Ev - Part 04 - Plug-In Battery Electric Vehicles

MAK 4009E
Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Part #4
Asst. Prof. Dr. Osman Taha Şen

İstanbul Technical University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
senos@itu.edu.tr
www.adl.itu.edu.tr
Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 1

Full Electric Vehicles – Conceptual Examples
Rear Wheel Drive Direct Drive at Wheels Direct Drive at all Wheels
+ - + -
BAT BAT G/EM G/EM
FA FA FA
INV INV + -
BAT
G/ INV
EM
D
G/EM G/EM G/EM G/EM
RA RA RA
G : Generator INV : Inverter FA : Front Axle

EM : Electric Motor BAT : Battery RA : Rear Axle
D : Differential : electric : mechanic
Reference : IfF – TU BS
Comparison – ICE vs. Lead Acid Battery
Reference: Larminie, J., Lowry, J., Electric Vehicle Technology Explained, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
Comparison – ICE vs. Lead Acid Battery
Possible EV Configurations

EVs vs ICEVs
Electric vehicles (EVs) use an electric motor for traction, and chemical batteries,
fuel cells, ultracapacitors, and/or flywheels for their corresponding energy
sources.
The electric vehicle has many advantages over the conventional internal
combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), such as,
- an absence of emissions,
- high efficiency,
- independence from petroleum,
- and quiet and smooth operation.
Reference: Ehsani, M. et. al., Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles, CRC Press, 2005.
Electric Drive
The EV was mainly converted from the

existing ICEV by replacing the internal
combustion engine and fuel tank with an
electric motor drive and battery pack
while retaining all the other components.
Figure shows the configuration of the first alternative, in which an electric

propulsion replaces the IC engine of a conventional vehicle drive train. It consists
of an electric motor, a clutch, a gearbox, and a differential. The clutch and gearbox
may be replaced by automatic transmission. The clutch is used to connect or
disconnect the power of the electric motor from the driven wheels. The gearbox
provides a set of gear ratios to modify the speed-power (torque) profile to match the
load requirement (See Part : Vehicle Fundamentals). The differential is a
mechanical device (usually a set of planetary gears), which enables the wheels of
both sides to be driven at different speeds when the vehicle runs along a curved
path.
With an electric motor that has constant power in a long speed range, a fixed
gearing can replace the multispeed gearbox and reduce the need for a clutch.
This configuration not only reduces the size and weight of the mechanical
transmission, but also simplifies the drive train control because gear shifting is not
needed.
Similar to the previous drive train, the electric motor, the fixed gearing, and the
differential can be further integrated into a single assembly while both axles point
at both driving wheels. The whole drive train is further simplified and compacted.
In the Figure above, the mechanical differential is replaced by using two

traction motors. Each of them drives one side wheel and operates at a
different speed when the vehicle is running along a curved path.
In order to further simplify the drive train, the traction motor can be placed inside a
wheel. This arrangement is the so-called in-wheel drive. A thin planetary gear set
may be used to reduce the motor speed and enhance the motor torque. The
thin planetary gear set offers the advantage of a high-speed reduction ratio as well
as an inline arrangement of the input and output shaft.
By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing between the electric motor and the
driving wheel, the out-rotor of a low-speed electric motor in the in-wheel drive can
be directly connected to the driving wheel. The speed control of the electric motor is
equivalent to the control of the wheel speed and hence the vehicle speed. However,
this arrangement requires the electric motor to have a higher torque to start
and accelerate the vehicle.
Typical EM Characteristic
Typical EM Characteristic
Variable-speed electric motor drives usually have the characteristics shown in the
previous figure.
At the low-speed region (less than the base speed), the motor has a constant
torque. In the high-speed region (higher than the base speed), the motor has a
constant power. This characteristic is usually represented by a speed ratio x,
defined as the ratio of its maximum speed to its base speed.
Typical EM Characteristic – Speed Ratio x
A permanent magnet motor has a small x (<2).

Switched reluctance motors may achieve x>6
and induction motors about x=4.
What is performance ?
Basic vehicle performance includes,
- maximum cruising speed,
- gradeability,
- and acceleration.
The maximum speed of a vehicle can be easily found by the intersection point of
the tractive effort curve with the resistance curve (rolling resistance plus
aerodynamic drag), in the tractive effort vs. Vehicle speed diagram shown in the
figure below.
It should be noted that such an

intersection point does not exist
in some designs, which usually
use a larger traction motor or a
large gear ratio. In this case,
the maximum vehicle speed
is determined by the maximum
speed of the traction motor.
Normal Driving
Normal Driving
Normal Driving
Time Distribution FTP 75
Energy Consumption
In transportation, the unit of energy is usually kilowatt-hour (kWh) rather than joule
or kilojoule (J or kJ). The energy consumption per unit distance in (kWh/km) is
generally used to evaluate the vehicle energy consumption. However, for ICE
vehicles the commonly used unit is a physical unit of fuel volume per unit distance,
such as liters per 100 km (l/100 km). In the U.S., the distance per unit volume of
fuel is usually used; this is expressed as miles per gallon (mpg). On the other
hand, for battery-powered EVs, the original energy consumption unit in kWh,
measured at the battery terminals, is more suitable. The battery energy capacity
is usually measured in kWh and the driving range per battery charge can be easily
calculated. Similar to ICE vehicles, l/100 km (for liquid fuels) or kg/100 km (for gas
fuels, such as hydrogen) or mpg, or miles per kilogram is a more suitable unit of
measurement for vehicles that use gaseous fuels.
Energy Consumption
Energy consumption is an integration of the power output at the

battery terminals. For propelling, the battery power output is equal to
resistance power and any power losses in the transmission and the
motor drive, including power losses in electronics.
Typical electric motor efficiency
characteristics
Advatages – Disadvantages

Advantages – Disadvantages
Electric Mobility
Advantages
- Lower operating and maintenance costs

- Lower air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions
- Less dependence on imported oil
Disadvatages
- Cost of batteries and cost of ownership

- Availability of recharging infrastructure
- Potential overload of the electrical grid
- Risks associated with noise reduction
- Risks of battery fire
- Rare earth metals availability and supply security
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-in_electric_vehicle.
Operating and Maintenance Costs
In the United States, as of early 2010 with a national average electricity rate of US$0.10 per
kWh, the cost per mile for a plug-in electric vehicle operating in all-electric mode is estimated
between $0.02 to $0.04, while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between
$0.08 to $0.20, considering a gasoline price of $3.00 per gallon. As petroleum price is
expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline and increases in global
demand, the cost difference in favor of PEVs is expected to become even more
advantageous.
According to Consumer Reports, as of December 2011 the Nissan Leaf has a cost of 3.5
cents per mile and the Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3.8 cents per mile.
The Volt cost per mile is higher because it is heavier than the Leaf. These estimates are
based on the fuel economy and energy consumption measured on their tests and using a
U.S. national average rate of 11 cents per kWh of electricity. When the Volt runs in range-
extended mode using its premium gasoline-powered engine, the plug-in hybrid has a
cost of 12.5 cents per mile. The out-of-pocket cost per mile of the three most fuel efficient
gasoline-powered cars as tested by the magazine are the Toyota Prius, with a cost of 8.6
cents per miles, the Honda Civic Hybrid with 9.5 cents per mile, the Toyota Corolla with
11.9 cents per mile, and the Hyundai Elantra 13.1 cents per mile.
Operating and Maintenance Costs
All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as
compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down
much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the
fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric
engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance
checks.
Air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions
Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful
tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile
organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of
nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of
the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the
location of the generation plants. In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles
operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of
power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit
also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. This fact has
been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug-in electric vehicles. From the
perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the
batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar,
hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel
emissions. On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they
usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine
vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles. In the case of plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine,
tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because
of their higher fuel economy.
Air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation
sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France
can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because
most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California, where
most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also
secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to
benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix. On the
other hand, emission benefits in Germany, China, India, and the central regions
of the United States are limited or non-existent because most electricity is
generated from coal. However these countries and regions might still obtain
some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cities
with chronic air pollution problems, such as Los Angeles, México City, Santiago,
Chile, São Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok and Katmandu may also gain local clean air
benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located
outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when
considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.
"Carbon Footprint"
A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with
experts from the UK's Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid
electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon
emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but
still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle. The higher
carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the
production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a
mid-size electric car are generated from the battery production, while for
standard mid-sized gasoline internal combustion engine vehicle, around 75% of
the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in
the vehicle glider (body).
The Ricardo study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-
sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater
fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production
emissions.
"Carbon Footprint"
In 2014 Volkswagen published the results of life-cycle assessment of its electric
vehicles certified by TÜV NORD, and independent inspection agency. The study
found that CO2 emissions during the use phase of its all-electric VW e-Golf
are 99% lower than those of the Golf 1.2 TSI when powers comes from
exclusively hydroelectricity generated in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
Accounting for the full lifecycle, the e-Golf reduces emissions by 61%,
offsetting higher production emissions. When the actual EU-27 electricity mix is
considered, the e-Golf emissions are still 26% lower than those of the
conventional Golf 1.2 TSI. Similar results were found when comparing the e-Golf
with the Golf 1.6 TDI. The analysis considered recycling of the three vehicles at the
end of their lifetime.
Vehicle to Grid
Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in
their batteries back to the power grid, thereby helping utilities to operate more
efficiently in the management of their demand peaks.
A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles
are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the
electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the
power lines and back to the grid.
In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up
to $4,000 per year per car.
In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric (BEVs) and plug-in
hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the
power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the
grid or by throttling their charging rate.
Cost of Battery and Cost of Ownership
As of 2013, plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the
additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the
National Research Council, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack is about US$1,700/kWh
of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kWh and a PHEV-
40 about 8 kWh, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around
US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for a PHEV-40. As of June 2012, and based on
the three battery size options offered for the Tesla Model S, the New York Times
estimated the cost of automotive battery packs between US$400 to US$500 per kilowatt-
hour. A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy reported
that battery costs came down from US$1,300 per kWh in 2007 to US$500 per kWh in
2012. The U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery
research of US$300 per kWh in 2015 and US$125 per kWh by 2022. Model Tesla S : 60
kWh (October 2014)
Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production

volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.
Availability of recharging infrastructure
Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place
overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses
do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might
be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is
developed. Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence,
in commercial or public parking lots, streets and workplaces are required for
these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of
EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their
destination, commonly called range anxiety. Even house dwellers might need
to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping
centers. However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require
investments by both the private and public sectors.
Availability of recharging infrastructure
Several cities in California and Oregon, and particularly San Francisco and
other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley, already have
deployed public charging stations and have expansion plans to attend both
plug-ins and all-electric cars. Some local private firms such as Google and
Adobe Systems have also deployed charging infrastructure. In Google's case,
its Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use
fleet of converted plug-ins available to its employees. Solar panels are used to
generate the electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily
basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT website. As of
December 2013, Estonia is the first and only country that had deployed an EV
charging network with nationwide coverage, with 165 fast chargers available
along highways at a minimum distance of between 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi),
and a higher density in urban areas.
Battery Swapping
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for
electric vehicles was developed by Better Place. Its business model considers that electric cars are built
and sold separately from the battery pack. As customers are not allowed to purchase battery packs, they
must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding
EVs range and allowing long distance trips. Subscribed users pay a per-distance fee to cover battery pack
leasing, charging and swap infrastructure, the cost of sustainable electricity, and other costs. Better Place
signed agreement for deployment in Australia, Denmark, Israel, Canada, California, and Hawaii. The
Renault Fluence Z.E. was the electric car built with switchable battery technology sold for the Better Place
network. The robotic battery-switching operation was completed in about five minutes.
Tesla Motors designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping. In June 2013, Tesla
announced their goal to deploy a battery swapping station in each of its supercharging
stations. At a demonstration event Tesla showed that a battery swap operation with the Model
S takes just over 90 seconds, about half the time it takes to refill a gasoline-powered car
used for comparison purposes during the event. The first stations are planned to be deployed
along Interstate 5 in California where, according to Tesla, a large number of Model S sedans
make the San Francisco-Los Angeles trip regularly. These will be followed by the Washington,
DC to Boston corridor.
Other Charging Solutions
The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan Leaf SV
trim both have roof-mounted solar panels. These solar panels are designed to
trickle charge the batteries when the car is moving or parked.
Another proposed technology is REVive, by REVA. When the REVA NXR's batteries
are running low or are fully depleted, the driver is able to send an SMS to REVive
and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack. REVA has not provided details on
how the system will work.
The Fisker Karma uses solar panel in the roof to recharge the 12-volt lead-acid
accessory battery.
The Nissan Leaf SL trim also has a small solar panel at the rear of the roof/spoiler
that can trickle charge the auxiliary 12-volt lead-acid battery.
Potential Overload of the Grid
The existing electrical grid, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough
capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas
with high plug-in electric car concentrations.
As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much

electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several
vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal
summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to
charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric
meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles
begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local
electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid
blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by
implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in
owners to recharge mostly overnight, when rates are lower.
Risks associated with Noise Reduction
Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds
produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal
combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind
people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful
aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional hybrids
could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds.
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue, and as
a result, the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, both
launched in December 2010, as well as the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid launched in
2011, include electric warning sounds to alert pedestrians, the blind and others
to their presence.
As of January 2014, most of the hybrids and plug-in electric and hybrids available in
the United States, Japan and Europe make warning noises using a speaker
system. The Tesla Model S is one of the few electric cars without warning sounds,
because Tesla Motors will await until regulations are enacted. Volkswagen and
BMW also decided to add artificial sounds to their electric drive cars only when
required by regulation.
Risks associated with Noise Reduction
On 6 February 2013, the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten

noise limits for cars to protect public health, and also to add alerting sounds to
ensure the audibility of hybrid and electric vehicles to improve the safety of
vulnerable road users in urban areas, such as blind, visually and auditorily
challenged pedestrians, cyclists and children. The draft legislation states a number
of tests, standards and measures that must first be developed for an Acoustic
Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS) to be compulsory in the future. The approved
amendment establishes that the sound to be generated by the AVAS should be
a continuous sound and should be easily indicative of vehicle behavior and
should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped
with an internal combustion engine. In April 2014 the European Parliament
approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of the AVAS for all new electric
and hybrid electric vehicles and car manufacturers have to comply within 5 years.
Risks of Battery Fire
Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or
overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion. To reduce these
risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the
battery when its voltage is outside the safe range. When handled improperly, or if
manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal
runaway resulting in overheating. Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium-
ion batteries. Reports of exploding cellphones have been reported in newspapers.
In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook
manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions.
Several plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction
of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles in 2008. Most of them have been
thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium-ion batteries and have involved the
Zotye M300 EV, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, BYD e6, Dodge Ram 1500 Plug-in
Hybrid, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Outlander P-HEV. As of
November 2013, four fires after a crash have been reported associated with the
batteries of all-electric cars involving a BYD e6 and three Tesla Model S cars.
Rare earth metals availability and supply
security
Common technology for plug-ins and electric cars is based on the lithium-ion battery and an
electric motor which uses rare earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals, and
other specific elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and
powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric
vehicles in the mid and long term. The Toyota Prius battery contains more than 20 pounds (9.1
kg) of the rare earth element lanthanum, and its motor magnets use neodymium and
dysprosium.
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries
with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising
concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on
hostile countries to supply strategic materials.
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the
University of California Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be
a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated
that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries could be built with current reserves, as
estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey.
Rare earth metals availability and supply
security
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare earth elements, the United States has 13%,
and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the
world in rare earth production, but since the mid-1990s China has controlled the world market
for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou, Inner Mongolia, are currently the
largest source of rare earth metals and are 80% of China's production. In 2010 China
accounted for 97% of the global production of 17 rare earth elements. Since 2006 the
Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5% to 10%
a year.
In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals, Toyota Motor Corporation
announced in January 2011 that it is developing an alternative motor for future hybrid and
electric cars that does not need rare earth materials. Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S.
are developing an induction motor that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet-type motor
used in the Prius, which uses two rare earths in its motor magnets. Other popular hybrids and
plug-in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf, the
Chevrolet Volt and Honda Insight. For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012, Toyota is
using an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors that does not require rare earth materials.
The Tesla Roadster and the Tesla Model S use a similar motor.
Case Studies – Real Vehicles

Electric Bicycles
Electric bicycles are probably the most popular type of battery electric vehicle.
For example, thousands are used in China. There are many different manufacturers and
types, with a very interesting range of power methods: hub motors in the front or back wheels,
and drives on the pedal cranks are the most common variations.
In most European and North American countries it is becoming a standard regulation that
these bikes must be of the ‘pedal-assist’ type. This means that they cannot be powered by the
electric motor alone. If they can be ridden under electric power only, then they count as
motorbikes, and attract a host of extra regulations and taxes. However, the regulatory situation
is somewhat fluid, varied and changeable, which is something of an impediment to the
development of this market.
These regulations mean that the controllers on electric

bikes nearly always include a sensor of some kind.
Often there will be a torque sensor, on the pedal crank.
This works with the motor controller, and ensures the
rider is putting in some effort before allowing
the motor to provide any power. Speed sensors will
also often be fitted.
Electric Bicycles - Examples
Low speed vehicles (LSVs)
Low speed vehicles (LSVs) are an environmentally friendly mode of transport
for short trips, commuting and shopping. In the USA, for example, 75% of
drivers are believed to drive round trips of less than 40 km per day. In rural
areas the lower traffic density would enable these to be used fairly easily. In
towns and cities it would be worthwhile for governments and local authorities to
ensure that proper lanes for this type of vehicle were made available, and
where possible tax incentives are used to encourage their use.
Low speed vehicles (LSVs)
Passenger Cars – Nissan Leaf

Passenger Cars – Tesla S

Passenger Cars – Mitsubishi i- MiEV
Also called :
Peugeot iOn, Citroën C-Zero, Subaru O2 (2014)

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MAK 4009E

Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Asst. Prof. Dr. Osman Taha Şen

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 1

G : Generator INV : Inverter FA : Front Axle

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 5

The EV was mainly converted from the

Figure shows the configuration of the first alternative, in which an electric

In the Figure above, the mechanical differential is replaced by using two

A permanent magnet motor has a small x (<2).

It should be noted that such an

Energy consumption is an integration of the power output at the

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 25

- Lower operating and maintenance costs

- Cost of batteries and cost of ownership

Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production

As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much

On 6 February 2013, the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 45

These regulations mean that the controllers on electric

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 50

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 51

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 52

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