific needs of
one country to another. Some
a country and at the same time, high in global
acceptable behaviors in a given country
integration.
may not be appropriate or morally right
to the culture of other nations.
 Countries with HIGH-CONTEXT  These firms somehow exhibit the
CULTURE tend to communicate and characteristics of both multidomestic
understand individuals through and global firms.
contextual elements. They consider
looking at the underlying meaning,  They try to tailor fit the products to some
gesture and tone in a message. degree to cater the needs of various
countries but also seek to standardize to
 HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURE this means some extent for cost efficiency.
that they communicate through an International travels and meetings and
established system. foreign job assignments are also evident
 They prefer no room for confusion. The in this type of firm.
purpose of low-context cultures is to
make a message clear to everyone so International Firms - these firms are not actually
that it will not slow down the process. considered strategic as they have low levels of
 They value messages in black and white local responsiveness and global integration. This
is much known as an exporting strategy.
rather than contextual clues.
Monochronic time orientation
Power Distance. It refers to the degree to which
 is manifested by individuals who prefer the power and status privileges are accepted by
working on tasks one at a time. people to be unequally distributed in the society.
Countries that score high on this dimension are
those who expect a more centralized or reward system. Singapore and the United States
autocratic leadership. Russia is one example for score high on this, while Russia has low
high power distance. Members of this country performance orientation.
respect their titles and status.
Humane Orientation. It refers to the degree to
Uncertainty Avoidance. It refers to the degree to which people value fairness, kindness and
which people do not feel like taking risks in altruism in the country. The Philippines is one
unpredictable outcomes. In high uncertainty nation with high humane orientation. Singapore
avoidance countries, people focus on following and Germany on the other hand have low
specific rules and put everything in order. humane orientation.
Germany and Japan are countries that score
high on this. Gender Egalitarianism. It refers to the degree to
which equality for men and women is actualized.
Assertiveness. Hofstede identified this as When gender egalitarianism is evident in a
“masculinity” in his four dimensions of culture. country, women are given opportunity to achieve
This refers to the degree to which people are power and positions. Japan scores low on this.
aggressive and confrontational. It reflects the Women in this country are less recognized and
strong personality of individuals in high have lower status as regards work.
assertiveness countries. Often, those who have
low-context cultures score high on assertiveness. Future Orientation. It is the degree to which
Germany and the United States are high individuals value investing in plans for the future.
assertiveness countries as opposed to the People value long-term gains in countries with
Philippines where people are asked and high future orientation. Russia scores low on this
consulted before making decisions. while Canada, Switzerland and the Netherlands
are high on this.
In-group collectivism. It refers to the degree to
which people take pride belonging to their Esty, et.al defined diversity as acknowledging,
organizations and families. China scores high on understanding, accepting, and valuing
this as they exhibit a strong distinction between differences among people with respect to age,
the members and non-members of their group or class, race, ethnicity, gender, disabilities, etc.
family.
Barriers to Achieving Diversity
Institutional Collectivism. It refers to the degree
to which integration of groups and organization is Prejudice and Discrimination. Prejudice is an
being encouraged. This means that countries unjustified and negative attitude of individuals
who have high institutional collectivism oppose towards others who belong to social or cultural
individualism. Individualism is one dimension groups outside their own.
identified by Hofstede as the degree to which
individuals feel good when they are self-reliant Prejudice influences the way a person thinks
and focused in their personal goals. Germany about a certain group.
and Italy have low institutional collectivism but
score high on individualism. People in these Stereotyping. It refers to the generalized beliefs
countries are rewarded for their personal efforts towards individuals belonging to a certain group.
and outcomes. Japan and Singapore on the This means that a person is judged based on
other hand have high institutional collectivism. what is perceived about a given group.

Performance Orientation. It refers to the degree Differences in Social Identity. Social identity
to which excellence is recognized and being theory was proposed by psychologist, Henri
rewarded. Innovation and competitiveness are Tajfel. He defined social identity as a person’s
encouraged in countries with high performance sense of who they are based on their group
orientation. They appreciate excellent membership.
performance thus, they value the training and
Power Differentials. Power often comes from reward and punishment systems. These are
status and expertise of an individual. When one implemented in the entire organization and
seems to be of higher level than the other, say in attempts to create a company image behaving
terms of knowledge and skills, he or she may ethically.
gain individual power. This actually makes no
problem when ethical behavior is considered by External Environment. These forces include
those people in power. political, legal, economic and international
developments as well.
Poor Organizational Design and Structural
Integration. This also ensures an effective
organizational structure. Structural integration
likewise shows how men and women are Module 3 LEARNING AND PERCEPTION
represented in the positions in the organization.
LEARNING: DEFINITION, NATURE AND
- reflects what is being coined in organizational THEORIES
behavior as glass ceiling. This term refers to the
barriers that hinder minorities and women from Learning is part of everyone’s human life.
reaching their career aspirations. Everyday, people get to learn as they go along
their journey.
Communication Barriers and Resistance to
Change. Miscommunication and resistance to Definition and Nature of Learning
change have also hindered the achievement of
diversity. Learning can be defined as a process of
changing one’s behavior as a result of a
Diversity management on the other hand previously encountered positive or negative
responds to the needs of individuals and groups situation. Learning is evident only if one exhibits
in terms of fostering a greater inclusion in the change of behavior.
workplace regardless of different backgrounds.

 It allows individuals to learn from the

views and perspective of other groups.

ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE ON
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Ethics is a moral principle about what is right or

wrong.

Ethical values of individuals guide them in

creating decisions and making necessary
actions.

Cultural Influences. Examples of this includes

family, religion, and friends. How people are
raised leads to personal ethics. Since personal
ethics is apparently diverse, professional ethics
and organizational ethics shall help the
organization in establishing the guidelines to
follow in the workplace.

Organizational Influences. These are the

company policies and practices, codes of ethics,
Classical conditioning was developed by a This is the simplest type as it is very easy to
Russian classical behaviorist, Ivan Pavlov. understand.

 It was defined as a process in which S-R Intermittent reinforcement is a schedule in which

connection or stimulus-response the reward does not immediately follow after
connection shows that when a neutral each behavior, but only after a certain ratio or
stimulus is paired with an unconditioned interval of responses.
stimulus, it becomes a conditioned
stimulus resulting in a conditioned Type of Intermittent Schedule
response.
Nature of Reinforcement
Thorndyke’s Law of Effect
1.Fixed Interval Schedule
The Law of effect by Edward Thorndike suggests
that those responses in a given situation Behavior is rewarded based on a fixed amount of
accompanied or followed by satisfying effect time
(reinforcement) will have more likelihood of
recurrence, while those accompanied or followed 2.Variable interval Schedule
by discomforting effect (punishment) shall reduce
the likelihood that the said response will be Reinforcement is made available based on
repeated. unpredictable time

Operant Conditioning 3.Fixed ratio schedule

While classical conditioning is dependent on the Reward is based from the set or fixed number of
development of associations between situations times that a behavior is done
(stimulus-response bond), learning that occurs
from the consequences of behavior is the idea of 4.Variable ratio
operant conditioning (response-stimulus bond).
In operant conditioning, there must be a positive Reward is based on the performance of the
response in a given situation to lead to a reward. desired behavior an unpredictable number of
times.
Positive reinforcement. It is a reinforcement
contingency whereby a behavior in a particular
situation is followed by a positive consequence,
thus, strengthening the probability that the Social Learning Theory, developed by
behavior will be repeated. Psychologist Albert Bandura, suggests that
individuals learns through observations as they
Negative reinforcement is another reinforcement interact with others.
contingency in which a behavior is followed by
the prevention or withdrawal of a previously  This theory argues that the learning
encountered negative consequence, thus, process does not require one to
strengthening the probability that the behavior experience a given situation for them to
will be repeated. learn and change his behavior.

EXTINCTION is followed by the withdrawal of a  this theory focuses on learning from

previously encountered pleasant consequence, others which results to imitated
thus, reducing the probability that the undesirable behaviors.
behavior will be repeated.

Continuous reinforcement is a schedule in which

 Further, social learning theory
acknowledges cognitive process and
the reward immediately follows a given behavior.
 refuses to agree on the idea that higher  is a process whereby knowledge is
mental process is irrelevant in learning created, utilized and transferred
process. within the organization. Ergo, an
organization that is able to create,
Knowledge is often defined as “justified true use, share knowledge and make
belief” based from the old traditions in the necessary changes to arrive at a
philosophy of knowledge. new knowledge is coined as a
learning organization.
 According to Plato, Knowledge is the set
of beliefs that are true and that we are Types of Organizational Learning
justified in believing.
James March, an American sociologist, proposed
Peter Drucker, management guru, on the other two principal types of organizational learning
hand, defined knowledge as “information in strategies:
action, information focused in results.” The way
knowledge is important in everyday usage, (1) Exploration of new possibilities involves
knowledge is vital in every organization. searching, experimenting, innovating and
developing new routines and behaviors
Explicit knowledge includes words and to increase effectiveness. Under this
statements which can be documented. Thus, this type of organizational learning,
type of knowledge is easy to share with others. organization members invest resources
looking and taking risks to try new
Tacit knowledge that is difficult to articulate and alternative ways and practices; although
be presented in tangible or written form. returns are uncertain, it’s benefits are
long-term in nature.
 It is also referred to as knowledge of (2) Exploitation focuses on the existing routines
experience or the “know-how”. This and procedures for efficiency and
tends to become subjective and productivity.
personal. - Thus, it involves total quality
management.
Knowledge management as defined by Tom
Davenport is the process of capturing,  Exploration and exploitation are equally
distributing, and effectively using knowledge.
important in the organization, however
the management is responsible in
 It involves processes, strategies and
systems of knowledge acquisition, keeping a balance between the two
creation, refinement, storage, transfer, organizational learning strategies.
sharing and utilization.
Principles of the Learning Organizational
 an organizational activity wherein the
management is tasked to ensure Peter Senge, in his book “The Fifth
employee participation in achieving the Discipline” developed the five principles
goals and purpose of knowledge of the learning organization.
management.
Systems Thinking.
ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING: TYPES
AND PRINCIPLES  This principle stresses on
looking at a big picture of the
Organizational learning is viewed as one of organization as a whole.
the goals of knowledge management.
Researches have shown that a relationship  It focuses on a larger system
between the two concepts exists. where individuals and groups
 interact, thus, affecting one  It involves collective and shared
another. learning as groups interact and
eventually learn from one
Personal Mastery. another.

 Individuals of high level of  Team learning also depends on

mastery, i.e. with clear vision mental models and personal
and goals, and aware of their mastery.
capabilities, tend to become
creative in the workplace. David Kolb’s Model of Learning Style

 Senge suggests that since there One of the most known theories on learning
is a need for the individuals to styles was developed by Davis Kolb. He
develop their personal mastery, suggests that learning is a cycle having four
management must take part in stages. He likewise proposes four independent
empowering them to create and learning styles.
explore what they can and what
they want. Kolb’s Learning Cycle

Mental Models. The four stages include:

 Senge defined mental models as Concrete Experience. This is the first stage in
the process of challenging one’s which it involves having a new experience is
personal assumptions about the introduced or encountered by the individual. It
others. could also be a reinterpretation of an existing
experience.
 In the process of developing
personal mastery, it goes hand Reflective Observation. This stage is the
in hand with organizations using beginning of one’s reflection of his experience to
mental models to provide have a greater understanding.
individuals the opportunity to
assume more responsibility in Abstract Conceptualization. After reviewing the
decision making. encountered experience, the individual
concludes and eventually comes up with a new
Building a shared vision. idea or concept. This stage is known as abstract
conceptualization.
 Senge believes that paying
attention to a well established Active Experimentation. This stage involves the
and clear vision is part of application or practice of the new concept. The
creating a learning organization. outcomes are then observed and tested.

 This principle emphasizes that

building a shared vision provides
a guide to managing employee
behaviors.
Kolb’s Learning Styles
Team Learning. 1. Accommodating (Feeling and Doing).
This learning style corresponds to the
 This principle values the first and fourth stages of learning.
importance of groups in the Individuals who prefer this learning style
learning process. are “hands-on” Accommodating learners
rely on gut-feel and are open to new
 experiences. Their actions are based Individuals prefer to learn through sounds and
mostly on intuition rather than logic. tend to think in rhythms and patterns.
2. Diverging (Feeling and Watching).
prefer concrete experiences and are able to Skills Learned: Singing, playing musical
reflect on various perspectives, as based on instruments, understanding music
the first two stages of learning. Individuals
using this learning style are good at 3. Verbal (Linguistic)
imagination and generation of new ideas.
They are good at brainstorming and are Individuals prefer to learn through words and
generally artistic. language.

3. Converging (Thinking and Doing). Skills Learned: Speaking, explaining, writing,

persuading, listening and storytelling
is based from the third and fourth stages of
learning. It enables individual’s specialist and 4. Physical (Kinaesthetics)
technical abilities. People with this learning
style best perform in solving problems and Individuals prefer to learn through sense of
finding solutions to practical issues. They touch, balance and coordination, and are good at
prefer experimenting, simulating and controlling their bodies.
applying ideas to practical, “hands-on
solutions. Their actions focus on technical Skills Learned: Dancing, acting, physical
tasks and not so much with interpersonal coordination, using body language, playing
aspects. sports.

4. Assimilating (Thinking and Watching). 5. Logical (Mathematical)

This corresponds to the second and third Individuals prefer to learn through the use of
stages of learning. People with assimilating reasoning and logic.
learning styles are logical. They prefer to
learn through lectures, reading and Skills Learned: Problem solving, drawing logical
analyzing. This learning style is significant to conclusions, doing mathematical calculations,
the field of science. experimenting

The Seven Learning Styles 6. Social (Interpersonal)

The Memletic Learning Styles Inventory by Sean Individuals prefer to learn through sensing and
Whiteley includes seven learning styles and thus relating with others, and seeing things in multiple
more popularly known as The Seven Learning perspectives.
Styles.
Skills Learned: Good public relations, listening,
1. Visual (Spatial) conflict resolution, empathy, communication

Individuals prefer to learn through images and 7. Solitary (Intrapersonal)

are good at imagining different physical
configuration. Individuals prefer to learn through self reflection.

Skills Learned: Drawing, painting, designing, Skills Learned: Self analysis and awareness,
sense of direction evaluating one’s thoughts

2. Aural (Auditory/Musical) Honey and Mumford Learning Styles

  Inspired by Kolb’s Learning Styles, (1) the perceiver or the person who interprets the
Peter Honey and Alan Mumford inputs from his/her senses,
developed Honey and Mumford
Learning Styles. This learning style (2) the target, anyone or anything that a person
is a simplified model of Kolb’s focuses on and
Learning Styles.
(3) the situation wherein the perception is taking
The four learning styles are: place.

Activists. These learners prefer new challenges Selective attention

and experiences. They enjoy learning by doing.
They are good at brainstorming, role playing and  is the process in which individuals select
competitions. Activists are flexible and open- and direct attention to specific objects in
minded. the environment.

Reflectors. These individuals learn by watching  Thus, it leads to what a person opt to
others. They are keen observers and gather learn and remember. A person who
enough information before arriving into watches a demonstration does not mind
conclusions. Reflectors prefer coaching the noise of people chatting around nor
sessions, observations, self-analysis and paired the sound of the vehicles passing by.
discussions.
 This process then allows individuals to
Theorists. These are logical individuals and have direct and focus their attention to achieve
the tendency of being perfectionists. They value target learning.
rationality and objectivity and they enjoy
assimilating disparate facts into coherent  It also suggests that the limited capacity
theories. They prefer models, theories, statistics, of people to focus their attention can be
storytelling, quotes and systems thinking. conceptualized as a bottleneck that
restricts the flow of information.
Pragmatists. These learners prefer to try new
experiments and apply the learning into practice Factors Affecting Perception
as they want to see things put in actions and
know if they work in the real world. Pragmatists The way an individual perceives is affected by
act quickly on ideas, however, they easily get several factors. Even if there is one and the
bored in long-term discussions. same stimulus, people may perceive it differently.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF PERCEPTION Sensory Limits or Thresholds. Individuals vary on

the limits of their sensing capabilities. For some,
PERCEPTION watching a TV show on a bigger screen with loud
sounds seems to be enjoyable and exciting,
 refers to the process by which an while for others it is irritating and unpleasant.
individual senses the environment, Further, a person’s readiness to sense input can
interprets and transforms the inputs to also affect his perception. When people expect
meaningful information for appropriate and prepare for a stimulus, attention and focus is
behavioral response. This is how people given.
interpret sensory data.
Psychological Factors. These factors include
 Perceptual process includes receiving, personality, motivation, needs and expectations,
selecting, organizing and interpreting the interests and others. For example, when one is
inputs through a person's senses. motivated to work for him to receive the needed
bonus, his focus will be on the tasks among any
The three components of perception includes other things around him in the workplace.
Perceptual Learning. This refers to the process Halo Effect.
by which one’s ability to sense and respond to
stimuli is enhanced through experience.  Thorndike has first used the term “halo
effect”.
Cultural Differences. Culture and diversity also
affect individuals’ perception. This becomes a  It is a perception problem in which
problem when stereotyping occurs. people are assessed based solely from
one positive or negative trait or
PERCEPTUAL DISTORTION AND ERRORS characteristic they possess.

Social perception Contrast Effects.

 is the process through which sensory  It is a perceptual error in which the

data are interpreted to create impression person’s perceptions of others affect his
towards other people perception of an individual that he is
trying to assess.
Attribution Theory. Attributions are explanations
of what have caused events and behaviors. Projection.

 is concerned on how people explain the  This is a common perceptual error in

causes of behaviors. People's which people assume that their own
attributions can be internal or external. characteristics are shared by others.

Internal or dispositional attribution relates Stereotyping.

people’s behavior to the characteristics and traits
of an individual.  is a set of generalized and inaccurate
beliefs about the characteristics of a
While external or situational attribution relates certain group.
the causes of behavior to external forces and
environment. Attributional biases include  occurs when individuals meet a person
belonging to a particular group and
(1) Fundamental Attribution Error perceive that this person has the same
and general characteristics attributed to
 perception problem wherein the person the group.
tends to over attribute the behavior of
others to internal causes rather than Self-fulfilling Prophecy.
external and
 It is also known as “phygmalion effect”, a
(2) Self-serving bias psychological phenomenon in which high
expectations results in greater
 a perceptual error in which the individual performance.
attributes success to internal factors but
blame others for failures.  predicts that something will come true
because the perceiver expects and
Selective Perception. believes it to come true.

 Since people selectively interpret what

they see, hear or feel, especially from
the basis of what they need or have
interest in, they tend to ignore other
viewpoints, consciously and
unconsciously.